SET 2.

Q.1 “Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in judging
others” Explain.
Ans. Halo Effect:
The halo effect (Murphy & Anhalt, 1992) occurs when we
draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. For example,
while appraising the lecturer, students may give prominence to a single trait,
such as, enthusiasm and allow their entire evaluation to be tainted by how they
judge the instructor on that one trait which stood out prominently in their
estimation of that person. Research suggests that it is likely to be most extreme
when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous in behavioral terms, when the
traits have moral overtones, and when the perceiver is judging traits with which
he or she has had limited experience.
Selective Perception:
Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event
stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. It is impossible
for an individual to internalize and assimilate everything that is seen .Only
certain stimuli can be taken in selectively. Selectivity works as a shortcut in
judging other people by allowing us to “speed-read” others, but, not without the
risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. The tendency to see what we want to see
can make us draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation

Q.2 Explain “Emotional Intelligence”.

Ans: Emotional Intelligence:
The importance of both emotion and intelligence in
making decisions and achieving success in life was well accepted in ancient
India. A concept of ‘Sthitha Prajna’ [emotional stability] similar to the concept
of emotional intelligence can be traced in the second chapter of ‘Sri mad
Bhagavat Gita’ , in a specific conversation between lord Krishna and Arjuna in
a situation of kurukshetra battle field. Before the battle started Arjuna was in
deep sorrow and pity, found his close relatives, friends and respected gurus in
enemy side. The win the battle he was supposed to kill those beloved ones. He
got confused about his rightful duty. Due to this heat of non strength, he refused
to join the battle. In this context lord Krishna who played the chariot to Arjuna
advised him to become the steady minded person. He also told that an
individual achieved his/her goal only when the mind becomes steady, poised
and balanced. This concept talks about a unique interdependence between
emotion and intelligence for effective decision making which was most
essential in excelling in every sphere of life.
Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning process for
achieving a balanced personality in different stages of life on an
intergenerational basis has been depicted in Vedas. In Particular, Dr. Radha
Krishnan, in his book mentioned that the attitude of Vedas is one of trust
tempered by criticism. This view aptly points out the need for emotional
intelligence in everyday life to become more emotionally balanced and
functional individuals in society.
Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individual’s cognition of own and
others’ emotions, feelings, interpretation and action as per environmental
demand to manipulate the consequences which in turn result in a superior
performance. So having high emotional intelligence doesn’t mean that the
person never panics or loses his/her control. It does mean that he/she brings own
feelings under control and channels them into productive behaviours.
The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the
one proposed by Goleman. He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of
personnel and social competencies. Personnel competencies determine how we
manage ourselves, where as social competence determines how we handle our
interpersonal relationships.
Personnel Competence: It comprises of three dimensions of emotional
intelligence, such as self awareness, self regulation and motivation. Self
awareness is the ability of an individual to observe him/herself and to recognise
a feeling as it happens. Self regulation is the ability to control emotions and to
redirect those emotions that can have negative impact. Motivation is the ability
to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self control and by moderation
impulses as per the requirement.
Social Competence: It compromises of two dimensions namely, empathy and
social skills. Empathy is the ability to feel and get concerned for others, take
their perspective and to treat people according to their emotional reactions.
Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to manage relationships with
people. People having the skill are very effective persuasiveness and team
management. Social skills are the culmination of all other components of
emotional intelligence assuming that people can effectively manage social and
work relationships only when they can understand and control their own
emotion and can emphasize with the feelings of others.
 Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Model

Emotional Intelligence

Personal competence Social competence

Self – awareness self-regulation motivation Empathy social skill

Q.3 “A group formation passes through various stages.” Explain various

stages of group formation.
Ans: The important stages through which the group formation passes are
described below:
a. Forming:
In this stage the members are entering the group. The main
concern is to facilitate the entry of the group members. The individuals entering
are concerned with issues such as what the group can offer them, their needed
contribution, similarity to their personal needs, goals and group goals, the
acceptable normative and behavioural standards expected for group membership
and recognition for doing the work as a group.

b. Storming:
This is a turbulent phase where individuals try to basically form
coalitions and cliques to achieve a desired status within the group. Members go
also through the process of identifying to their expected role requirements in
relation to group requirements. In the process, membership expectations tend to
get clarified, and attention shifts toward hurdles coming in the way of attaining
group goals. Individuals begin to understand and appreciate each other’s
interpersonal styles, and efforts are made to find ways to accomplish group
goals, while also satisfying individual needs.

c. Norming:
From the Norming stage of group development, the group relay
begins to come together as a coordinated unit. At this point, close
relationship develop and the group shows cohesiveness. Group members will
strive to maintain positive balance at this stage.
d. Performing:
The group now becomes capable of dealing with complex tasks
and handling internal disagreements in novel ways. The structure is stable, and
members are motivated by group goals and are generally satisfied. The structure
is fully functional and accepted at this stage. Group energy makes a transition
from members focus on getting to know and understand each other to
performing. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their
development.
e. Adjourning:
A well integrated group is able to disband, if required, when its
work is accomplished, through in itself it maybe a painful process for group
members, emotionally. The adjourning stage of group development is especially
important for the temporary groups that are rampant in today’s workplaces.
Members of these groups must able to convene quickly, do their jobs on a tight
schedule, and then adjourn often to reconvene later, whenever required.
Groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Sometimes
several stages go on simultaneously, as when groups are storming and
performing. Groups may at times regress to earlier stages. Another problem is
that it ignores organisational context. For instance, a study of a cockpit crew in
an airliner found that, within 10 minutes, three strangers assigned to fly together
for the first time had become a high performing group. The rigid organisational
context provides the rules, task definitions, information and resources required
for the group to perform effectively.
Q.4 “Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual
wants, either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is to
control over the behaviour of others”. Explain the various bases of power?
Ans: Power can be categorised into two types: Formal and informal.
Formal Power:
It is based on the position of an individual in an organisation.
Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or reward others or
is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual due to his /her
strategic position in the organisational hierarchy. For example a manager can
threaten to hold the pay hike. Such coercive power is the extent to which a
manager can deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other
people. The presence of unions and organisational policies on employee
treatment can weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may be
categorised into 4 types which are as follows:
a. Coercive Power:
The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the
application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the
infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement,
or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an
organisation one can exercise power over another if they have the power to
dismiss, suspend, demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person
on who power is being unleashed.
b. Reward Power:
The opposite of coercive power is reward power. It is the extent to which a
manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people.
Examples of such rewards include money, compliments, promotions etc.
Utilising rewards to achieve influence varies according to the skills of the
manager.
c. Legitimate Power:
It stems from the extent to which a manager can use subordinates internalised
values of beliefs that the boss has a right to command to control their behaviour.
Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because
subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial
position to have the right to command. The lack of this is legitimacy will result
in authority not being accepted by subordinates. Thus this type of power has the
following elements:
• It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in
the formal hierarchy.
• Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.
• It encompasses the authority of a position by members of an organisation.
a. Information Power:
This type of power is derived from access to and control over information.
When people have needed information, others become dependent on them.
Normally, higher the level, the more information would be accesses by
managers.
Personal Power:
Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of that individual’s
position. The bases of personal power are expertise, rational, persuasion and
reference.
a. Expert Power:
It is the ability to control another person’s behaviour by virtue of possessing
knowledge, experience or judgement that the other person lacks, but needs. A
subordinate obeys a supervisor possessing expert power because the boss
ordinarily knows more about what to be done or how it is to be done than
subordinate. However the table may turn upside in case the subordinate knows
more than the boss. This holds true in many cases where the boss heavily
depends on juniors for technologically oriented support.
b. Rational Power:
It is the ability to control another’s behaviour, since through the individual
efforts; the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable way of
achieving it. This involves explain the desirability of expected goal and showing
how specific actions will achieve these goals.
c. Reference Power:
It is the ability to control another’s behaviour because the person wants to
identify with the power source. In this case, a subordinate obeys the boss
because he or she wants to behave, perceive, or believe as the boss does. The
subordinate attempts to avoid doing things that would interfere with the
pleasing boss-subordinate system. This is based on what the individual
represents a path toward lucrative future.
d. Charismatic Power:
This is an extension of reference power stemming from any individuals
personality and inter personnel style. Others follow because they can articulate
attractive visions, take personal risks, demonstrate follower sensitivity etc.
Dependency is the key to power:
• The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power of A over B.
• Dependency, inversely proportional to the alternate sources of supply.
Three factors that are responsible for dependency are:
• Importance.
• Scarcity.
• Non-suitability.

Q.5 Explain “Organisational Development” Process.

Ans: A typical Organisational Development Process can be divided into the
following phases:
Problem Identification:
The first step in OD process involves understanding and
identification of the existing and potential problems in the organisation. The
awareness of the problem includes knowledge of the possible organisational
problems of growth, human satisfaction, the usage of human resource and
organisational effectiveness.
Data Collection:
Having understood the exact problem in this phase, the relevant
data is collected through personnel interviews, observations, the usage of human
resource and questionnaires.
Diagnosis:
OD efforts begin with diagnosis of the current situation. Usually, it is
not limited to a single problem. Rather a number of factors like attitudes,
assumptions, available resources and management practices are taken into
account in this phase. There are four steps in organisational diagnosis:
– Structural Analysis: Determines how the different parts of the
organisation are functioning in terms of laid down goals.

– Process Analysis: Process implies the manner in which events take place
in a sequence. It refers to the patter f decision making, communication,
group dynamics and conflict management patterns within organisations to
help in the process of attainment of organisational goals.

– Function Analysis: This includes strategic variables, performance

variables, results, achievements and final outcomes.

– Domain Analysis: This refers to the area of the organisation for

organisational diagnosis.
Planning and implementation:
After diagnosing the problem, the next step of
OD, with the OD interventions, involves the planning and implementation part
of the change process.
Evaluation and Feedback: Any OD activity is incomplete without proper
feedback. Feedback is a process of relaying evaluations to the client group by
means of specific report or interaction.

Q.6 Write a short note on “Stress Management”?

Ans: Definition:
“Stress can be defined as a state of physical and mental
tension caused by certain external or internal factor in a person's life”.
The art of stress management is to keep you at a level of stimulation that is
healthy and enjoyable. Life without stimulus would be incredibly dull and
boring. Life with too much stimulus becomes unpleasant and tiring, and may
ultimately damage your health or well-being. Too much stress can seriously
interfere with your ability to perform effectively. By analyzing the likely causes
of stress, you will be able to plan your responses to likely forms of stress. These
might be actions to alleviate the situation or may be stress management
techniques that you will use.
Stress arises when individuals perceive that they cannot adequately cope with
the demands being made on them or with threats to their well-being. R.S.
Lazarus (1966).

Stress is the "wear and tear" our bodies experience as we adjust to our
continually changing environment; it has physical and emotional effects on us
and can create positive or negative feelings.

As a positive influence, stress can help compel us to action; it can result in a

new awareness and an exciting new perspective.

As a negative influence, it can result in feelings of distrust, rejection, anger,

and depression, which in turn can lead to health problems such as headaches,
upset stomach, rashes, insomnia, ulcers, high blood pressure, heart disease, and
stroke. With the death of a loved one, the birth of a child, a job promotion, or a
new relationship, we experience stress as we readjust our lives. In so adjusting
to different circumstances, stress will help or hinder us depending on how we
react to it.

Stress results from an imbalance between demands and resources. R.S. Lazarus
and S. Folkman (1984).

Formula for finding Stress: In simple words we can say that when the pressure
is greater that the resources we face stress.

S=P>
R
Where S stands for Stress
P is for Pressure
& R stands for Resources.
Types of Stress
So, what are the major types of stress? While there are many subcategories of
stress that are being treated today, the major types of stress can be broken down
into four different categories: Eustress, Hyperstress, Hypostress, and Distress.

Eustress
Eustress is one of the helpful types of stress. What is the definition for eustress?
It is the type of stress you experience right before you have the need to exert
physical force. Eustress prepares the muscles, heart, and mind for the strength
needed for whatever is about to occur.

Eustress can also apply to creative endeavours. When a person needs to have
some extra energy or creativity, eustress kicks in to bring them the inspiration
they need. An athlete will experience the strength that comes from eustress right
before they play a big game or enter a big competition. Because of the eustress,
they immediately receive the strength that they need to perform.

When the body enters the fight or flight response, it will experience eustress.
The eustress prepares the body to fight with or flee from an imposing danger.
This type of stress will cause the blood to pump to the major muscle groups, and
will increase the heart rate and blood pressure to increase. If the event or danger
passes, the body will eventually return to its normal state.

Distress
Distress is one of the negative types of stress. This is one of the types of stress
that the mind and body undergoes when the normal routine is constantly
adjusted and altered. The mind is not comfortable with this routine, and craves
the familiarity of a common routine. There are actually two types of distress:
acute stress and chronic stress.

Acute Stress
Acute stress is the type of stress that comes immediately with a change of
routine. It is an intense type of stress, but it passes quickly. Acute stress is the
body's way of getting a person to stand up and take inventory of what is going
on, to make sure that everything is OK

Chronic Stress
Chronic stress will occur if there is a constant change of routine for week after
week. Chronic stress affects the body for a long period of time. This is the type
of stress experienced by someone who constantly faces moves or job changes
Managing Stress Better.
Identifying unrelieved stress and being aware of its effect on our lives is not
sufficient for reducing its harmful effects. Just as there are many sources of
stress, there are many possibilities for its management. However, all require
work toward change: changing the source of stress and/or changing your
reaction to it. How do you proceed?
1. Become aware of your stressors and your emotional and physical
reactions.

Notice your distress. Don't ignore it. Don't gloss over your problems.
Determine what events distress you. What are you telling yourself about
meaning of these events?
Determine how your body responds to the stress. Do you become nervous
or physically upset? If so, in what specific ways?

2. Recognize what you can change.

Can you change your stressors by avoiding or eliminating them
completely?
Can you reduce their intensity (manage them over a period of time
instead of on a daily or weekly basis)?
Can you shorten your exposure to stress (take a break, leave
the physical premises?
Can you devote the time and energy necessary to making a change (goal
setting, time management techniques, and delayed gratification strategies
may be helpful here)?

3. Reduce the intensity of your emotional reactions to stress.

The stress reaction is triggered by your perception of danger...physical

danger and/or emotional danger. Are you viewing your stressors in
exaggerated terms and/or taking a
Difficult situation and making it a disaster? Are you expecting to please
everyone?
 Are you overreacting and viewing things as absolutely critical and
urgent? Do you feel you must always prevail in every situation?
Work at adopting more moderate views; try to see the stress as something
you can cope with rather than something that overpowers you.
Try to temper your excess emotions. Put the situation in perspective. Do
not labour on the negative aspects and the "what if's."

4. Learn to moderate your physical reactions to stress.

Slow, deep breathing will bring your heart rate and respiration back to
normal.
Relaxation techniques can reduce muscle tension. Electronic biofeedback
can help you gain voluntary control over such things as muscle tension,
heart rebate, and blood pressure.
Medications, when prescribed by a physician, can help in the short term
in moderating your physical reactions. However, they alone are not the
answer. Learning to moderate these reactions on your own is a preferable
long-term solution.
5. Build your physical reserves.
Exercise for cardiovascular fitness three to
four times a week (Moderate, prolonged rhythmic exercise is best, such as
walking, swimming, cycling, or jogging).
Eat well-balanced, nutritious meals. Maintain your ideal weight.
Avoid nicotine, excessive caffeine, and other stimulants.
Mix leisure with work. Take breaks and get away when you can.
Get enough sleep. Be as consistent with your sleep schedule as possible.

6. Maintain your emotional reserves.

Develop some mutually supportive friendships/relationships.

Pursue realistic goals which are meaningful to you, rather than goals
others have for you that you do not share.
 Expect some frustrations, failures, and sorrows.

Always be kind and gentle with yourself -- be a friend to yourself.

There’s not an easy solution to deal with the problem of stress. Stress is
encountered in almost every aspect of our lives. Like successful weight
management, in order to achieve stress reduction we must weave the solution
into the fabric of our lives. Through regular practice of stress reduction
techniques, symptoms of stress decrease and become more manageable.