Industrial Electronics

Biyani's Think Tank
Concept based notes

Industrial Electronics
(B.Tech)

Apoorva Gupta
Lecturer
Deptt. of Electrical and Electronics
Biyani Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jaipur

2
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Edition : 2013
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While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any
mistake or omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of
that neither the publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of
any kind arising to anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.
Industrial Electronics 3

Preface

I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the
students. The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in
understanding the fundamental concepts of the topics. The book is self-explanatory
and adopts the Teach Yourself style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The
language of book is quite easy and understandable based on scientific approach.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections,
omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the
readers for which the author shall be obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay
Biyani, Director (Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and main
concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation throughout this
Endeavour. They played an active role in coordinating the various stages of this
Endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work.
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various
educational institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of the
quality of the book. The reader may feel free to send in their comments and
suggestions to the under mentioned address.

Note: A feedback form is enclosed along with think tank. Kindly fill the
feedback form and submit it at the time of submitting to books of
library, else NOC from Library will not be given.

Author

4

Syllabus

UNIT 1: SEMICONDUCTOR POWER DEVICES - Basic characteristics & working of
Power Diodes, Diac, SCR, Triac, Power Transistor, MOSFETs, IGBT, and GTO.

UNIT 2: RECTIFIERS & INVERTERS - Working principles of single and three phase
bridge rectifiers, Voltage and current source inverters.

UNIT 3: POWER SUPPLIES: Principle of operation of choppers. Step up, Step d
own and reversible choppers. High frequency electronic ballast, Switch Mode Power
Supply: Fly back converter, forward/buck converter, Boost converter and buck-boost
converter. Uninterruptible Power Supply.

UNIT 4: MOTOR CONTROL:Introduction to speed control of DC motors using phase
controlled converters and choppers, Basic idea of speed control of three phase
induction motors using voltage and frequency control methods.

UNIT 5:Stepper Motors: Variable reluctance, Permanent mag
net and hybrid stepper motors. Induction and dielectric heating control.
.


Unit 1
Semiconductor Power Devices

Q.1 Explain the operating principle of GTO
Ans. Gate turn off thyristor is turned on applying a positive pulse it consists of
four layers, pnpn, as like conventional thyristors. Functions except for turn-
off are the same as those of conventional thyristors, therefore, we mainly
describe the turn-off operation here.
In the on-state of a GTO thyristor , the central base regions are filled with
holes supplied from the anode and electrons supplied from the cathode. If
reverse bias is applied to make the gate negative in respect to the cathode,
part of holes in the p-base layer are extracted through the gate, suppressing
the injection of electrons from the cathode. More hole current is extracted
through the gate in response to this suppression, further suppressing the
electron injection. In the course of this process, the cathode emitter junction
(J3) is put into a reverse-bias state entirely, GTO thyristor is turned off. Fig. 1
illustrates the turn-off operation, using a two-transistor model
6


Q.2 Explain Anode short GTO thyristor.
Ans. The structure for Anode short GTO thyristor is shown in Fig. 3 below:

At the J1 junction, the anode is partially shorted due to the n+ layers, so that
the reverse voltage of the GTO thyristor is as small as that of the J3 junction
(around 15V normally). However, excess carriers are extracted from the gate
and from the n+ layer during the turn-off, enabling high-speed switching.
This type of thyristor is suitable for applications that require high-speed
switching but do not need high reverse voltage, such as voltage source
inverters.

8

Q.3 Explain reverse conducting GTO thyristor.
Ans The structure of reverse conducting GTO thyristor is shown in Fig. 4 below.

The reverse conducting GTO thyristor consists of a fast recovery diode part
and the anode short GTO thyristor part, the former of which is connected in
parallel to the latter. The thyristor is the same type as the one described
above. This is suitable for application to voltage source inverters for example,
where a GTO thyristor requires Flywheel diode. No additional diode is
necessary if this GTO thyristor is used, reducing the system size and weight.

Q.4 Explain what do you mean by MOSFET?
Ans Mosfet Metal (or poly-silicon doped heavily to act like a metal). Oxide (SiO2,
Acts as an insulator.). Semiconductor (One can selectively change the carrier
type to n-type or p-type.) Field Effect (Device is controlled by an electric field
as opposed to current.) Transistor (Three terminal devices)

(a) When VGS (Gate-source voltage) is not supplied
(b) When VGS (Gate-source voltage) is supplied

Figure 3:
The Structure of an Enhancement Type MOSFET and its Operation

10

(a) When VGS (Gate-source voltage) is not supplied
(b) When VGS (Gate-source voltage) is supplied
The advantages of the lateral MOSFET are:
1. Low gate signal power requirement. No gate current can flow into the gate
after the small gate oxide capacitance has been charged.
2. Fast switching speeds because electrons can start to flow from drain to
source as soon as the channel opens. The channel depth is proportional to the
gate volage and pinches closed as soon as the gate voltage is removed, so
there is no storage time effect as occurs in bipolar transistors.
The major disadvantages are
1. High resistance channels. In normal operation, the source is electrically
connected to the substrate. With no gate bias, the depletion region extends
out from the Nadrain in a pseudo-hemispherical shape. The channel length L
cannot be made shorter than the minimum depletion width required to
support the rated voltage of the device.
2. Channel resistance may be decreased by creating wider channels but this is
costly since it uses up valuable silicon real estate. It also slows down the
switching speed of the device by increasing its gate capacitance.


Unit 2
Rectifiers & Inverters

Q.1 Discuss In Short The Parallel Operation Of Thyristors.
Ans. W Wh he en n t th hy yr ri is st to or rs s a ar re e c co on nn ne ec ct te ed d i in n p pa ar ra al ll le el l, , t th he e l lo oa ad d c cu ur rr re en nt t i is s n no ot t s sh ha ar re ed d
e eq qu ua al ll ly y , ,t the current unbalance increases the junction temperature of the SCR
carrying the higher current and decreases its internal resistance this increases
its current sharing and may damage the thyristor.A A s sm ma al ll l r re es si is st ta an nc ce e
c co on nn ne ec ct te ed d i in n s se er ri ie es s w wi il ll l f fo or rc ce e e eq qu ua al l c cu ur rr re en nt t s sh ha ar ri in ng g. .

M Ma ag gn ne et ti ic ca al ll ly y c co ou up pl le ed d i in nd du uc ct to or rs s c ca an n a as ss su ur re e e eq qu ua al l c cu ur rr re en nt t s sh ha ar ri in ng g d du ur ri in ng g t th he e
t tr ra an ns si ie en nt t p pe er ri io od d. .

Q.2 Explain di/dt thyristor protection.
Ans. A thyristor requires a minimum time to spread the current conduction
uniformly throughout the junction.If the rate-of-rise of anode current is very
fast compared to the spreading velocity of a turn-on process, a hot spot will
12

occur.As a result of the excessive temperature, the device may fail.Therefore,
in practical circuits the device must be protected against high di/dt.
Let us consider the following circuit.

D
m
will conduct when thyristor T
1
is off.If T
1
is fired when D
m
is still
conducting, di/dt can be very high.In practice, the di/dt is limited by adding
a series inductor L
s
.Then

Q.3 Explain dv/dt thyristor protection.
A An ns s

I If f t th he e s sw wi it tc ch h S S
1 1
i is s c cl lo os se ed d a at t t t = = 0 0, , a a s st te ep p v vo ol lt ta ag ge e w wi il ll l b be e a ap pp pl li ie ed d a ac cr ro os ss s t th he e
t th hy yr ri is st to or r T T
1 1
. .T Th he e d dv v/ /d dt t m ma ay y b be e h hi ig gh h e en no ou ug gh h t to o t tu ur rn n o on n t th he e d de ev vi ic ce e. .T Th he e d dv v/ /d dt t
c ca an n b be e l li im mi it te ed d b by y c co on nn ne ec ct ti in ng g a a c ca ap pa ac ci it to or r C C
s s
a ac cr ro os ss s T T
1 1
. .W Wh he en n t th he e t th hy yr ri is st to or r T T
1 1
i is s
t tu ur rn ne ed d o on n, , t th he e d di is sc ch ha ar rg ge e c cu ur rr re en nt t o of f c ca ap pa ac ci it to or r i is s l li im mi it te ed d b by y r re es si is st to or r R R
s s
. .T Th he e R RC C
c ci ir rc cu ui it t i is s k kn no ow wn n a as s a a s sn nu ub bb be er r c ci ir rc cu ui it t, , a an nd d t th he e v vo ol lt ta ag ge e a ac cr ro os ss s t th he e t th hy yr ri is st to or r w wi il ll l
r ri is se e e ex xp po on ne en nt ti ia al ll ly y. .T Th he e c ci ir rc cu ui it t d dv v/ /d dt t c ca an n b be e f fo ou un nd d a ap pp pr ro ox xi im ma at te el ly y f fr ro om m: :

T Th he e s sn nu ub bb be er r c ci ir rc cu ui it t c ca an n b be e d de es si ig gn ne ed d b ba as se ed d o on n t th he e k kn no ow wn n v va al lu ue e o of f t th he e d dv v/ /d dt t
f fo or r a a d de ev vi ic ce e. .

s
s
s s
L
V
dt
di
dt
di
L V
TD
s
s
I
V
R

T Th he e v va al lu ue e o of f R R
s s
i is s f fo ou un nd d f fr ro om m t th he e d di is sc ch ha ar rg ge e c cu ur rr re en nt t I I
T TD D
. .
T Th he e l lo oa ad d c ca an n f fo or rm m a a s se er ri ie es s c ci ir rc cu ui it t w wi it th h t th he e snubber network as shown below.

W We e c ca an n s sh ho ow w t th ha at t t th he e d da am mp pi in ng g r ra at ti io o o of f t th he e s se ec co on nd d o or rd de er r c ci ir rc cu ui it t w wi il ll l b be e: :
w wh he er re e L L
s s
i is s t th he e s st tr ra ay y i in nd du uc ct ta an nc ce e. .
T To o l li im mi it t t th he e p pe ea ak k v vo ol lt ta ag ge e o ov ve er rs sh ho oo ot t a ac cr ro os ss s t th he e T T
1 1
, , a a d da am mp pi in ng g r ra at ti io o i in n t th he e
r ra an ng ge e o of f 0 0. .5 5 t to o 1 1 i is s u us se ed d. .T Th he e L L i is s t ty yp pi ic ca al ll ly y h hi ig gh h, , a an nd d R R
s s
s sh ho ou ul ld d b be e h hi ig gh h a an nd d C C
s s

s sh ho ou ul ld d b be e s sm ma al ll l t to o r re et ta ai in n t th he e d de es si ir re ed d v va al lu ue e o of f d da am mp pi in ng g r ra at ti io o. .A large value of
R
s
will reduce the discharge current, and a low value of Cs will reduce the
snubber losses.

Q.4 What do you mean by three phase dual converter?
Ans The four quadrant operation is generally required in variable-speed drives
application for this we have to imply a converter which can work in all four
quadrants the three-phase dual converters are extensively used for there
purposes. In this when first group is working as inverter than the second
group is working as rectifier and when first group is working as rectifier then
second group is working as inverter
s s
s s
C R
V V
dt
dv 632 . 0 632 . 0
L L
C R R
s
s s
o
2
14

The following figure1 shows three-phase dual converters where two three-
phase converters are connected back-to-back and the waveforms for input
voltages, output voltages, and the voltage across the inductor.

fig1
Three phase dual converter circuit and waveform

Due to instantaneous voltage differences between the output voltages of
converters, a circulating current flows through the converters. This circulating
current is limited by a reactor. The two converters are controlled in such a
way that if 1 is the delay angle of converter 1, the delay angle of converter 2
is 2 = - 1.

Q.5 Discuss the effects of source and load impedance.
Ans The source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient
voltage. Also source inductance may cause commutation problem for the
chopper. Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source

inductance. The load ripple current is inversely proportional to load
inductance and chopping frequency. Peak load current depends on load
inductance. To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is
connected in series with the load as shown in figure1

Figure1

The different modes of the operation are discussed below

MODE 1 OPERATION

V
i
0
v
0
Chopper
FWD
+
L
O
A
D
L
O
A
D
L
C
I
L
L
S
V
S
+
_
+
_
T
1
D
1
V
C
i
C
16

Thyristor T1 is fired at t = 0. The supply voltage comes across the load. Load
current IL flows through T1 and load.At the same time capacitor discharges
through T1, D1, L1, & C and the capacitor reverses its voltage.This reverse
voltage on capacitor is held constant by diode D1.

MODE 2 OPERATION

Thyristor T2 is now fired to commutate thyristor T1.When T2 is ON capacitor
voltage reverse biases T1 and turns if off. The capacitor discharges through
the load from V to 0.Discharge time is known as circuit turn-off time.

Q.6 Explain Power factor improvement techniques.
Ans. The power factor of phase-controlled converters depends on delay angle, and
it is generally low. These converters inject harmonics into the supply. Forced
L
O
A
D
C
L
S
V
S
+
_ +
_
T
2
V
C
I
L
I
L
Capacitor Discharge Current
sin
1
Where
& Capacitor Voltage
cos
C
C
C
i t V t
L
LC
V t V t

commutation can improve the input power factor and reduce the harmonics
levels with advancement of devices (GTO or IGBT), the forced commutation
can be implemented in practical systems.
The basic techniques of forced commutation which are:
Extinction Angle Control
Symmetrical Angle Control
Pulse-Width Modulation
Single-Phase Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation
Three-Phase PWM Control

Extinction Angle Control:-
In this switch s1 is turned on at t =0 and is turned off by forced
commutation at t = . switch s2 is turned on at t = and is turned off by
forced commutation at t =2 .
The following figure1 shows circuit diagram and waveform for Extinction
Angle Control for single phase forced commutated semiconverter

18

fig1
The following figure2 shows circuit diagram and waveform for Extinction
Angle Control for single phase forced commutate full converter

Fig2

Symmetrical Angle Control:-
In this switch s1 is turned on at t =( )/2 and is turned off at t =(
+)/2 by forced commutation .Switch s2 is turned on at t = ( 3 )/2 and
is turned off by forced commutation at t =( 3 +)/2 .The output voltage is
controlled by varying conduction angle .
20

The following figure3 shows waveform for Symmetrical Angle Control

Fig3
Pulse-Width Modulation Control
In the PWM the converter switches are turned on and off several times during
a half cycle and the output voltage is controlled by varying the width of the
pulses.
The following figure4 shows waveform for Pulse-Width Modulation Control

Fig4

Single-Phase Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation
In this the pulse width are generated by comparing a triangular reference
voltage Vr of amplitude Ar and frequency Fr with a carrier half sinusoidal
voltage Vc of variable amplitude Ac and frequency 2Fs.The following figure5
shows waveform for Single-Phase Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation
22

Fig5


Unit 3

Power Supplies

Q.1 What do you mean by chopper ? Name its different classifications.
Ans. A Chopper is a static device using it a variable dc voltage is obtained from a
constant dc voltage source. It is also known as dc-to-dc converter and is
widely used for motor control and in regenerative braking.
Choppers are of Two Types:-
1) Step-down choppers. In this output voltage is less than input voltage
2) Step-up choppers. In step up chopper output voltage is more than input
voltage.
We can classify choppers as
Class A Chopper
Class B Chopper
Class C Chopper
Class D Chopper
Class E Chopper

Q.2 Explain different classes of choppers in detail.
Ans. The different classes of choppers are as follows
1.Class A chopper
Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper .In these when the chopper is ON,
supply voltage V is connected across the load and when the chopper is OFF,
vO = 0 and the load current continues to flow in the same direction through
the freewheeling diode ,the average values of output voltage and current are
always positive. Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power
always flows form source to load.
24

The equivalent circuit diagram for the Class A or first quadrant chopper is
shown in fig(1.a)and fig(1.b)respectively,

Fig 1.a Fig 1.b Circuit
diagram of Class A chopper First quadrant operation

To study the performance of Class A Chopper the output current waveform
obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used
V
Chopper
FWD
+
v
0
v
0
i
0
i
0
L
O
A
D
V

Fig(1.c)waveform for Class A chopper

Class B Chopper:
Output current
Thyristor
gate pulse
Output voltage
i
g
i
0
v
0
t
t
t
t
ON
T
CH ON
FWD Conducts
26

In this average output voltage is positive and average output current is
negative, therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant. Class B
Chopper is a step-up chopper in this chopper, power flows from load to
source. When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a
direction opposite to that shown in figure. During the ON period of the
chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is OFF, diode D
conducts, and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the
supply. Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor.
The equivalent circuit diagram for the Class B or second quadrant chopper is
shown in fig (2.a) and fig (2.b) respectively,

Fig 2.a fig2.b
Circuit diagram of Class B chopper Second quadrant operation
The waveform for Class B chopper is shown in figure 2.c

V
Chopper
+
v
0
v
0
i
0
i
0
L
E
R
D

Fig2.c waveform for Class B chopper
Class C chopper:
The Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers, for first
quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts and for second quadrant
operation, CH2 is ON or D1 conducts.
When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive and the output voltage is equal
to V & the load receives power from the source and when CH1 is turned
OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the diode
D2 and the output voltage is zero and the Current continues to flow in
positive direction.
When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite
direction through L and CH2, the output voltage is zero now on turning OFF
Output current
D
conducts
Chopper
conducts
Thyristor
gate pulse
Output voltage
i
g
i
0
v
0
t
t
t
I
min
I
max
T
t
ON
t
OFF
28

CH2 , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D1 and
the supply output voltage is V, the input current becomes negative and
power flows from load to source. Average output voltage is positive while
average output current can take both positive and negative values.
Some point to keep in mind regarding Class C chopper are :-
Choppers CH1 & CH2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it
would result in short circuiting the supply.
Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative
braking of dc motor.
Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down chopper.
The equivalent circuit diagram for the Class C or quadrant figure of chopper
is shown in fig (3.a) and fig (3.b) respectively,

Fig (3.a) Fig (3.b)
Circuit diagram of Class C chopper First and Second quadrant operation

The waveform for Class C chopper is shown in figure 3.c

V
Chopper
+
v
0
D
1
D
2
CH
2
CH
1
v
0
i
0
i
0
L
E
R

Fig(3.c) Waveform for Class C chopper

Class D Chopper
Class D is also a two quadrant chopper. When both CH1 and CH2 are
triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO = V and output current flows
through the load.
When CH1 and CH2 are turned OFF, the load current continues to flow in the
same direction through load, D1 and D2, due to the energy stored in the
inductor L. The Output voltage vO = - V
Gate pulse
of CH
2
Gate pulse
of CH
1
Output current
Output voltage
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
V
0
t
t
t
t
D
1
D
1
D
2
D
2
CH
1
CH
2
CH
1
CH
2
ON ON ON ON
30

The average load voltage is positive if chopper ON time is more than the OFF
time i.e. tON > tOFF and average output voltage becomes negative if tON <
tOFF .
Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be
positive or negative.
The equivalent circuit diagram for the Class D or quadrant operation is

Fig (4.a) Fig (4.b)
Circuit diagram of Class D chopper First and Fourth quadrant operation

The waveform for Class D chopper is shown in figure 4.c and 4.d

V
+
v
0
D
2
D
1
CH
2
CH
1
v
0
i
0
L
E
R
i
0

Fig(4.c) Waveform for Class D chopper

Gate pulse
of CH
2
Gate pulse
of CH
1
Output current
Output voltage
Average v
0
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
v
0
V
t
t
t
t
CH ,CH
ON
1 2
D1,D2 Conducting
32

Fig(4.d) Waveform for Class D chopper

Class E Chopper
Class E is a four quadrant chopper. When CH1 and CH4 are triggered, output
current io flows in positive direction through CH1 and CH4, and with output
voltage vO = V, this gives the first quadrant operation. When both CH1 and
Gate pulse
of CH
2
Gate pulse
of CH
1
Output current
Output voltage
Average v
0
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
v
0
V
t
t
t
t
CH ,CH
ON
1 2
D1,D2 Conducting

CH4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D2 and D3
in the same direction, but output voltage vO = -V. Therefore the chopper
operates in the fourth quadrant. When CH2 and CH3 are triggered, the load
current io flows in opposite direction & output voltage vO = -V. Since both iO and
vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When both CH2 and
CH3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction D1
and D4 and the output voltage vO = V. Therefore the chopper operates in
second quadrant as vO is positive but iO is negative.
The equivalent circuit diagram for the Class D or quadrant operation is

Fig(5.a)Circuit diagram of Class E chopper

V
v
0
i
0
L
E
R
CH
2
CH
4
D
2
D
4
D
1
D
3
CH
1
CH
3
+
34

Fig(5.b)Fourth quadrant operation

v
0
i
0
CH - CH ON
CH - D Conducts
1 4
4 2
D D
2 3
- Conducts
CH - D Conducts
4 2
CH - CH ON
CH - D Conducts
3 2
2 4
CH - D Conducts
D - D Conducts
2 4
1 4

Unit 4

Motor Control

Q.1 Explain the construction and working principle of DC motor ?
Ans. The Construction is very similar to a DC generatorThe dc machine can
operate bath as a generator and a motor.When the dc machine operates as a
motor, the input to the machine is electrical power and the output is
mechanical power. In fact, the dc machine is used more as a motor.DC motors
can provide a wide range of accurate speed and torque control.
Principle of operation when a current-carrying conductor is placed in
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force., F = Bli

Q.2 Give different methods of speed control of DC motor ?
Ans The speed contro can be achieved by the following methods
Armature Voltage Control, Vt
Field resistance control,
Armature resistance Control, Ra
Speed increases as Vt increases, Ra increases and field flux decreases
Q.3 Draw torque speed characteristics and give the equation for speed control.
Ans. Torque-speed characteristics equation:-

For Armature circuit
36

In steady state

Therefore speed is given by,

Three possible methods of speed control:
Armature resistance Ra
Field flux F
Armature voltage Va

Torque-speed characteristics of DC motor

a
a
a a a
e
dt
di
L i R V
a a a a
E I R V
T
a
e
T
a
k
V
T
k
R
2

Unit 5
Stepper Motors

Q.1 What is stepper motor ?
Ans. A Stepper Motor or a step motor is a brushless, synchronous motor which
divides a full rotation into a number of steps. Unlike a brushless DC motor
which rotates continuously when a fixed DC voltage is applied to it, a step
motor rotates in discrete step angles.A stepper (or, stepping) motor is an
electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical movements.

Q.2 Explain how stepper motor works.
Ans. Stepper motors work on the principle of electromagnetism. There is a soft
iron or magnetic rotor shaft surrounded by the electromagnetic stators. The
rotor and stator have poles which may be teethed or not depending upon the
type of stepper. When the stators are energized the rotor moves to align itself
along with the stator (in case of a permanent magnet type stepper) or moves
to have a minimum gap with the stator (in case of a variable reluctance
stepper). This way the stators are energized in a sequence to rotate the
stepper motor.

Q.3 Explain Variable reluctance stepper motor ?
Ans. The variable reluctance stepper has a toothed non-magnetic soft iron rotor.
When the stator coil is energized the rotor moves to have a minimum gap
between the stator and its teeth. The teeth of the rotor are designed so that
when they are aligned with one stator they get misaligned with the next
stator. Now when the next stator is energized, the rotor moves to align its
teeth with the next stator. This way energizing stators in a fixed sequence
completes the rotation of the step motor.The resolution of a variable
reluctance stepper can be increased by increasing the number of teeth in the
rotor and by increasing the number of phases.

Q.4 Give the classification on the basis of phase for step motor ?
38

Ans. The step motors are mostly two phase motors.
1. Unipolar
2. Bipolar.

The process of movement generation is as under

rotor follows the stator field
one step invert magnetic field in 1 coil
for the next step invert magnetic field in the other coil
A stepper motor always needs electronic control.
step angle depends on number of poles -> fixed by construction

Q.5 Explain Unipolar stepper motor ?
Ans. The unipolar motor have five, six or eight leads. In the designs where the
common of two poles are separate but centre tapped, motor have six leads. If
the centre taps of the two poles are internally short, the motor has five leads.
Eight lead unipolar facilitates both series and parallel connection whereas five
lead and six lead motors have series connection of stator coils. The unipolar
motor simplifies the operation because in operating them there is no need to
reverse the current in the driving circuit. These are also called bifilar motors.
In bipolar stepper there is single winding per pole. The direction of current
need to be changed by the driving circuit so the driving circuit of the bipolar
stepper becomes complex. These are also called unifilar motors.

Q.6 Explain Permanent Magnet Stepper motor ?

Ans. The rotor and stator poles of a permanent magnet stepper are not teethed.
Instead the rotor have alternative north and south poles parallel to the axis of
the rotor shaft.When a stator is energized, it develops electromagnetic poles.
The magnetic rotor aligns along the magnetic field of the stator. The other
stator is then energized in the sequence so that the rotor moves and aligns
itself to the new magnetic field. This way energizing the stators in a fixed
sequence rotates the stepper motor by fixed angles.The resolution of a
permanent magnet stepper can be increased by increasing number of poles in
the rotor or increasing the number of phases.

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