Feasibility of c02

Feasibility of scCO
2
based metal working fluids

Department of Mechanical Engineering, SBCE Page | 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The Public concern about the environment is more prevalent than it has been
since the birth of the environmental movement in the 1960s. Driven largely by wide-
spread fear over the dangers of global warming, the eminence of water shortages, and the
scarcity of easily accessible petroleum reserves, the recent surge in public interest reflects
a clear departure from attitudes observed in the previous three decades. Where the focus
previously had been on reducing emissions or remediation of waste sites, the interest now
is on creating environmentally sustainable systems that will prevent impacts from current
and future generations. Here we have a proposed technology that would use Carbon Di
Oxide CO
2
, a waste from other industrial processes, as an environmentally friendly and
technically superior way to deliver lubricants in metals manufacturing operations.
The water-based coolants used today present numerous occupational and
environmental health impacts that inhibit the long-term sustainability of manufacturing
processes. Most of these impacts are effectively eliminated if lubricants can be delivered
in minimum quantities through sprays of carbon dioxide. Here we explores the following
technical questions associated with CO
2
-based metalworking fluids: Do they perform as
well as conventional coolants? If so, why ? And are the overall life cycle impacts of CO
2
-
based fluids lower than water-based? The results will pave the way for a possible
reinvention of metalworking fluids that, if implemented, could lead to significant
reductions in the environmental impacts associated with manufacturing processes.

1.1 BACKGROUND
The environmental movements are driven by the clear impacts associated with the
unwanted emissions into local and regional environments. Workers got sick on the job
and toxic waste went untreated into local ecosystems. With widespread commitment and
Feasibility of scCO
2


federal money, treatment plants multiplied, contaminated land cleared, and discharge
laws were passed to protect air, water, and land emissions.
Most manufacturing processes that cut or form metal parts, e.g., automotive and
aerospace, use metalworking fluids (MWFs) to cool and lubricate the cutting zone.
Metal-on-metal contact results in shortened tool life or low product quality if MWFs are
not used. The widespread use of these fluids in manufacturing has led to concern over the
occupational and environmental health impacts they can produce. In an effort to reduce
the impacts, some researchers and manufacturers have investigated the recycling of
metalworking fluids to maintain their quality and reduce disposal frequencies. Other
work has been conducted on the use of vegetable-based components to formulate fluids
that are renewable.
A significant amount of interest has been placed recently on the development of
dry or near-dry machining operations. In minimum quantity lubrication (MQL)
operations, a small amount of MWF is delivered in a spray of air and no fluid is recycled,
eliminating much of the infrastructure typically associated with conventional water-based
MWFs.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
The oil and water mixtures that comprise most MWFs are a serious environmental
and occupational health problem. Microorganisms thrive in the fluids, aerosols from the
fluids cause decreased air quality in the workplace and water picks up metals and carries
other organic constituents, making them a hazardous waste problem when they reach the
end of their useable life. MWFs also require a significant input of energy to maintain and
circulate through a large manufacturing facility. Many of the additives that are included
in traditional MWFs, such as anti-corrosion agents, biocides, and deformers, are toxic and
pose a waste treatment problem.
In addition to the health impacts of fluids, the oil and water mixtures are
inadequate lubricants in some state-of-the-art machining operations. High performance
Feasibility of scCO
2


alloys and light metals are often extremely difficult and expensive to machine. In these
cases, more effective cooling and better lubricant delivery than that afforded by
conventional MWFs is necessary. Micromachining, such as that performed in many bio-
medical applications, is a growing area that requires new methods of lubrication.
Because of the numerous technical and health limitations associated with MWFs,
they are an expensive part of typical machining operations. So a need for a new metal
working fluid which is cost effective and provides better cooling effect compared to
aquatious or petroleum MWFs arises. Here we have a proposed technology that would
use Carbon Di Oxide CO
2
, a waste from other industrial processes, as an
environmentally friendly and technically superior way to deliver lubricants in metals
manufacturing operations.

1.3 OVERVIEW
The Chapter 2 provides a literature review that begins with an introduction to
MWFs, their function and formulation. An overview of the chemical characteristics that
make it a viable solvent is presented along with a discussion of the spray applications of
CO
2
for particle formation and the chemical thermodynamics needed to describe and
model lubricant solubility in CO
2
.
The Chapter 3 explains about super critical Carbon Di Oxide, its thermodynamic
properties, solubility, cooling potential, production of super critical Carbon Di Oxide.
The chapter 4 deals with the feasibilty of scCO
2
based MWFs in micromilling.
Mechanical micro manufacturing is receiving increasing attention due to its ability to
create truly three-dimensional (3D) features in multiple length scales and its
compatibility with abroad range of engineering materials.
The chapter 5 explains the tapping torque efficiency test which is used to compare
the performance of different metal working fluids.
Feasibility of scCO
2


In chapter 6 we discuss the results obtained from the experiments ,we discuss
about specific cutting energy, burr formation and surface roughness, tool wear, tapping
torque etc. and in chapter 7 we concludes that it is feasible to use scCO
2
as a metal
working fluid based upon the results obtained from the experiments.

Feasibility of scCO
2


CHAPTER 2
SUPER CRITICAL CARBON DI OXIDE (scCO
2
)
A Supercritical fluid is defined state of a compound, mixture or element above
its critical pressure (P
c
) and critical temperature (T
c
). Critical temperature (T
c
) is
maximum temperature at which a gas can be converted into a liquid by an increase in
pressure. Critical pressure (P
c
) is the minimum pressure which would suffice to liquefy
a substance at its critical temperature. Above the critical pressure, increasing the
temperature will not cause a fluid to vaporize to give a two-phase system. Critical point
is the characteristic temperature (Tc) and pressure (P
c
) above which a gas cannot be
liquefied.
Carbon dioxide above its critical temperature and pressure (T
c
= 31.1C and P
c
=
72.8 atm) is called super critical Carbon Di Oxide (scCO
2
). The scCO
2
effectively
dissolves many lubricating oils and forms chilled micro particles of lubricant as it
expands out of a nozzle. The scCO
2
approach is mechanically much simpler than oil-in-
air MQL systems since the solubility of the lubricant in scCO
2
eliminates elaborate
mixing strategies required to aerosolize the oil in air.
The scCO
2
is a tunable substitute for organic and aqueous solvents and can
dissolve many common MWF lubricants at pressures and temperatures above the critical
point of CO
2
(73 atm, 31C). The rapid expansion of supercritical solutions for coating
and spraying applications has been well-documented. These rapidly expanding solutions
of scCO
2
can reach temperatures below 80C with a uniform coating of the solubilized
material forming on the spray target. Under supercritical conditions, CO
2
has
compressibility and viscosity of a gas phase while having high density and solvency of a
liquid phase. This makes scCO
2
a convenient MWF carrier because it will dissolve
lubricants under pressure and carry them to the process without the need for mixing. As
the scCO
2
expands, temperatures drop and provide superior cooling to todays oil-in-air
MQL systems.

Feasibility of scCO
2


Fig.2.1 Phase diagram of CO
2
Figure 3.1 illustrates the supercritical region for CO
2
as a function of temperature
and pressure. Creating a scCO
2
MWF is a straight forward process that starts by
compressing CO
2
above 73 atm (1100 psi) at just over room temperature, and bubbling
the gas through a pool of process lubricant (e.g., bio-based oil or petroleum oil) as shown
in Figure 2.2. The process lubricant may not be needed in certain applications. Flexible
high pressure tubing can be used to deliver the super critical fluid from the pressure
vessel to the cutting zone. A valve actuates the release of the scCO
2
-based MWF to the
machining process. Since the pressure of the scCO
2
drops as the fluid flows through the
nozzle, the spray cools to cryogenic temperatures forming dry ice while cold liquid oil
particles form as they precipitate out of the scCO
2
solution. These high-speed sprays
allow good penetration of the cold oil into the cutting process. The sprays also clear chips
effectively, leaving the work area free of debris and oily waste.
Feasibility of scCO
2


Fig 2.2 scCO
2
delivery system (A. cylinder of food-grade CO2, B. cooling unit, C. pump,
D. one way valve, E. high pressure vessel, F. heating element, G. soybean oil, H. nozzle,
I. spray of scCO2-based MWF, V1 and V2 are valves)
In the supercritical state, the solubility of oil in CO
2
is finely tunable via the
system temperature, pressure, and nozzle geometry. For instance, increasing pressure
from 73 atm to 350 atm (11005000 psi) further increases oil solubility, while the sprays
are frozen, leading to a larger number of colder droplets penetrating the process. This
means, unlike water-based systems, that cooling potential and lubricating potential are
not mutually exclusive in scCO
2
systems. In micro emulsions, higher oil concentrations
lead to less cooling and more lubricity while higher water concentrations lead to more
cooling and less lubricity. In contrast, increasing pressure beyond the minimal conditions
for the supercritical state increases both cooling and lubricity simultaneously.
One example of a scCO
2
MWF delivery system is provided in Figure 2.2. In this
system food-grade CO
2
is compressed from 48 atm (700 psi) to super critical pressures
above 73 atm (1100 psi) using a compressor. The CO
2
is bubbled into a 1 liter high-
pressure vessel containing lubricating oil (e.g., soybean oil). The outlet from the vessel
removes supercritical fluid phase CO
2
oil and delivers it through a nozzle aimed at the
Feasibility of scCO
2


working zone. The system can be mounted on a small cart with the exception of the CO
2

tank and the whole system can be easily retrofitted so existing machine tools.
2.1 OIL SOLUBILITY

Fig 2.3 Oil solubility
We have examined several characteristics of scCO
2
MWFs such as solubility of
MWF lubricants in scCO
2
and the heat removal capacity of scCO
2
sprays. For instance,
we have shown that different amounts of soybean oil can be carried to the manufacturing
process simply by adjusting the pressure as shown in Figure 2.3. Some oils are also more
soluble than others. In fact petroleum oils are much more soluble in scCO
2
than soybean
oil as shown in Figure 2.3. However, this may not lead to higher performance and to the
extent that higher oil consumption rates are unnecessary, using petroleum vs. bio-based
oil can lead to the wasting of oil. Lower concentrations of vegetable-based oil are more
effective than higher concentrations of oil in scCO
2
systems.

Feasibility of scCO
2


2.2 COOLING POTENTIAL

Fig 2.4: Cooling potential
The cooling potential of an scCO
2
system is a function of distance of the nozzle to
the target, the scCO
2
pressure, the off-axis position of the nozzle relative to the target, the
length to diameter ratio of the nozzle, and the temperature of the scCO
2
inside the
pressure vessel. The relationship of these factors to heat removal capacity is shown in
Figure 3.4. The data indicate that operating conditions for scCO
2
-based MWF can be
selected to produce higher cooling potential by increasing the pressure. It should be noted
that the scCO
2
cooling potential may not be greater than MWF floods depending on
operating conditions. This is despite the much colder temperature of the spray and is due
to the lower molecular density of the rapidly expanding scCO
2 spray
relative to water. In a
flood of liquid, many more water particles are available to remove heat than CO
2
dry ice
particle. Because of their lower molecular density, gases can be delivered to the cutting
zone at much higher pressures than liquids without disrupting the cutting process and
therefore can gain access to interstitial spaces to remove heat at locations that may be
inaccessible to aqueous MWF sprays.
Feasibility of scCO
2


CHAPTER 3
FEASIBILTY OF SCCO
2
BASED MWF IN
MICROMILLING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Mechanical micro manufacturing is receiving increasing attention due to its
ability to create truly three-dimensional (3D) features in multiple length scales and its
compatibility with abroad range of engineering materials. As such, mechanical micro-
manufacturing processes provide capabilities that are complementary to lithographic
processes used in micro electro mechanical systems fabrication in terms of materials,
geometries, and dimensions in terms of materials, geometries, and dimensions. In
particular, micromachining, which uses micro-scale milling and drilling tools within high
precision machining environments, has the potential to become an effective and wide-
spread technique for creating 3D structures and devices.
While having similar process kinematics, the mechanics of material removal in
micromachining differs significantly from macro scale machining. This difference in
process mechanics brings fundamental changes to the forces, surface and dimensional
quality, and tool wear characteristics experienced during micromachining. One approach
to improve micro machinability is to use metal-working fluids. MWFs are proven to
improve machinability and part finish at the macro scale by providing lubrication and
cooling, as well as by facilitating chip evacuation. Machining in a cryogenic or low
temperature MWF environment has been shown to improve surface finish and
machinability at the macro scale.
Supercritical Carbon Di Oxide (scCO
2
) MWF is one such low temperature MWF
which has been shown to improve tool life and surface finish, particularly at high
material removal or deformation rates, on materials ranging from carbon steels to
titanium and compacted graphite iron in macro-scale machining and forming applications
Feasibility of scCO
2


3.2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Micromachining experiments were performed on the high-precision miniature
machine tool (MMT) shown in Fig.4.1. The MMT includes a 160,000 rpm air turbine, air
bearing miniature ultra high-speed spindle equipped with a 3.125mm (1/8in.) precision
collet. The feed motions are provided by three-axis slides (Aerotech VRALS130-XYZ)
with a 10 nm resolution and a maximum linear (feed) speed of 250 mm/s. To facilitate
the measurement of micromachining forces, the workpiece is mounted on a dynamometer
(Kistler 9256C1), which in turn is attached to the three-axis slides. A stereo microscope
with 95times magnification is used to view the workpiece surface during the initial tool
approach.

Fig3.1: High precision machine tool fig 3.2: Rapidly expanding scCO
2
The scCO
2
MWF system employed for this study is shown in Figs 4.2 and 4.3.
Commercially available food grade CO
2
is compressed above its critical pressure (7.32
MPa) and sent to a high pressure mixing chamber, where it passes through vegetable oil
present at the bottom of the chamber. The resulting solution of scCO
2
and vegetable oil is
maintained at a specified temperature above the critical temperature of CO
2
(31.1C)
using a temperature sensor and heating coil apparatus controlled by a central
programmable logic controller (PLC) unit. A 150lm orifice nozzle is used to rapidly
expand the solution of lubricant in scCO
2
as a high velocity spray directed to the
Feasibility of scCO
2


tool/workpiece interface. Under these delivery conditions, the flow rate of oil is about 22
ml/h and the flow rate of is about 19 kg/h.

Fig 3.3: scCO
2
delivery system
3.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENT
AISI 304 grade Austenitic stain-less steel and oxygen free high conductivity
(OFHC) 101 grade copper were chosen as workpiece materials. AISI 304 is a difficult
material to machine due to high tool-wear rates, high cutting-zone temperatures, work-
hardening, and built up edge formation. Cu-101 is a ductile material that creates
challenges in achieving sufficient surface finish and form accuracy. Micromilling of these
materials was performed using surface roughness, burr formation, average specific
cutting energy, and tool wear as metrics of machinability.
Feasibility of scCO
2


Table 4.1: Design of experiments

A two level half-factorial design of experiments was conducted with three factors:
feed per tooth (f
z
), axial depth of cut (a
p
), and cutting velocity (v
c
). As shown in Table
4.1, all four machining conditions were employed with scCO
2
MWF and dry cutting
conditions on both AISI 304 (experiments 18) and OFHC Cu-101 (experiments 916).
For each experimental condition, seven channels (25 mm long) per condition were slot-
milled with each channel separated by 0.7 mm. Channels on both materials were cut
using 254lm diameter two-fluted tungsten carbide micro-end mills with a helix angle of
30 deg. A fresh tool was used for each experiment. The eight experiments for each
material were distributed over three workpieces. Prior to each experiment, the surface of
the workpiece was cleaned using a 500m diameter micro end mill.scCO
2
MWF was
expanded from a pressure of 10.3 MPa and temperature of 34C.

Feasibility of scCO
2


3.4 MATRICS AND MEASUREMENTS
Burr formation was analyzed qualitatively using a burr chart created from
scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the micro milled channels. For stainless
steel, only the images from the first channel were used for each machining condition to
eliminate the effect of tool wear. For copper, given low wear rates, the images from either
the first or the second channel were used.
A 3D optical surface profile meter (Zygo NewView 7300) with sub-nanometer
out-of-plane resolution and 2.2m in-plane resolution (with the 10objective) was used
for measuring surface roughness. The roughness values (Ra) from four areas sized 0.8
mm0.2 mm on the bottom surface of the first channel were measured. Both the average
and the standard deviation of Ra values were then calculated.
Cutting forces were measured using a three-axis dynamometer( Kistler 9256C1, 2 mN
noise threshold with linearity and hysteresis less than 0.5% of the measurement range), a
charge amplifier Kistler Type 5010 Charge Amplifier), and a data acquisition system (NI
PXI-6115).
The effect of scCO
2
MWF on micromilling may be obtained by determining the
average specific cutting energy for each experiment considering the kinematics of the
milling process. The specific cutting energy, also referred to as specific cutting force or
specific cutting power in the literature, is calculated by dividing the average peak-to-
valley tangential cutting force for each revolution by the average (uncut) chip area
obtained by multiplying the average feed (f/2) with axial depth of cut. Averaging the
cut-ting forces per revolution rather than per tooth pass eliminates the effect of tool-tip
run out on the forces. To remove the effect of tool wear, only the forces from the first
channel in each experiment were used. These forces were averaged over 500 revolutions
to determine both the averages and the standard deviations. Reported error bars for
surface roughness and specific cutting energy represent 95% confidence for these
measurements, though they do not include variation between channels.
Feasibility of scCO
2


Fig 3.4: Cutting forces for Cu-101 when machining with scCO
2
MWF at 3lm/tooth chip
load, 40lm axial depth of cut, and100 m/min cutting speed
Tool wear was assessed based on the reduction of the tool diameter with increased
length of cut, as evidenced from the observed changes in the channel widths. The wear
analysis was completed only for Cu-101 due to the observed chipping of the tools for
certain cases during machining of AISI 304. In order to facilitate better measurement of
channel widths, replicas of the channels were fabricated through elastomer molding.
Optical profilometer measurements of the molded features were then obtained, and the
measured profiles were post processed to determine the average channel widths. The
channel widths were defined as the parallel distance between feature side-walls in a plane
that is 1lm below their top surfaces.

Feasibility of scCO
2


CHAPTER 4
TAPPING TORQUE EFFICIENCY TESTING
Tapping torque values are measured as the taps cut the threads in predrilled holes
in a metal specimen. This step is repeated with different MWFs. The test result is
expressed as simple torque or as percentage of efficiency. The average tapping torque
efficiency and 95% confidence interval values calculated for the less than30 (> 30)
independent and randomized trials performed for each MWF.

Fig 4.1: Tapping efficiency test (a)aquatious MWF b) scCO
2
+soybean oil

Feasibility of scCO
2


CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 SPECIFIC CUTTING ENERGY

Fig 5.1: ASCE a) for AISI 304 stainless steel and (b) and Cu-101
The average specific cutting energies for all experiments are provided in Fig.5.1.
It is observed that the specific cutting energy in condition 1 (low chip load and low axial
depth of cut) is significantly higher than the other three conditions in both dry and scCO
2

MWF conditions in both materials, which is most likely due to the size effect that
becomes prominent when the ratio of uncut chip thickness to tool nose radius drops
below 1. Specific cutting energy is reduced for condition 1 when using scCO
2
MWF
compared with dry machining, and is statistically indistinguishable for the other
conditions. The reduction in specific cutting energy from the use of scCO
2
MWF could
be a consequence of a local increase in material hardness and a reduction in minimum
chip thickness resulting from exposure to the low-temperature spray.

Feasibility of scCO
2


5.2 TOOL WEAR
Figures 5.2 (a) (b) show the percentage reduction in channel width and SEM
images of cutting tool nose respectively, when machining copper under condition 2 for
both dry and scCO
2
MWF cases. No discernable tool wear is observed with scCO
2
MWF,
whereas an average wear rate of 3.39lm/channel is observed for dry machining in
condition. Condition 4 (not shown in fig5.2) showed an average wear rate of
6.02lm/channel

Fig 5.2: (a) Wear progression and (b) SEM images of tool nose wear in dry and
scCO
2
assisted machining of Cu-101
The reduction in tool wear observed under scCO
2
application may be an outcome
of improved lubrication, increased heat removal, increase in material hardness and
machinability, or a combination of these factors. For conditions 1 and 3, the tool wear
was seen to be comparable for dry and scCO
2
MWF cases. It should be noted that width
data for the last two channels of dry machining in condition 2 (Fig.5.2(a)) could not be
obtained due to excessive burr formation, and SEM images of cutting tools for condition
4 could not be obtained due to tool breakage during handling.
Feasibility of scCO
2


5.3 BURR FORMATION AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS

Fig 5.3: Burr formation on AISI 304 and Cu-101 with and without scCO
2
MWF for all
machining conditions examined
Figure 5.3 shows a chart of top surface burrs for both stainless steel and copper.
Machining parameters (feed, axial depth of cut and cutting speed) for each condition are
indicated in parentheses next to the condition number, and their values for each material
are shown in Table 4.1. In general, scCO
2
MWF assisted machining gives lower burr
formation and thus cleaner channels as compared to dry machining. The most significant
improvement was seen in conditions 1 and 3 for stainless steel (low feed conditions), and
in condition 4 for copper (high feed and highest material removal rate).
In conditions 1 and 4 for stainless steel with scCO
2
MWF, the tool chipped, thus yielding
two distinct depths of cut as seen in Fig.5.3. Further work will be needed to determine,
whether the chipping was related to the method of applying scCO
2
MWF. The average
surface roughness values are shown in Fig.8.Compared to dry machining, scCO
2
MWF
roughness values are lower by up to 69% in stainless steel and up to 33% in copper. In all
cases, the observed surface roughness with scCO
2
MWF was either equal to or lowers
than under dry conditions. Improvements in surface finish from lower roughness or
Feasibility of scCO
2


reduced burr formation may be attributed to the same factors that are responsible for
lower specific cutting energy and tool wear under application of scCO
2
MWF.
5.4 TAPPING TORQUE EFFICIENCY TEST

Fig5.4: Tapping torque efficiency for straight oil, water-, and scCO
2
-based MWFs
The data reveal that soybean oil is a better lubricant than mineral oil in the tap-
ping process, either in straight oil or emulsified form, as previously observed. In addition,
the data support the well-documented and intuitive fact that straight oils perform better in
tapping processes than semi-synthetic emulsions.
It is noteworthy that scCO
2
(without oil) had a statistically indistinguishable
performance relative to the mineral oil micro emulsion (0.75% w/w oil-in-water). In over
ten years of testing MWF formulation using the tapping torque test, a performance of
125% relative to the reference fluid has never before been observed. It was observed that
the soybean oil + scCO
2
system performs on average approximately 10% better than
straight soybean oil, 20% better than the soybean oil semi-synthetic emulsion, and 30%
better than straight scCO
2
. This unprecedented result confirms that the combination of
soybean oil and scCO
2
performs better than either can alone. The performance of straight
soybean oil can be improved by using scCO
2
for enhanced delivery of chilled, high
velocity, oil particles. Using scCO
2
also delivers more efficient quantities of oil to the
Feasibility of scCO
2


cutting zone, representing less than 20% the amount of oil delivered during a typical
tapping operation.

Fig 5.5: Magnified Images of Chip Surfaces Cut from 1018 Cold Rolled Steel During
Tapping Using (a) scCO
2
Alone; (b) Mineral Oil in H2O; (c) Straight Mineral Oil;
(d)Soybean Oil in H2O; (e) Soybean Oil Alone; and (f) Soybean Oil in scCO
2

Feasibility of scCO
2


CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION
We investigated the feasibility of using super critical carbon dioxide (scCO
2
)
based metalworking fluids (MWFs) in the micromilling of stainless steel and copper and
in tapping operation. Tapping torque efficiency test reveals that a mixture of scCO
2
and
soybean oil gives maximum tapping torque efficiency Burr formation and surface
roughness analyses showed that scCO
2
MWFs are effective in improving part quality
under most cutting conditions. Average specific cutting energies were also typically
observed to be lower when using scCO
2
MWF relative to dry conditions. In addition, it
was observed that the application of scCO
2
MWF reduces tool wear for high feed rate
conditions during machining of Cu 101. Based on these results it can be concluded that
scCO
2
MWFs can be a productive asset to micromachining, and that further research is
warranted into its performance relative to other MWFs, as well as into the relative
importance of cooling versus lubrication mechanisms in achieving better micro
machinability.

Feasibility of scCO
2


REFERENCES
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S. D. Spear Department of Mechanical Engineering, MI 48109-2122B. A. Gozen B.
Bediz O. B. Ozdoganlar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon
University,PA 15213-3815 asme 2013.
2. Current advances in sustainable Metalworking Fluids research by Steven J. Skerlos
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, USA. asme 2012
3. carbon dioxide based metalworking fluids by Andres F. Clarens Environmental
Engineering and Natural Resources and Environment)in The University of Michigan
asme 2008.
4. Vegetable Oil-Based Metal Working Fluids-A Review Vaibhav Koushik A.V, Narendra
Shetty. S & Ramprasad.C Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Atria Institute of
Technology
5. Super Critical Carbon Dioxide Metal Working Fluid Delivery System (Steve E. Hecker,
Daniel R. Leader, Daniel S. Merz, and David P. Powers ME450, Team 26 Winter 2008
sSection Instructor: Steve S kerlos Department of Mechanical Engineering University of
Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125 ).
6. Application of vegetable oil-based metalworking fluids in machining ferrousmetalsA
review ( S.A. Lawal , I.A. Choudhurya Y. Nukmana) Department of Engineering Design
and Manufacture, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
7. INTEGRATED SUPERCRITICAL FLUID EXTRACTION AND BIOPROCESSING
(Owen Catchpole, Stephen Tallon, Peter Dyer, Fernando Montanes, Teresa Moreno,
Erika Vagi, Wayne Eltringham and Jagan Billakanti ) Integrated Bioactive Technologies,
Industrial Research Limited, Lower Hutt, New Zealand

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