PHYS 301

TECHNICAL BASICS 1C
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Matter can be defined as anything that has mass and occupies space. There are approximately
100 known different kinds of matter, called elements.
Element
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into any simpler substance by chemical
means. Hydrogen, oxygen, copper, sodium and mercury are examples of elements. ater is not
an element because it can be broken down into simpler substances, namely, hydrogen and
oxygen. !ome elements are "ery hea"y #e.g. lead, uranium$% others are "ery light #e.g. hydrogen,
helium$.
Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that shows the properties of the element. Thus, an
atom of copper is the smallest particle of copper that shows the properties of copper.
An atom is made up of a central nucleus around which negati"ely charged particles, called
electrons, orbit. The nucleus consists of positi"ely charged particles called protons which are
belie"ed to be held together by uncharged particles called neutrons. &ecause atoms ha"e e'ual
numbers of positi"e and negati"e charges, atoms are normally electrically neutral.
The electrons play a ma(or role in chemical energy and in electric currents which transfer
electrical energy. )nergy obtained from the nucleus is called nuclear energy. More on this
later.
orbit

electron
neutron
proton
A simple diagram of an atom. The protons and neutrons form the nucleus.
Molecule
A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist by itself normally. An oxygen
molecule, for example, is made up of two oxygen atoms. *n oxygen gas, we find only oxygen
molecules. *n helium gas, the indi"idual atoms of helium can exist by themsel"es. A water
molecule is made up of two kinds of atoms, hydrogen and oxygen. Thus, molecules can be
single atoms #e.g. helium$, combinations of atoms of the same kind #e.g. oxygen$ or
combinations of atoms of different elements #e.g. water$.
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
According to the kinetic theory of matter, atoms and molecules are always in motion. #*n fact, it
is this constant motion that produces the sensation we call hotness or temperature. *f the motion
of molecules in an ob(ect is "ery rapid, the ob(ect feels hot. *f the motion is "ery slow, the ob(ect
feels cold.$
*n solids, the motion of the molecules consists only of "ibrations because forces of attraction
between particles of a solid are "ery strong. *n li'uids, the motion of the molecules consists of
"ibrations as well as some translations, since the forces between particles of a li'uid are not "ery
strong. *n gases, the molecules mo"e about randomly and freely, since the forces between
molecules in a gas are extremely small.
STATES OF MATTER
Matter exists normally in three states #solid, liquid and gas$ and can be made to exist in a fourth
state called a plasma.
!olid
A solid has a fixed shape and cannot be easily compressed into a smaller "olume. The fixed
shape is due to the fact that the particles that make up the solid are "ery close to each other and
are held together by strong electrical forces. !olids are not easily compressible because at such
close distances apart, the particles exert repelling forces on each other if an attempt is made to
bring them closer.
+i'uid
A li'uid does not ha"e a fixed shape. *t assumes the shape of the container into which it is put.
This is because particles of a li'uid are close enough to each other to keep them together #but not
as close as in the case of solids$ and the forces keeping them together are not as strong. The
particles can mo"e about within the li'uid, hence the shape of a li'uid is easily changed. +ike
solids, li'uids cannot be easily compressed into a smaller "olume because the particles are
somewhat close to each other.
,as
A gas has no fixed shape at all. A gas completely fills any container into which it is put. The gas
expands to fill the container. This is because the particles that make up a gas are far from each
other and therefore hardly attract each other. The particles mo"e about "ery freely and therefore
-fill. any container into which the gas is put. ,ases can easily be compressed into smaller
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"olumes. This is because the particles are "ery far apart and the repelling forces between them at
such distances are "ery weak.
A substance can be changed from solid to li'uid to gas by gi"ing it heat energy. ater is a
common example of this. hen ice #solid$ is heated, it becomes water #li'uid$. *f the heating
continues, water changes into steam #gas$.
0lasma
At "ery high temperatures #like se"eral thousand degrees abo"e room temperature$, gases ioni1e
to form plasmas. #A neutral atom is said to be ionized if it has gained or has lost an electron.$
Thus, a plasma is a state of matter at "ery high temperatures in which normally neutral atoms
that make up a substance are ioni1ed into positi"ely charged ions and electrons.
THE NATURE OF HEAT ENERY
*n a hot ob(ect, the motion of the molecules that make up the ob(ect is "ery rapid. This rapid
mo"ement causes the ob(ect to gi"e off electromagnetic wa"es. Infra-red waves gi"en off are
called heat.
&ut there is another form of energy called heat. Molecular vibrational energy or translational
energy that spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder ob(ect when they are brought into
contact with each other is also called heat. As long as there is a temperature difference between
two ob(ects, and the ob(ects are brought into contact with each other, heat flows from the hotter
to the colder by passing on energy of motion of the particles of the hotter ob(ect to particles of
the colder ob(ect. The hot ob(ect becomes less hot #because the a"erage energy of motion of the
molecules has decreased$ while the colder ob(ect becomes warmer #because the a"erage energy
of motion of the molecules has increased$. This flow of heat energy occurs until both ob(ects
reach the same temperature, called equilibrium temperature.
METHO!S OF HEAT TRANSFER
e ha"e seen earlier in the course that in any actual energy con"ersion process, heat energy is
gi"en off to the en"ironment. hen fuel is used to make motor cars run, some of the energy in
the fuel becomes heat, which, as we know, is transferred to the en"ironment. This represents a
loss of useful energy in the con"ersion process. There are three ways in which heat is
transferred.
Con"uct#on
*n conduction, heat tra"els along matter.
The transfer of heat is done by "ibrations of atoms and molecules passing on "ibrational energy
to neighbouring atoms and molecules. Metals are good conductors of heat. !il"er is the best
conductor, followed by gold, then copper. 2on3metals such as air, wood and plastics are
generally poor conductors of heat. ,ood heat conductors can be found in pots and the base of
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electric irons, where it is important that heat be conducted 'uickly from a hot area to a cooler
area. !olar water heaters ha"e metal pipes which conduct heat from the !un to the water inside
the pipes. 0oor heat conductors are used in making handles of pots and electric irons, as well as
for insulating tanks containing hot water or coolers containing ice.
Con$ect#on
*n convection, heat is carried along with matter.
Hot air rises and carries heat with it to upper regions which are cooler #hot air is less dense than
cool air and that is why hot air rises$. +and and sea bree1es are caused by con"ection currents of
air. 5irculation of hot air takes place in o"ens by con"ection. Hot water also rises abo"e cooler
water carrying heat with it as it rises. 5on"ection takes place readily in li'uids and gases. This
is because molecules in li'uids and gases can mo"e about. 5on"ection cannot take place in
solids #why6$.
R%"#%t#on
*n radiation, heat tra"els independently of matter by means of electromagnetic waves #e.g. infra3
red wa"es$ which tra"el at the speed of light.
&lack, matt surfaces are the best radiators of heat. Thus radiators of cars and refrigerators are
painted black so that they can lose heat 'uickly. *t also turns out that black matt surfaces are also
the best absorbers of heat. That is why solar panels are painted black 7 they readily absorb the
heat from the !un. e therefore see that good radiators of heat are also good absorbers of heat.
hite or sil"ery surfaces are poor radiators of heat #that is why hot tea in a white cup takes
longer to cool that if placed in a dark coloured cup$. *t turns out that white or sil"ery surfaces are
also poor absorbers of heat. Thus, buildings painted white absorb less heat than buildings
painted in a dark colour. !urfaces that are poor absorbers of heat are poor radiators of heat, but
they are good reflectors of heat radiation.
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