Module Five

Mechanical and Chemical Properties of Metals

In todays world there are thousands of different metals available to serve as
construction materials for both base metals and filler metals. Engineers and designers
are able to choose the metals which best suit their particular needs. These metals may
differ not only in their composition, but also in the manner in which they are
manufactured. Within the United States, there are several organiations maintaining
material standards, such as !ST", !S"E, and !WS. !dditionally, there are material
standards from many other countries and groups including #apan and European
countries. The purpose of this module is to describe some of these mechanical and
chemical properties to the e$tent that the welding inspector has some feeling for what
the actual values mean. %or the most part, the inspector must comply compare
specification values with actual numbers to &udge compliance. 'owever, it will be
helpful for the inspector to have additional information about these materials
properties. The additional information can help avoid problems which may occur
during welding.
(epending upon the mechanical and chemical properties of a metal, special fabrication
techni)ues may be re)uired to prevent the degradation of these properties. *reheating
and post heating are e$amples of techni)ues that may be applied to maintain certain
metal properties. %or )uenched and tempered steels, the welding inspector may be
as+ed to monitor the welding heat input to prevent the degradation of base metal
properties caused by overheating. Effective monitoring can prevent problems caused by
the alteration of e$pected properties from to much or too little heat.
Mechanical Properties of Metals
Some of the important "echanical properties of metals will be discussed within the
limits of five categories of properties,
Strength
Ductility
Hardness
Toughness
Fatigue Strength
Strength
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to withstand an applied load. There are
numerous types of strength each dependent upon how the load is applied to the material.
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They are tensile strength, shear strength, torsion strength, impact strength and
fatigue strength.
The tensile strength of a metal is described as the ability of a metal to resist failure
when subected to a tensile, or pulling, load. Since metals are often used to carry
tensile loads, this is one of the more important properties with which the designer is
concerned. When a metal specification is e$amined, the tensile strength is usually
e!pressed in two different ways" The terms used are ultimate tensile strength and
yield strength" .oth refer to different aspects of that materials behavior. #ltimate
tensile strength, UTS, sometimes &ust referred to as tensile strength, relates to the
ma$imum load carrying capacity of that metal, or the strength of that metal at the
e!act point when failure occurs"
To define yield strength, it is necessary to understand what is meant when a metal
behaves elastically. $lastic behavior refers to the deformation of a metal under load
which causes no permanent deformation when the load is removed. Elastic
behavior can be illustrated with a familiar e$ample/ a rubber band is typical of an elastic
material. It will stretch under a load, but returns to its original shape when the load is
removed. %hen a metal is loaded within its elastic region, it responds with some
amount of stretch, or elongation. In this elastic range, the amount of stretch is
directly proportional to the applied load, so elastic behavior is referred to as being
linear. When a metal behaves elastically, it can be stretched to some point and return to
its original length when the applied load is removed. It ta+es on no permanent
deformation, or set.
0
Figure &
If a metal is stressed beyond its elastic limit, it no longer behaves elastically. 'ts
behavior is now referred to as plastic, which means permanent deformation
occurs" It also implies the stress1strain relationship is no longer linear. 2nce plastic
deformation occurs, the material will not return to its original length upon removal of
the applied load. 't will now e!hibit permanent deformation or set.
The point at which the materials behavior changes from elastic to plastic is referred to
as its yield point. The yield strength, therefore, is the strength level at which the
material(s response to loading changes from elastic to plastic. This value is an
e$tremely important value, since most designers will use it as a basis for the ma$imum
load limit for some structure. This is necessary because a structure might be rendered
useless if stressed beyond its yield point so it becomes permanently deformed.
)oth the ultimate tensile strength and yield strength are normally determined by a
tensile test" * specimen of +nown cross section is loaded so the stress in pounds per
s,uare inch, can be determined" The specimen is loaded to failure and it is then
possible to determine its load carrying capacity on a pounds per s,uare inch basis
-psi3. 'ere is an e$ample,
Tensile Strength from tensile test is 45,555 psi.
The ma$imum load which this metal can support
Is 45,555 psi 6 7times3 the cross sectional area.
%or a - in. by - in. piece 7- in.
0
area3,
"a$imum 8oad 9 45,555 psi 6 - in.
0
"a$imum load 9 45,555 pounds.
%or a 0 in. by 0 in. piece 7: in.
0
area3,
"a$imum 8oad 9 45,555 psi 6 : in.
0
"a$imum 8oad 9 0:5,555 pounds.
When a designer +nows the tensile strength of a certain metal, he is able to determine
how large the cross section of that material will be needed to carry a given load. The
tensile test provides a direct measurement of the metals strength. 't is also possible to
ma+e an indirect measurement of strength using the hardness test. %or carbon
steels, there is a direct relationship between tensile strength and hardness. The hardness
value in .'; times <55 is appro$imately the tensile strength of that material. That is,
if the hardness increases, the tensile strength increases also, and vice versa. The
tensile test still provides the most accurate determination of tensile strength, but it is
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possible to perform a hardness test on carbon and low alloy steels to determine their
e)uivalent tensile strengths. %igure 0 shows some values for tensile and yield strength,
percent elongation and hardness for some common materials.
Figure .
It is interesting to note that the values in %igure 0 may vary somewhat depending upon
the materials heat treatment, mechanical condition or mass. Such conditions, when
changed alter the mechanical properties even though the material has the same chemical
composition.
The temperature of a metal also has an effect on its strength. !s temperature
increases, the strength of a metal decreases. If a metal is to support some load at an
elevated temperature, the designer must ta+e into effect the reduction in material
strength at that temperature. Temperature will also have an effect on the metals
ductility. !s temperature goes up ductility increases as well and vice versa.
Ductility
Ductility is a term which relates to the ability of a material to deform, or stretch,
under load without failing. The more ductile a metal is the more it will stretch before
it brea+s. (uctility is an important property of a metal, because it can affect whether
the metal fails gradually or suddenly when loaded. 'f a metal e!hibits high ductility,
it will usually fail or brea+ gradually" ! ductile metal will bend before brea+ing,
which is a good indicator that the metals yield point is being e$ceeded. "etals having
low ductility fail suddenly in a brittle manner, without any warning. * metal having
high ductility is referred to as being ductile, while a metal having low ductility is
referred to as being brittle" /lass is a good e!ample of a brittle material. !
common brittle metal is cast iron, especially white cast iron.
:
(uctility becomes an even more important property for a metal which must undergo
subse)uent forming operations. %or e$ample, metals used for body components on
automobiles must have sufficient ductility to permit forming into the desire shapes.
>olling for e$ample causes grain structure to be elongated in the direction of rolling
much more than in the direction across the rolling. The result is that the strength and
ductility of a rolled metal is greatest in the direction of rolling" 'n the transverse
direction, the strength may be decreased as much as 01 percent and the ductility
reduced as much as 21 percent, relative to the direction of rolling" 'n the trough
thic+ness direction, the strength and ductility are even less" For some steels, the
ductility in this direction is e!tremely low"
The ductility of a metal is normally determined through a tensile test, at the same time
as the metals strength is being measured. The ductility can be e$pressed in one of two
ways, either as percent elongation or percent reduction of area. Percent elongation
refers to the amount that the specimen has stretched during the tensile test. 't is
calculated by dividing the difference between the final and original length by the
original length and multiplying the result by &11 to represent a percentage"
7%inal length ? 2riginal 8ength3 @ 2riginal 8ength 6 -55 9 A elongation
If the original specimen length was 0 inches
!nd after testing the final length was 0.4 inches
Then 70.4 inches ? 0 inches3 9 .4 inches
(ivided by 0 inches 9 .=
Times -55 9 =5 percent elongation.
! round specimen sub&ected to a tensile test will e$hibit a nec+ed down region resulting
from the application of the load. 'f we calculate the final area of this nec+ed down
region, subtract it from the original cross sectional area, divide the remainder by
the original area, and multiply by &11 this will provide a value for the percent
reduction of area"
72riginal !rea ? %inal !rea3 @ 2riginal !rea 6 -55 9 A reduction of area
2riginal cross sectional area was .-B4 7.<55 diameter3
%inal cross sectional area is .-44
Then 7.-B4 1 .-443 9 .5=
(ivided by .-B4 9 .-<=
Times -55 9 -<.= percent reduction of area.
<
Hardness
'ardness is one of the most commonly and easily measured mechanical properties. It is
defined as the ability of a material to resist indentation, or penetration. It was
previously noted that hardness and tensile strength are directly related for carbon steels.
Hardness increases with a material(s tensile strength and vice versa. Therefore, if a
metals hardness is +nown, it is possible to estimate its tensile strength, especially for
carbon and low alloy steels. This could become useful in determining the strength of a
metal without removing, preparing and pulling a tensile specimen. %igure = shows a
chart that converts hardness readings in various types to tensile strength.
4
Figure 0
! metals hardness can be determined in a number of different ways. 'owever, most
commonly used methods employ some type of indenter which is forced into the
surface of the metal by an applied load" Carious tests can be performed using this
basic techni)ue/ they differ in the type and shape of the indenter used as well as the
magnitude of the applied load. The materials hardness is then determined as a function
of either the depth or the sie of the indentation. %igure : shows some of the commonly
used hardness test indenters and the resulting shapes of the indentations.
Figure 3
Toughness
The ne$t mechanical property to be discussed is toughness. In general, we describe
toughness as the ability of a material to absorb energy. If we loo+ at a stress1strain
diagram which is produced from a tensile test, the toughness of that metal would be
D
determined by calculating the area under the stress1strain curve. %igure < shows such a
diagram.
Figure 2
8oo+ing at these curves you can see that monel is tougher than mild steel because the
area under the curve is greater. *nother term which we commonly hear is notch
toughness" 't differs from toughness in that is refers to the material(s energy
absorbing ability when there is some flaw present" Toughness refers to the energy
absorption capacity of a smooth, un1notched piece. ;otch toughness further differs
from toughness in that toughness usually defines the material(s behavior when
loaded slowly, while notch toughness values reflect the energy absorption which
occurs at a high rate of loading. Whether we are tal+ing about toughness or notch
toughness, the bottom line is that we want to +now how much energy can be absorbed
by a material before it fails. * tough metal will fail at a considerably high value with
a significant amount of permanent deformation ta+ing place.
Thin+ing bac+ to the discussion about ductility, we +now that the difference between
metals of low and high toughness is that the low toughness value defines brittle
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behavior while a high value of toughness is related to a ductile failure. The toughness
of a metal will change as the temperature changes" *s temperatures are lowered,
the toughness of the metal decreases with it" We are also more concerned with a
metals notch toughness, since this is the usual condition most metals e!hibit in
service. Many metals, especially those high strength tool steels, are e!tremely
sensitive to the presence of surface irregularities or stress risers. %igure 4 illustrates
some conditions which might create stress risers.
Figure 4
If a metal e$hibits a high amount of notch toughness, this means that they will
perform well whether or not there is a notch present" 'f a metal is notch sensitive,
it could more easily fail during impact or repetitive loading. ! metals notch
toughness decreases as its hardness increases and its temperature is reduced"
When we perform testing to determine the notch toughness of a metal, we are usually
trying to determine at what temperature the fracture behavior changes from ductile
to brittle" This temperature is referred to as the metal(s transition temperature.
There are several types of tests to determine notch toughness. Some of the most
common are, charpy 56notch, drop6weight nil6ductility, e!plosion bulge, dynamic
tear, and crac+ tip opening displacement or CT7D. 2f these types of tests the most
common in the fabrication of steel products is the charpy impact test.
B
Fatigue
The final mechanical property of metals with which we will tal+ about is fatigue
strength. Fatigue strength is defined as the strength necessary to resist failure
under repeated load applications" Fatigue can be thought of as a cyclic, or
repeating, mechanical action on a piece of metal. This action can occur )uic+ly, as in
the case of motor vibration, or slowly where the cycles would be measured in days.
Fnowledge of fatigue strength is important because the maority of metal failures are
the result of fatigue" This type of failure will usually occur below the tensile strength
of the metal. %atigue strength data are often reported in relation to a specific number of
cycles re)uired to cause a failure/ typical cycles are one million or ten million. !
number of cycles at different stress levels produce a curve on a chart of how many
cycles are necessary to produce a failure at various stress levels. These curves show
that metals e$hibit a well defined endurance limit, which is the ma!imum stress at
which no failure will occur, no matter how many cycles the load is applied. %igure
D shows a chart that compares carbon steel to aluminum.
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Figure 8
The curves in %igure D show that steel e$hibits a well defined endurance limit, but the
curve for the aluminum does not. This means that aluminum will eventually fail, even
at e$tremely low stress levels, however, the steel will last indefinitely as long as the
stress remains below its endurance limit. The fatigue strength of carbon steels is
roughly e,ual to half it(s tensile strength" %atigue strength is li+e impact strength, it
is e$tremely dependent upon the surface condition of the member loaded. The
presence of any notch or stress risers can increase the stress at that point to above
the metal(s endurance limit" #pon the application of a sufficient number of cycles,
fatigue failure will result" %igure E shows the effect of notch sharpness on the fatigue
strength.
Figure 9
! ma&or concern in welding relates to a metals fatigue strength. That concern is not for
the metallurgical changes that may occur, but the presence of some sharp surface
irregularity" #nless ground smooth after welding, the weld itself creates a surface
irregularity" %eld surface discontinuities such as undercut, overlap, e!cessive
reinforcement or conve!ity, can have an effect on fatigue strength" Such conditions
create a sharp notch which could act as a fatigue crac+ initiation point. %atigue
--
failures can result from internal weld discontinuities, however, those on the surface
represent a more significant concern. * surface discontinuity will more ,uic+ly lead
to fatigue failure than will a subsurface discontinuity. The reason for this is that
surface stress levels are usually higher than the internal stress levels. %or that reason
the welding inspector can play an important roll in preventing fatigue failures by careful
visual e$amination. In a fatigue situation, a small weld with a smooth contour will
perform better than a much larger weld having sharp surface irregularities.
Chemical Properties of Metals
The mechanical properties of a metal can be altered by the application of various
mechanical and thermal treatments, but, drastic changes will also occur if the
chemical composition is changed" The metals with which we are concerned from a
welding standpoint are alloys, or mi$tures of different metallic and nonmetallic
elements. The most common e$ample is steel which is a mi!ture of iron and carbon
plus other elements in various amounts" In addition to mechanical properties, a
metals chemical composition will also have an effect on its corrosion resistance and
weldability. Therefore, part of a welding inspector(s duties might include the
verification of a metal(s chemical composition by comparing its actual chemistry
with its specification re,uirements.
.ased on tonnage, plain carbon steels are the most widely used alloys and contain, as
we have mentioned, primarily iron and small amounts of carbon along with manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur and silicon. The amount of carbon present has the greatest effect on
the metals properties. %igure B illustrates the effect of carbon on steel.
Common :ame Carbon Content Typical #se %eldability
Ingot Iron 5.5=A ma$. Enameling, Galvaniing E$cellent
!nd deep drawing.
8ow1Harbon Steel 5.-<A ma$. Welding electrodes,
Special plate and shapes, E$cellent
Sheet and strip.
"ild Steel 5.-<A 1 5.=5A Structural shapes, Good
*late and bar.
"edium Harbon Steel 5.=5A 1 5.<5A "achinery parts %air
7preheat
I*W'T3
'igh Harbon Steel 5.<5A 1 -.55A Springs, dies, *oor
>ailroad rails preheat I
*W'T re).
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Figure ;
*lloy /roups
! welding inspector may be e$posed to a number of different metal alloys. Some
common alloy categories are steel, aluminum, nic+el and copper. 2ur discussion
will be primarily concerned with steel alloys, further divided into three subcategories<
plain carbon steels, low6alloy steels, and high alloy steels. *lain carbon steels, as
discussed, are basically iron and carbon. 8ow1alloy steels contain minor additions of
other elements such as nic+el, chromium, manganese, silicon, vanadium, columbium
7niboinum3, aluminum, molybdenum, and boron. The presents of these elements in
various amounts can result in big changes in mechanical properties. "any of these low1
alloy steels have been classified according to their chemical composition by the
!merican Iron and Steel Institute 7!ISH3 and the Society of !utomotive Engineers
7S!E3. %igure -5 shows these alloy groupings.
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Figure &1
The high1alloy steels include the stainless steels and tool steels. Stainless steels
contain at least &. = chromium, and many grades also contain significant amounts
of nic+el. There are four groups of stainless steels< austenitic, martensitic, ferritic,
and precipitation hardening. Tool steels contain high amounts of carbon plus
moderate amounts of other alloys. They have high hardness and are generally very hard
to weld. %igure -- shows stainless steel types and chemical composition.
Figure &&
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$ffects of Chemical $lements in Steel
There are many elements that can be added to steel effecting drastic changes in its
properties. We are going to discuss the main additives and their effect on the
weldability of steel.
Carbon
Harbon is the most important alloying element in steel and can be present up to .
percent" Harbon is added to iron to create steel and can e!ist either dissolved in the
iron, or in a combined form such as iron carbide" 'ncreased amounts of carbon
increase hardness and tensile strength, as well as response to heat treatment
-hardenability>" Increased amounts of carbon reduce the weldability of steels and
most welded steels have only up to "2 percent carbon content"
Sulfur
This is an undesirable impurity in steel rather than an alloying element. Special effort
is made to eliminate it during steel ma+ing. In amounts e$ceeding .5< percent it tends
to cause brittleness and reduce weldability" *dditions of sulfur in amounts from "
&1 to "01 percent will tend to improve the machinability of some steels" Such types
may be referred to as sulfuri?ed or free machining"
Phosphorus
*hosphorus is also considered to be an undesirable impurity in steels. It is normally
found in amounts up to .5: percent in most carbon steels. In hardened steels, it may
tend to cause embrittlement. 'n low6alloy high strength steels, phosphorus may be
added in amounts up to "&1 percent to improve both strength and corrosion
resistance.
Silicon
#sually only small amounts ".1 percent are present in rolled steel when it is used as a
deo$idier. 'owever, in steel castings, .=< percent to -.55 percent is commonly present.
Silicon dissolves in iron and tends to strengthen it" %eld metal usually contains
-<
appro!imately "2 percent silicon as a deo!idi?er" Som filler metals may contain up
to & percent to provide enhanced cleaning and deo!idation for welding on
contaminated surfaces" %hen these filler metals are utili?ed for welding of clean
surfaces, the weld metal strength will be mar+edly increased. The resulting
decrease in ductility could present crac+ing problems in some situations.
Manganese
Steels usually contain at least "01 percent manganese because it acts in a three fold
manner, assists in the deo!idation of the steel, prevents the formation of iron
sulfide inclusions, and promotes greater strength by increasing the hardenability of
the steel. !mounts up to -.< percent are commonly found in carbon steels.
Chromium
Hhromium is a powerful alloying element in steel. It is added for two principle reasons/
first, it strongly increases the hardenability of steel/ second, it mar+edly improves
the corrosion resistance of iron and steel in o!idi?ing types of atmospheres. Its
presents in some steels could cause e$cessive hardness and crac+ing in and ad&acent to
the weld. Stainless steels contain chromium in amounts e!ceeding &. percent.
Hhromium also gives steel added strength at higher temperatures.
Molybdenum
This element is a strong carbide former and is usually present in alloy steels in amounts
less than -.5 percent" 't is added to increase hardenability and elevated
temperature strength"
:ic+el
;ic+el is added to steels to increase their hardenability. It performs well in this
function because it often improves the toughness and ductility of the steel, even with
the increased strength and hardness" :ic+el is fre,uently used to improve a steel(s
toughness at low temperatures"
*luminum
This element is added to steel in very small amounts as a deo!idi?er" 't is also a
grain refiner for improved toughness.
5anadium
Canadium will increase hardenability of a steel. It is very effective in this role, so it is
generally added in minute amounts. 'n amounts greater than "12 percent there may
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be a tendency for the steel to become embrittled during thermal stress relief
treatments.
Columbium
8i+e vanadium, columbium 7;iobium3 is generally considered to increase the
hardenability of a steel" 'owever, due to its strong affinity for carbon, it may
combine with carbon in the steel to result in an overall decrease in hardness.
Dissolved /ases
Hydrogen, o!ygen, and nitrogen all dissolve in molten steel and can ma+e it brittle.
Steel refining processes are designed to eliminate as much of these gases as possible.
Special flu!es or shielding gases are used to prevent their solution in the molten
weld pool"
*luminum *lloys
*luminum alloys are probably the largest group of nonferrous alloys used in the metal
wor+ing industry today. !vailable in both the wrought and cast forms, they are
generally considered highly weldable" !luminum is very desirable for applications
re)uiring good strength, light weight, high thermal and electrical conductivity or
corrosion resistance. Commercially pure aluminum in the annealed or cast state
has a tensile strength about one fifth that of structural steel" Cold wor+ing
increases the strength considerably, as does alloying the aluminum with other metals.
*lloying with copper, silicon or ?inc permits heat treating to increase strength. In
some cases, the strength is increased to a point where it is comparable with steel.
There are two general categories in which the aluminum alloys can be placed/ heat
treatable and non6heat treatable" The heat treatable types get their hardness and
strength from a process +nown as precipitation hardening. The non1heat treatable types
are strengthened only by strain hardening or cold wor+ing , along with additions of
alloying elements. %igure -0 shows the !luminum !ssociation designations for the
various types of aluminum alloys, according to their ma&or alloying elements.
Maor alloying element *luminum *ssoc" :umber
*ure !luminum -$$$
Hopper 0$$$
"anganese =$$$
Silicon :$$$
-D
"agnesium <$$$
"agnesium and Silicon 4$$$
Jinc D$$$
Figure &.
To indicate the condition of these various grades, a suffi$ can be added to the numeric
designation. These standard temper designations are shown in %igure -=.
Designation Condition
% !s1fabricated
2 !nnealed
'- Strain hardened only
'0 Strain hardened and partially annealed
'= Strain hardened and thermally stabilied
W Solution heat1treated
T- Hooled from thermal shaping and naturally aged
T0 Hooled from thermal shaping, cold wor+ed, natural aged
T= Solution heat treated, cold wor+ed, naturally aged
T: Solution heat treated and naturally aged
T< Hooled from thermal shaping and artificially aged
T4 Solution heat treated and artificially aged
TD Solution heat treated and stabilied
TE Solution heat treated, cold wor+ed, artificially aged
TB Solution heat treated, artificially aged, cold wor+ed.
T-5 Hooled from shaping, cold wor+ed, artificially aged
Figure &0
Magnesium *lloys
"agnesium is a silvery white metal with a density about two1thirds that of aluminum
and one1forth that of steel, ma+ing it the lightest of the commercial metals. Pure
magnesium is of little structural value because of its low strength" The alloys,
however, are stronger and many of them can be hardened by heat treatments.
"agnesium and its alloys have good corrosion resistance I most atmospheres.
"agnesium alloys usually contain aluminum, manganese, and often inc. The most
popular alloys contain appro!imately 4 percent aluminum and 0 percent ?inc. The
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weldability of magnesium alloys is )uite similar to that of aluminum alloys. 8i+e
aluminum magnesium alloys e$hibit high thermal conductivity, low melting point and
high thermal e$pansion.
;ic+el !lloys
;ic+el is a tough, silvery metal of about the same density of copper. It has e$cellent
resistance to corrosion and o$idation even at high temperatures. ;ic+el readily alloys
with many materials and is a basis for a number of steel and copper alloys.
The most important of the nic+el6copper alloys is Monel, which is 48 percent nic+el
and .9 percent copper with 2 percent manganese and silicon combined. "onel is
used e$tensively where parts are sub&ect to wear and corrosion. Since the coefficients
of thermal e$pansion of "onel and steel are appro$imately e)ual, the two metals are
often used together. 'nconel is a nic+el6chromium alloy. It has a high corrosion
resistance to acids and al+aline compounds. It is especially resistant to o$idation and
scaling at high temperatures and in corrosive atmospheres. *ll of the common welding
methods may be employed with nic+el alloys"
Copper *lloys
Hopper is probably best +nown for its high electrical conductivity, e$plaining why it is
used for electrical applications. 't is appro!imately three times denser than
aluminum and has thermal and electrical conductivities which are nearly &"2 times
greater. !lthough most of the copper alloys are weldable and @or braable to some
degree, their high thermal conductivity does present some problems. This factor tends
to draw the welding or braing heat away from the &oint )uite rapidly. Most of the
common welding and bra?ing processes can be used"
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