:

21.1 Nervous System 2

21.2 Mechanism of muscle contraction 2
21.3 Hormones in mammals 1
21.4 Hormones in plants 1
Chapter 21 : Coordination (6 hrs)
21.1 Nervous System 2
21.2 Mechanism of muscle contraction 2
21.3 Hormones in mammals 1
21.4 Hormones in plants 1
Chapter 21 : Coordination (6 hrs)
a) State the organization of nervous
system
b) Explain the generation of action
potential, transmission &
characteristics of nerve impulse along
an axon
21.1 : Nervous System
Chapter 21 : Coordination (6 hrs)
c) Describe the structure of synapse and
explain the mechanism of impulse
transmission across synapses
d) Compare the transmission of impulse at
the synapse and along the axon
e) Explain the mechanism of action of
drugs on the nervous system
21.1 : Nervous System
Chapter 21 : Coordination (6 hrs)
At the end of the lesson, you should be
able to :
o State the organization of the nervous
system
o Explain the generation of action
potential, transmission &
characteristics of nerve impulse along
an axon

21.1 : Nervous System
Chapter 21 : Coordination (6 hrs)
OVERVIEW OF COORDINATION
Involves :
Nervous System
Endocrine system
Nervous system involves neurons which is
specialized to transmit impulse very fast
(few milliseconds) directly to specific site
Endocrine system involves gland which is
relatively slower may takes minutes, hours
to produce hormones & carried it along
blood vessels before it reaches target
organs

Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system


Nervous System
Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

Regulatory System
Involve 3 components :
Sensory input (PNS)
1
2
3
Integration (CNS)
Motor output (PNS)
Nervous System
Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain Spinal cord
Sensory
(afferent) division
Sympathetic
division
Parasympathetic
division
Autonomic (involuntary)
nervous system
Somatic
(voluntary)
Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Motor
(efferent) division
Organization of Nervous System
MOTOR NEURONS
SOMATIC
Controls the voluntary
responses
Involves ~ skeletal
muscles
AUTONOMIC
Controls the involuntary
response (internal organs &
glands)
Control smooth & cardiac
muscles
Actions are controlled in the
medulla & hypothalamus
Consists of sympathetic &
parasympathetic division.
Both act on the same target
but very often antagonistic
Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

Somatic Vs Autonomic Nervous System
Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Autonomic nervous system has 2
division
Sympathetic & parasympathetic
nervous system



Both division differ in terms of neuron
structure & action
They act in opposite (antagonist) way

Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous
System
Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

Parasympathetic
Nervous System
Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

1. Origin of
neuron
2. Position of
ganglion
3. Length of
fibres
Differences between Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
Features Sympathetic
Originate from thoracic
& lumbar regions of CNS
Short preganglionic
Long postganglionic
Parasympathetic
Originate from cranial &
sacral regions of CNS
Closer to spinal cord

Closer to effector

Long preganglionic
Short postganglionic
5. Degree of
branching
Postganglionic fibers are
highly branched
Postganglionic fibers
branches are minimal
4. Distribution
of fibers
Preganglionic fibers are
widely spread
Preganglionic fibers are
restricted
6. Area of
influence
Effects are widespread
& longer
Effects are localized &
short
7. Transmitter
substance
8. General
effect
Features Sympathetic
Norepinephrine is
released at effector
Parasympathetic
Acetylcholine is released
at effector
Conserve & store energy
Dominant during rest
Prepare body for stress,
emergencies & danger
Differences between Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
Learning outcomes
21.1: State the organization of the nervous system

a) State the organization of nervous
system
b) Explain the generation of action
potential, transmission &
characteristics of nerve impulse along
an axon
21.1 : Nervous System
Chapter 21 : Coordination (6 hrs)
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
THE TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSE
Its an electrical phenomenon that occurs
through the dendrite, dendron & the axon.


Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
THE TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSE

Involves 2 important phases :
1) the resting potential
2) the action potential


Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
1) RESTING POTENTIAL
In unstimulated neuron, Na-K pump is
active
3 Na
+
is pumped to the outside of the
axon, 2 K
+
is pumped into the axon

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
1) RESTING POTENTIAL
[Na
+
] is higher on the
outside
[K
+
] is higher in the inside
Axon membrane is more
permeable to K
+
than Na
+
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Voltage-gated channel ions
1) RESTING POTENTIAL

K
+
diffuses out from the axon through ungated
K
+
channel/passive transport
Less Na
+
ion diffuses into the axon
These diffusion cannot reach equilibrium
because the Na-K gradient is maintained by Na-
K pump
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Voltage-
gated
ion channel
Ungated
channel
ions
Na-K
pump
1) RESTING POTENTIAL
In axoplasm, [anions] because anions cannot
diffuse out due to their large size
Causing the charges within the axon becomes
relatively ve
Voltage-gated channels of Na & K by this time
were closed
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
1) RESTING POTENTIAL
So, membrane is in resting potential
Since the membrane is negatively
charged during resting potential,
membrane is in polarization stage

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
2) ACTION POTENTIAL
A stimulus opens some Na channels &
causes Na-K pump to stop functioning
Na
+
inflow through those channels
depolarizes the membrane
Causing the charges within the axon
becomes slightly relatively positive
The change in the electrical potential is
called depolarization
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
2) ACTION POTENTIAL
If the depolarization does not reach a
certain critical value, the stimulated
neuron will not generate impulse / action
potential (ignored)
The critical value is called threshold level
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
If graded potentials sum to 55mV, a
threshold potential is achieved. This
triggers an action potential (impulse).

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Action potential : A rapid voltage change which
has a self-propagating effect that produces an
impulse//an electrical signal resulting from
depolarization of the plasma membrane in a
neuron or muscle cell.

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
An action potential is an all-or-none event
because it occurs or it does not
A stimulus that is strong enough to depolarize
the membrane to the threshold level results in
the transmission of an impulse along the axon

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
GENERATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL
If depolarisation reaches threshold level, all
voltage-gated Na

channels open
Causes inflow/influx of Na
+
into the axon
Sudden increase of Na
+
causes the charge
within the axon to become positively charged
This is called as rising phase of the action
potential
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
GENERATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL
When depolarization
reaches maximum
level, most voltage-
gated Na

channel
become inactivated
& voltage-gated K

channel starts to
open
Axon becomes less
permeable to Na
+

but more permeable
to K
+

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
This allowing rapid outflow/efflux of K
+
out
of the axon; resulting a negative state
within the cell again
The neuron is said to undergo
repolarization which ultimately reaches the
resting stage.

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Since the voltage-gated K channel close slowly,
excess K
+
moves out from the axon
Causes the inner part of the axon becomes more
negatively charged than during resting potential
This condition is known as
hyperpolarisation/undershoot
Resting potential is preserved by reactivation of
Na-K pump
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Fig. 48.11
Generation of Action Potentials
A recovery phase for axon that had just
transmit impulse
Refractory Period
2 phases
Absolute
refractory
period
Relative
refractory
period
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Cannot generate new action potential
Even if the intensity of the stimulus is high
Axon membrane undergoes hyperpolarization
Outflow of K+ causes the charge within axon
becomes too negative
Absolute Refractory Period
Importance
Prevent impulse from moving backward
Limit the frequency of impulse that can pass
along an axon
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Can generate new action potential
If the intensity of the stimulus is high
Relative Refractory Period
Importance
Prevent impulse from moving backward
Limit the frequency of impulse that can pass
along an axon
Charge within the cell slowly becomes less -ve;
nearing its resting state
Resting potential is restored by Na-K pump the
cell
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
(A) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION
POTENTIAL IN MYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Structure of a myelinated neurone
(A) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION
POTENTIAL IN MYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Saltatory conduction




In myelinated axons, voltage-gated Na
channels are restricted to gaps in the myelin
sheath called nodes of Ranvier
The extracellular fluid is in contact with the
axon membrane only at the nodes
(A) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN
MYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
As a result, action potential are not generated
in the regions between the nodes
The inward current produced during the
rising phase of the action potential at a node
travels all the way to the next node, where it
depolarizes the membrane & generates the
action potential

(A) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN
MYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
The time consuming process of opening &
closing of ion channels occurs at only a
limited number of positions along the axon.
This mechanism for action potential
propagation is called saltatory conduction
because the action potential appears to jump
along the axon from node to node
(A) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN
MYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
(B) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN
UNMYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Conduction
of an
action potential
1. An action potential is generated as Na
+

flows inward across the membrane at
one location.
(B) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN
UNMYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
2. The depolarization of the action potential
spreads to the next region of the membrane,
reinitiating the action potential there.
To the left of this region, the membrane is
polarizing as K
+
flows outward.


(B) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN
UNMYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
3. The depolarization-repolarization process is
repeated in the next region of the membrane.
In this way, local currents of ions across the
plasma membrane cause the action potential
to be propagated along the length of the axon.
(B) TRANSMISSION OF ACTION POTENTIAL IN
UNMYELINATED NEURON
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Characteristics of Nerve Impulse Along
An Axon
Speed of impulse transmission depends on :
1
1
Presence of myelin sheath
2
Diameter of axon
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Act as electrical insulator
Depolarization only occurs at node of Ranvier
Local circuit are formed here


1. Myelin Sheath
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
Impulse jumps from node to node along the
myelinated neuron in saltatory conduction
Speed up the transmission of impulse


1. Myelin Sheath
Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon
2. Diameter Of Axon
The bigger the diameter, the higher the
velocity of the transmission of impulse.

The resistance is reduced (eg :
arthropods, annelids)

Learning outcomes 21.1 b) Explain the generation of action potential, transmission and
characteristics of nerve impulse along an axon