A lot or Alot?

A lot should be written as two words. Although a lot is used informally to mean "a large number" or "many," avoid
using a lot in formal writing.
Example: The crook had many not a lot of! chances to rob the stranger.
A or An?
""se a before a consonant sound# use an before a vowel sound. $efore a letter or an acronym or before numerals,
choose a or an according to the way the letter or numeral is pronounced: an %&A directive, a ".'. resolution, a
().** bill" +Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage,. -lease note: This is the basic rule. %or a more
thorough presentation of the complexities of using a or an, see the source cited here.
Accept or Except?
Accept is a verb meaning "to receive" or "to approve."
Example: ". accept your offer of the book."
Except is a preposition meaning "excluding" or "leaving out."
Example: "/e liked everything on the plate except the liver."
Except can also be a verb meaning "to leave out" or "to exclude."
Example: "/e excepted all 0orvettes from his list of favorite cars."
Acronyms and Initialisms?
"Acronyms are formed by combining the first letter or letters of several words# they are pronounced as words and
written without periods" +Alred, $rusaw, and 1liu, The Business Writer's Handbook,.
Examples: radar +radio detecting and ranging,, 01$12 +0ommon $usiness31riented 2anguage,, scuba +self3
contained underwater breathing apparatus,.
"Initialisms are formed by combining the initial letter of each word in a multiword term# they are pronounced as
separate letters" +Alred Brusa! and "liu,.
Examples: e.o.m. +end of month,, c.o.d. +cash on delivery,, p.m. +post meridian,.
"sage guidelines:
"Except for commonly used abbreviations +".4., a.m.,, spell out a term to be abbreviated the first time it is
used, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, the abbreviation may be used alone.
.n long documents, repeat the full term in parentheses after the abbreviation at regular intervals to remind
readers of the abbreviation5s meaning, as in "6emember to submit the 0A6 +0apital Appropriations
6e7uest, by. . . ."
&o not add an additional period at the end of a sentence that ends with an abbreviation +example: The
official name of the company is &ata$ase, .nc.,.
8rite acronyms in capital letters without periods. The only exceptions are acronyms that have become
accepted as common nouns, which are written in lowercase letters, such as scuba +self3contained underwater
breathing apparatus,.
9enerally, use periods for lowercase initialisms +a.k.a., e.d.p., p.m., but not for uppercase ones +9&-, .6A,
"%1,. Exceptions include geographic names +".4., ".:., E."., and formal expressions of academic degrees
+$.A., ;.$.A., -h.&.,.
%orm the plural of an acronym or initialism by adding a lowercase s. &o not use an apostrophe +0A6s,
&<&s,.
&o not follow an abbreviation with a word that repeats the final term in the abbreviation +AT; location not AT;
machine location," +Alred Brusa! and "liu,.
Active or Passive Verbs?
"The voice of a verb indicates the strength of the sub=ect in a sentence. .t tells us whether that sub=ect takes action
or receives action. There are two possible voices: active and passive. .n the active voice, the stronger form, the
sub=ect of the sentence takes the action of the verb.
1ur army won the battle.
The sub=ect army is strong since it takes action. This sentence uses the active voice. .n the passive voice, the
weaker form, the sub=ect is acted upon.
The battle was won by our army.
.n this sentence, the sub=ect battle is weak because it receives the action of the army. .t takes no action of its own
>a battle cannot win itself > and so the sentence uses the passive voice" +4trumpf and &ouglas, The #rammar
Bible ?@,.
Affect or Effect?
"Affect is a verb meaning 5to influence.5 Effect is a noun meaning a result.5 ;ore rarely, effect is a verb meaning 5to
cause something to happen.5
Examples:! 0%0s may affect the deterioration of the oAone layer.
The effect of that deterioration on global warming is uncertain.
2awmakers need to effect changes in public attitudes toward our environment" +Anson, 4chwegler, and ;uth, The
$ongman Writer's %om&anion BC),.
All Ready or Already?
All ready means "fully prepared."
Example: "The scouts were all ready for the test."
Already means "previously."
Example: "The children were already in the pool when the guests arrived."
Allusion or Illusion?
"An allusion is an indirect reference.
Example:! &id you catch my allusion to 4hakespeareD
An illusion is a misconception or false impression.
Example:! ;irrors give the room an illusion of depth" +/acker, A Writer's 'eference EFB,.
Among or Amongst?
$oth are correct and mean the same, but among is more common.
Among or Between?
"8hen only two are involved, the answer is easy: between.
Example:! ;iss $ennet sensed a barrier between her and ;r. &arcy.
8ith three or more, you have a choice. "se between if you5re thinking of the individuals and their relations with
one another.
Example:! There were several embarrassing exchanges between 2ydia, :itty, and Gane.
"se among if you5re thinking of the group.
Example:! &arcy5s arrival created a stir among the guests" +150onnor, Woe (s (,.
Amount or Number?
Amount should be used to refer to 7uantities that cannot be counted or cannot be expressed in terms of a single
number.
Example: "6epairing the Edsel took a great amount of work."
Number is used for 7uantities that can be counted.
Example: "A large number of deer ate the corn."
And or But to begin a sentence?
"Everybody agrees that it5s all right to begin a sentence with and, and nearly everybody admits to having been
taught at some past time that the practice was wrong" +Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage,. .n
addition, "many of us were taught that no sentence should begin with 5but. 5 .f that5s what you learned, unlearn it >
there is no stronger word at the start. .t announces total contrast with what has gone before, and the reader is primed
for the change" +8illiam Hinsser 7td. in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage,. "sing and or but at the
beginning of a sentence makes the tone of the writing more informal > like a conversation. 0are needs to be taken
to ensure a sentence beginning with and or but doesn5t become a sentence fragment +%ogarty, #rammar #irl's
)uick and Dirty Ti&s for Better Writing @*,.
Annotated Bibliograpy?
"An annotated bibliography is =ust like a regular bibliography . . .! except that each entry adds a description or
summary of the work5s aim, purpose, or contents. Annotations are usually a paragraph or two . . . .! Annotated
bibliographies are commonly assigned to help students survey and report on a body of scholarship or prepare for a
longer research paper.
Elements of an annotated bibliography
.t briefly introduces the topic of the bibliography and perhaps the kinds of works it covers.
.t refers accurately to the literature cited and follows the expected documentation style . . . .!
.t follows each reference with a clear description or summary, briefly but accurately representing the work.
.t arranges entries alphabetically, sometimes grouped in sections by date or by general topic or focus"
+Anson, 4chwegler, and ;uth, The $ongman Writer's %om&anion IC,.
Apostropes?
"The apostrophe has four main uses:
E. To show the omission of numbers in such expressions as %hristmas '*+ or letters in expressions that imitate
certain patterns of speech > finger lickin' good.
F. To form contractions +('m !e',e can't they'll,.
?. To form plurals of single numbers and letters: 5;ary brought home a report card with two A5s and two $5s.5
+The apostrophe is not needed when letters or numbers appear in groups of two or more: the -*./s the
AB%s the rule of 0+s t!o 1h2D2s2,
B. To form possessives" +2ederer and &owis, 3lee&ing Dogs Don't $ay E)J,.
.tem ? above can also be stated this way: "9et this straight once and for all: when the "s" is added to a word simply
to make it a plural, no apostrophe is used +except in expressions where letters or numerals are treated like words,
like 5mind your -5s and K5s and 5learn your A$05s5," +$rians, %ommon Errors in English Usage E),. As you can tell
from the explanation on how to form the plural of AB% in number ? above and in this paragraph, not all experts
agree. 8hat should you doD 4elect a style and be consistent in using it.
%orming possessives is the most complicated use of the apostrophe. Again, not all experts agree. Lou know what to
do: 4elect a style and be consistent in using it. 6ichard 2ederer and 6ichard &owis give the following information
on forming possessives:
"To form the &ossessi,e of a singular noun add an a&ostro&he and an s e,en if the noun ends in s."
Example: "/e married the boss5s daughter."
"To form the &ossessi,e of a &lural noun add an a&ostro&he only e4ce&t for nouns such as men and people
that ha,e irregular &lurals and are treated as if they !ere singular !hen the &ossessi,es are formed2"
Example: "$oston ;arket advertises 5'ewM :id5s ;eal. 4tarting at (E.II.5 . . .! 8hen more than one child is
involved, the possessive is not kid's. .t5s kids'2 "
"Do not use an a&ostro&he to form the &ossessi,e of &ersonal &ronouns e4ce&t for the &ronoun one."
Example: "(t is really &leasant to take one's time !hen &laying golf2" "This house is ours."
"When t!o or more !ords taken as a unit sho! 5oint &ossession use the &ossessi,e form !ith the last
only."
Example: "$et's all ride in 6ohn and 1edro's car." +3lee&ing Dogs Don't 2ay E)J3E)I,
As per!!!?
"8e find as per used in two ways. .t is still in use in business correspondence and in straightforward but somewhat
stiff prose . . . .! Lour decision to use as per or not would seem to be a matter of personal choice and taste# the
tonal needs of a particular passage may make it useful at times even if you avoid it ordinarily" +Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary of English Usage,.
Assume or Presume?
"They5re not identical. Assume is closer to support, or 5take for granted5# the much stronger presume is closer to
believe, dare, or 5take too much for granted.5
Example:! . can only assume you are =oking when you presume to call yourself a plumberM" +150onnor, Woe (s (
IE,.
Bad or Badly?
8e use bad +an ad=ective, with linking verbs such as is seems feels looks or a&&ears.
Example: ". feel bad that . missed the concern."
8e use the adverb badly with action verbs.
Example: "/e smells badly." This sentence means he can5t detect the smell of his girlfriend5s perfume, but "/e
smells bad" means he needs to shower and use deodorant.
Between you and I or Between you and me?
"$ecause the pronouns following between are ob=ects of the preposition, the correct phrase is between you and
me. Let the phrasing between you and I is appallingly common" +9arner, The "4ford Dictionary of American
Usage and 3tyle,.
Bring and "a#e?
""se bring when an ob=ect is being transported toward you, take when it is being moved away.
Examples:! 5-lease bring me a glass of water. -lease take these flowers to ;r. 4cott5" +/acker, A Writer's
'eference EFJ,.
$an I or %ay I?
"Can implies ability# may implies permission or uncertainty.
Example:! "$art can drive now, but his parents may not lend him their new car5" +Anson, 4chwegler, ;uth, The
$ongman Writer's %om&anion BCC,.
$annot or $an Not?
"$oth spellings are acceptable, but cannot is more fre7uent in current use" +Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of
English Usage,.
$apitali&ation?
%or a list of all the rules about capitalization, follow these instructions:
E. 9o to the top of this page and use the "click here" feature to learn more.
F. 4croll down and click on "capitaliAation and spelling."
?. 0lick on "capitals," and you5ll come to the rules of capitaliAation.
The two rules for capitaliAation listed below are asked most often.
$apitali&ation in "itles?
".n titles, capitaliAe the first word, the last word, and all words in between except articles +a an the,, prepositions
under five letters +in of to,, and coordinating con=unctions +and but,. These rules apply to titles of long, short, and
partial works as well as your own papers" +Anson, 4chwegler, and ;uth. The $ongman Writer's %om&anion .7/,.
$apitali&ation of "itles of Persons?
"0apitaliAe titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when used alone.
Examples:! &istrict Attorney ;arshall was reprimanded for badgering the witness. The district attorney was
elected for a two3year term.
"sage varies when the title of an important public figure is used alone.
Example:! The &resident or 1resident! vetoed the bill" +/acker, A Writer's 'eference ?*),.
$ite or 'ite?
Cite is a verb meaning "to 7uote for purposes of example, authority, or proof."
Example: "/e cites many experts in his article."
Site is usually used as a noun meaning "place or scene."
Example: "0heck the AA6- website," and "8e erected the wall on the site of our future home."
$olon (se?
"A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause. The colon has more effect than
the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon, and more formality than the dash. .t usually follows an
independent clause and should not separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its ob=ect. . . .
Example:! Lour dedicated whittler re7uires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch.
Goin two independent clauses with a colon if the second interprets or amplifies the first.
Example:! $ut even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the
undertaker5s foul parlor, no wreath or spray.
A colon may introduce a 7uotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause.
Example:! The s7ualor of the streets reminded her of a line from 1scar 8ilde: 58e are all in the gutter, but some of
us are looking at the stars.5
The colon also has certain functions of form: to follow the salutation of a formal letter, to separate hour from
minute in a notation of time, and to separate the title of a work from its subtitle or a $ible chapter from a verse.
Examples:! &ear ;r. ;ontague:
departs at E*:B@ -.;.
1ractical %alligra&hy8 An (ntroduction to (talic 3cri&t
'ehemiah EE:C" +4trunk and 8hite, The Elements of 3tyle, C3@,.
$ommas and Periods Inside )uotation %ar#s?
"-lace periods and commas inside 7uotation marks.
Example:! "This is a stick3up," said the well3dressed young couple. "8e want all your money."
This rule applies to single 7uotation marks as well as double 7uotation marks. .t also applies to all uses of 7uotation
marks: for 7uoted material, for titles of works, and for words used as words.
Exception: .n the ;odern 2anguage Association5s style of parenthetical in3text citations . . ., the period follows the
citation in parentheses.
Example:! Games ;. ;c-herson comments, approvingly, that the 8higs were not averse to extending the blessings
of American liberty, even to ;exicans and .ndians" +B@,. +/acker, A Writer's 'eference F@),
$ommas?
These are the basic comma rules. .f you learn them or keep a copy of them with you whenever you write, you will
solve I@N of your comma problems.
E, -ut a comma before and but for or nor so and yet when they connect two independent clauses +sentences that
can stand alone,.
Example: "4he hit the shot, and he cheered for her."
F, 4eparate three or more items in a series with a comma.
Example: "8e want to protect cats, dogs, and horses."
?, -ut a comma after an introductory word group.
Example: "$ecause . was hungry, . bought a hamburger."
B, 4et off interrupters with pairs of commas, pairs of parentheses, or pairs of dashes.
Examples: "The hamburger, hot and =uicy, tasted great."
"The hamburger > which was hot and =uicy > tasted great."
"The hamburger +made from ground beef and tofu, tasted great."
), -ut commas around the name of a person or group spoken to.
Example: ". hope, 0arlene, that you5re going with me."
J, -ut commas around an expression that interrupts the flow of the sentence.
Example: "8e took our fishing rods, therefore, and got into the boat."
$omplements?
"2inking verbs link the sub=ect to a subect complement, a word or word group that completes the meaning of the
sub=ect by renaming or describing it. .f the subect complement renames the sub=ect, it is a noun or noun
e7uivalent +sometimes call a predicate noun,.
Example:! The handwriting on the wall s! may be v! a forgery sc!.
.f the subect complement describes the sub=ect, it is an ad=ective or ad=ective e7uivalent +sometimes called a
&redicate ad5ecti,e,.
Example:! 2ove s! is v! blind sc!." +/acker, A Writer's 'eference @EB,.
"8hen a pronoun is used as a subect complement +a word following a linking verb,, your ear may mislead you,
since the incorrect form is fre7uently heard in casual speech. . . .
Example:! &uring the 2indbergh trial, $runo /auptmann repeatedly denied that the kidnapper was he not him!.
.f kidna&&er !as he seems too stilted, rewrite the sentence: During the $indbergh trial Bruno Hau&tmann
re&eatedly denied that he !as the kidna&&er."+/acker, The Bedford Handbook F@C,.
$omprise?
"'othing is ever 5comprised of5 something. To com&rise means 5to contain or to embrace5:
The 5ury com&rises se,en !omen and fi,e men2
All of the following mean the same thing:
The 5ury is com&osed of se,en !omen and fi,e men2
The 5ury is made u& of se,en !omen and fi,e men2
3e,en !omen and fi,e men constitute the 5ury2
3e,en !omen and fi,e men make u& the 5ury2
Even when used correctly, in my humble opinion, com&rise and constitute tend to sound stilted. 4ome form of is
made u& of sounds better in most cases." +8alsh, $a&sing into a %omma EFF3EF?,.
$ontinually or $ontinuously?
"Les, there is a slight difference, although most people +and even many dictionaries, treat them the same.
Continually means repeatedly, with breaks in between. Continuously means without interruption, in an unbroken
stream. Heidi has to !ind the cuckoo clock continually to kee& it running continuously2 +.f it5s important to
emphasiAe the distinction, it5s probably better to use &eriodically or intermittently instead of continually to describe
something that starts and stops., The same distinction, by the way, applies to continual and continuous, the
ad=ective forms" +150onner, Woe (s ( I)3IJ,.
$oordinate or $umulative Ad*ectives?
"8hen two or more ad=ectives each modify a noun separately, they are coordinate.
Example:! 6oberto is a !arm gentle affectionate father.
Ad=ectives are coordinate if they can be =oined with and +warm and gentle and affectionate,.
Two or more ad=ectives that do not modify the noun separately are cumulative.
Example:! Three large gray shapes moved slowly toward us." /acker, A Writer's 'eference FJF,.
+ata or +atum?
".n much informal writing, data is considered a collective singular noun. .n formal scientific and scholarly writing,
however, data is generally used as a plural, with datum as the singular form. $ase your decision on whether your
readers should consider the data as a single collection or as a group of individual facts. 8hatever you decide, be
sure that your pronouns and verbs agree in number with the selected usage" +Alred, $rusaw, and 1liu, The
Technical Writer's %om&anion FI*3FIE,.
+ifferent ,rom or +ifferent "an?
"!ifferent from is preferred to different than. . remember this by remembering that different has two f's and only
one t, so the best choice between than and from is the one that starts with an f" +%ogarty, #rammar #irl's )uick and
Dirty Ti&s FF,.
+isinterested or (ninterested?
"They5re not the same. !isinterested means impartial or neutral# uninterested means bored or lacking interest. A
good um&ire should be disinterested said %asey but certainly not uninterested" +150onner, Woe (s ( I@,.
+ocumenting -nline 'ources?
8hat documentation style are you re7uired to useD 1nce this is determined, click on &r. 9rammar5s &ocumentation
6esources, and go to the appropriate website for your documentation style.
.nternet sources come in two forms: articles that have been previously published in the print media +Time
9e!s!eek %hicago Tribune# scholarly =ournals# books# etc., and articles or websites that have life only on the
8orld 8ide 8eb +888,.
4ince the 888 is itself a work in progress, it is constantly changing as are the systems which attempt to document
material found there. -erhaps the easiest source of information concerning each system of documentation is a book
entitled "nline: A 'eference #uide to Using (nternet 3ources by Andrew /arnack and Eugene :leppinger +can be
found on &r. 9rammar5s &ocumentation 6esources,.
+one or ,inised?
"Today both done and finished are 4tandard, and you may use whichever one meets the style re7uirements of your
speech or writing" +8ilson, The %olumbia #uide to 3tandard American English,.
+ran# or +run#?
"8hen in doubt about the standard English forms of irregular verbs, . . .! look up the base form of the verb in the
dictionary, which also lists any irregular forms. +.f no additional forms are listed in the dictionary, the verb is
regular, not irregular. . . .!
$ase %orm: drink
-ast Tense: drank
-ast -articiple: drunk" +/acker, The Bedford Handbook ?EF3?E?,.
+ue to or -wing to?
"!ue to is as impeccable grammatically as owing to, which is fre7uently recommended as a substitute for it. There
has never been a grammatical ground for ob=ection . . . .! There is no solid reason to avoid using due to"
+Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage,.
Eac is or Eac are?
"8hen each is used as a sub=ect, it takes a singular verb or pronoun.
Example:! Each of the reports is to be submitted ten weeks after it is assigned.
8hen each occurs after a plural sub=ect with which it is in apposition, it takes a plural verb or pronoun.
Example:! The reports each ha,e white embossed titles on their covers." +Alred, $rusaw, and 1liu, The Technical
Writer's %om&anion FIE,.
eart or Eart?
8hen you mean dirt, it5s earth. 8hen you mean the third planet from the sun, it5s Earth.
Etymology ./ord -rigin0?
"The origin and history of word or words, or the study of word origins" +%ambridge Dictionary of American
English;2 &r. 9rammar5s 8ord 1rigins page has a list of online sites and a list of books about etymologies +word
origins,.
Everybody and Everyone?
Everybody and everyone are interchangeable.
Anyone and anybody are also interchangeable.
Everyone1Everybody is1are appy?
"8hat5s wrong with saying, Are e,erybody ha&&yD After all, when you use the word e,erybody, you5re thinking of a
crowd, rightD Then why do we say, (s e,erybody ha&&yD .n other words, =ust how many people do we mean when
we say e,erybody or e,eryoneD
The answer is one. 1dd as it may seem, these pronouns are singular. 8e often use them when talking about whole
gangs of people, but we treat them grammatically as individual gang members. The result is that each takes a
singular verb: E,erybody loves a lo,er but not e,erybody is one" +150onner, Who (s ( E),.
,arter or ,urter?
"se farther to refer to physical distances.
Example: .ndiana is farther than . thought.
"urther refers to 7uantity, time, or degree.
Example: They progressed further on their research.
,ewer or 2ess?
"ewer is an ad=ective used to refer to people or items that can be counted.
Example: $ecause fewer cars showed up for the show, we re7uired fewer categories.
#ess is used to refer to amounts that cannot be counted.
Example: The small dogs re7uired less space and less food than the large dogs.
3ood or /ell?
"$ood is the ad=ective# well is the adverb. Lou do something well, but you give someone something good. The
exception is verbs of sensation in phrases such as "the pie smells good5 or 5. feel good.5 &espite the arguments of
nigglers, this is standard usage. 4aying 5the pie smells well5 would imply that the pastry in 7uestion had a nose.
4imilarly, 5. feel well5 is also acceptable, especially when discussing health# but it is not the only correct usage"
+$rians, %ommon Errors in English Usage,.
4ave got or 4ave gotten?
"8hen we say, <abio has got three Armani suits, we mean he has them. 8hen we say, <abio has gotten three
Armani suits, we mean he5s ac7uired or obtained them. .t5s a useful distinction" +150onner, Who (s ( EIE,.
4opefully?
"%opefully is a sentence adverb that has raised the hackles of some conservatives, but probably its overuse has
made most of the trouble# it had been a perfectly good sentence adverb for generations before the recent ob=ections
were heard. Those who don5t like it usually urge that ( ho&e that or (t is ho&ed that be used instead, but hopefully is
in fact 4tandard" +8ilson, The %olumbia #uide to 3tandard American English,.
4ypenation?
"0onsult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word. The dictionary will tell you whether to treat a
compound word as a hyphenated compound +!ater-re&ellent,, one word +!ater&roof ,, or two words +!ater table,.
.f the compound word is not in the dictionary, treat it as two words" +/acker, A Writer's 'eference ?**,.
The following rules are not all inclusive, but they are the most common uses of hyphenation. 0onsult a writing
manual for a more extensive explanation.
""se a hyphen to connect two or more words functioning together as an ad=ective before a noun.
Examples:! ;rs. &ouglas gave Toshiko a seashell and some newspaper3wrapped fish to take home to her mother.
6icha 9upta is not yet a well3known candidate.
9enerally, do not use a hyphen when such compounds follow the noun.
Example:! After our television campaign, 6icha 9upta will be well known.
&o not use a hyphen to connect 3ly adverbs to the words they modify.
Example:! A slowly moving truck tied up traffic.
'ote: .n a series, hyphens are suspended.
Example:! &o you prefer first3, second3, or third3class ticketsD
/yphenate the written form of fractions and of compound numbers from twenty3one to ninety3nine.
Example:! 1ne3fourth of my salary goes to pay my child care expenses.
"se a hyphen with the prefixes all3, e43, and self3 and with the suffix 3elect.
Examples:! The charity is funneling more money into self3help pro=ects.
Anne :ing is our club5s president3elect.
A hyphen is used in some words to avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple letters. 8ithout the
hyphen, there would be no way to distinguish between words such as re-creation and recreation.
Examples:! $icycling in the city is my favorite form of recreation.
The film was praised for its astonishing re3creation of nineteenth3century 2ondon.
. . . .!
.f a word must be divided at the end of a line, divide it correctly " +/acker, A Writer's 'eference ?**3?*F,. 0onsult
a dictionary if you are unsure as to where a word should be divided.
5I5 before 5E5 except after 5$5?
8e have all been taught the rule, but 6ichard 2ederer has compiled a list of EBB exceptions in his book Ad,entures
of a =erbifore. 8hen in doubt about the spelling of a word, go to a dictionary.
.I!e!0 or .E!g!0?
"-roperly used, each of these is 4tandard. ..e. abbreviates 2atin id est, 5that is5# use it when you wish to repeat in
different words what you5ve =ust finished saying: .5m strongly opposed# i.e., .5m determined not to cooperate. E.g.
abbreviates the 2atin tag e4em&li gratia, 5for the sake of example, for example.5 Eat foods containing a lot of fiber,
e.g., fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.! -eople sometimes say the names of the letters i and e or e and g instead
of saying the English that is or for example, but the abbreviations aren5t much shorter, and most of us would prefer
the English words in speech, no matter how familiar the 2atin abbreviations are in writing....;ost editors put them
in italics# all re7uire a comma after the second period +The 0olumbia 9uide to 4tandard American English EJ),.
Idiom?
"Idioms are phrases that don5t mean what they literally say, but have meaning to native speakers. %or example, the
phrase under the !eather is known by most native English speakers to mean that someone isn5t feeling well, but if
you weren5t a native English speaker, you would probably have no idea what under the !eather means by =ust
looking at the words" +%ogarty, #rammar #irl's )uick and Dirty Ti&s )),.
If or /eter?
".t5s good practice to distinguish between these words. "se if for a conditional idea, whether for an alternative or
possibility. Thus, $et me kno! if you'll be coming means that . want to hear from you only if you5re coming. $ut
$et me kno! whether you'll be coming means that . want to hear from you about your plans one way or the other"
+9arner, The "4ford Dictionary of American Usage and 3tyle;2
Imply or Infer?
".f you imply something, you hint or suggest it.
Example:! /er email im&lied that the pro=ect would be delayed.
.f you infer something, you reach a conclusion on the basis of evidence.
Example:! The manager inferred from the email that the pro=ect would be delayed" +Alred, $rusaw, and 1liu, The
Technical Writer's %om&anion FIB,.
In regard.s0 to?
"The use of the plural regards in the phrases in regards to and with regards to is incorrect. 4ince each phrase
shows its speaker regarding =ust one issue, the regard is singular: in regard to and with regard to.
Examples:! . am calling in regard to your memo.
&ith regard to our meeting, . cannot attend." +4trumpf and &ouglas, The #rammar Bible FF*,.
Independent vs +ependent $lauses?
"An independent clause is a complete sentence# it can stand alone.
Example:! Tattooing was not known in the 8estern world.
A dependent +subordinate, clause is part of a sentence# it cannot stand alone.
Example:! "ntil 0aptain 0ooke returned from his voyage to Tahiti"
+6oAakis, The %om&lete (diot's #uide to #rammar and 3tyle EBF,.
.f the above independent and dependent clauses were put together in a sentence, it would read: "ntil 0aptain
0ooke returned from his voyage to Tahiti, tattooing was not known in the 8estern world.
Intensifiers? really6 really toug?
"-eople are always looking for ways to emphasiAe how really, really special the sub=ect under discussion is. +The
use of 5really5 is one of the weakest and least effective of these., A host of words have been worn down in this
service to near3meaninglessness. .t is good to remember the etymological roots of such words to avoid such
absurdities as 5fantastically realistic,5 5absolutely relative,5 and 5incredibly convincing.5 8hen you are tempted to use
one of these vague intensifiers consider rewriting your prose to explain more precisely and vividly what you mean:
5%red5s cooking was incredibly bad5 could be changed to 58hen . tasted %red5s cooking . almost thought . was back
in the middle3school cafeteria5" +$rians, %ommon Errors in English Usage,.
Into or In to?
"Into is a preposition that has many definitions, but they all generally relate to direction.
1n the other hand, in by itself can be an adverb, preposition, or ad=ective +and to by itself is a preposition or an
adverb,. 4ometimes in and to =ust end up next to each other.
;aybe examples will helpM
/e walked into the room.
+Which direction !as he going> (nto the room2,
8e broke in to the room.
+'Broke in' is a &hrasal ,erb2 What did you break in to> The room2;
+%ogarty, #rammar #irl's )uick and Dirty Ti&s ?B3?),.
Irony6 'arcasm6 or ,acetiousness?
Irony is "the use of words to express something different from and often opposite to their literal meaning."
Sarcasm is "a cutting, often ironic remark intended to wound. " $y contrast, facetiousness is "playfully =ocular#
humorous." +The American Heritage Dictionary of the English $anguage,
It is I or It is me?
".nstead of the old choice between right and wrong we are now choosing a style# it is a choice that is much closer to
the reality of usage than the old one way. . . .! 0learly, both the it is I and it's me patterns are in reputable use and
have been for a considerable time. It is I tends to be used in more formal or more stuffy situations# it's me
predominates in real and fictional speech and in a more relaxed writing style" +Merriam-Webster?s Dictionary of
English Usage,.
It7s er or It7s se?
".n all but the most formal circumstances, it5s 1: to use It is me, (hat's him, It's her, and similar constructions,
instead of the technically correct but stuffier It is I, (hat's he, and It's she" +150onner, Woe (s ( E@J,.
Its or It7s?
This one is simple if you remember that it's is a contraction of it is or it has.
Example: It's a beautiful morning# however, it's been an ugly season.
Its is the possessive form of it.
Example: .t appeared the s7uirrel couldn5t make up its mind whether or not to run across the street.
2ie or 2ay ?
The verb lay means to place or to set down. .t always takes a direct ob=ect, the thing that is placed or set down.
Examples: #ay the magaAine on the table.
. have laid the bike under the tree.
The verb lie means to recline. .t does not take a direct ob=ect.
Examples: . will lie down around noon.
2et5s go lie out on the grass.
2i#e or 'uc as?
"8riters whom we respect disagree on whether there is any significant difference between like and such as. 8ilson
%ollett and Theodore $ernstein say no. Games G. :ilpatrick says yes. 8e come down gingerly on the side of
:ilpatrick. /is argument seems valid: 58hen we are talking of large, indefinite fields of similarity, like properly
may be used. . . . 8hen we are talking about specifically named persons places or things! . . . included in a small
field, we ought to use such as.5 .n 5$ooks like this one can help you write better,5 like means similar to. .n 50ities
such as Atlanta and $irmingham are important to the economy of the 4outheast,5 the intent is to specify those cities
as examples, not merely to put them into a broad category of cities that are important to the economy of the
4outheast" +2ederer and &owis, 3lee&ing Dogs Don't $ay CI,.
2in#ing Verbs?
"#inking verbs link the sub=ect to a sub=ect complement, a word or word group that completes the meaning of the
sub=ect by renaming or describing it.
Example:! The handwriting on the wall may be a forgery.
#inking verbs are usually a form of be: be am is are !as !ere being been. <erbs such as a&&ear become feel
gro! look make &ro,e remain seem smell sound and taste are linking when they are followed by a word group
that names or describes the sub=ect" +/acker, A Writer's 'eference )**,.
2ittler and 2ittlest?
"Although occasionally used, both these forms littler, littlest! are regarded as dialectical or perhaps as =uvenile.
8hen siAe is involved, the better forms are smaller and smallest# when 7uantity or importance is involved, the
better forms are less +sometimes lesser, and least" +$ernstein, The %areful Writer,.
%a*ority is or are?
";any words that mean a group of things > total majority and number, for example > can be singular or plural.
4ometimes they mean the group acting as a whole, sometimes the members of a group.
"As with the other two3faced words, ask yourself whether you are thinking of the whole or the parts. A little hint:
The before the word +the total the ma5ority, is usually a tip3off that it5s singular# while a +a total a number,,
especially when of comes after, usually indicates a plural.
Examples:! The maority is in charge. 4till, a maority of voters are unhappy" +150onner, Woe (s ( FJ,.
%ay or %igt?
"These words occupy different places on a continuum of possibility. )ay expresses likelihood Owe may go to the
partyP, while might expresses a stronger sense of doubt Owe might be able to go if our appointment is cancelledP or
a contrary3to3fact hypothetical Owe might have been able to go if 9eorge hadn5t gotten held upP +9arner, The
"4ford Dictionary of American Usage and 3tyle,.
%e6 %yself6 or I?
".n the old days when people studied traditional grammar, we could simply say, "The first person singular pronoun
is I when it5s a sub=ect and me when it5s an ob=ect,5 but now few people know what that means. . . .! The misuse of
I and myself for me is caused by nervousness about me. . . .! $ut the notion that there is something wrong with me
leads people to overcorrect and avoid it where it is perfectly appropriate. -eople will say, 5The document had to be
signed by both 4usan and I5 when the correct statement would be, 5The document had to be signed by both 4usan
and me.5
Trying even harder to avoid the lowly me, many people will substitute myself as in 5The suspect uttered epithets at
1fficer 152eary and myself.5 )yself is no better than I as an ob=ect. )yself is not a sort of all3purpose intensive
form of me or I . "se myself only when you have used I earlier in the same sentence: 5I am not particularly fond of
goat cheese myself5" +$rians, %ommon Errors in English Usage,.
%id8 or *ust %id?
".n forming compounds, mid* is normally =oined to the following word or element without a space or hyphen:
mid&oint. /owever, if the second element begins with a capital letter, it is separated with a hyphen: mid-May. .t is
always acceptable to separate the elements with a hyphen to prevent possible confusion with another form, as, for
example, to distinguish mid-den +the middle of a den, from the word midden. The ad=ective mid is a separate word,
and as is the case with any ad=ective, it may be =oined to another word with a hyphen when used as a unit modifier:
in the mid 1acific but a mid-1acific (sland" +The American Heritage Dictionary of the English $anguage,.
%rs!1%s!1%iss?
")s+ is widely used in business and public life to address or refer to a woman, especially if her marital status is
either unknown or irrelevant to the context. ;ore traditionally, )iss is used to refer to an unmarried woman, and
)rs+ is used to refer to a married woman. 4ome women may indicate a preference for )s+, )iss, or )rs+, which
you should honor. .f a woman has an academic or professional title, use the appropriate form of address +Doctor
1rofessor %a&tain, instead of )s+, )iss, or )rs+" +Alred, $rusaw, and 1liu, The Technical Writer's %om&anion
FIC,.
None is or None are?
"None has been both singular and plural since 1ld English and still is. . . .! .f in context it seems like a singular to
you, use a singular verb# if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. $oth are acceptable beyond serious criticism"
+Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage,.
Numbers9 /en to spell out and /en to write as numbers?
"4pell out numbers of one or two words or those that begin a sentence. "se figures for numbers that re7uire more
than two words to spell out.
Examples:! .t5s been eight years since . visited -eru.
. counted ECJ &<&s on the shelf.
.f a sentence begins with a number, spell out the number or rewrite the sentence.
Example:! 1ne hundred fifty children in our program need expensive dental treatment.
Exceptions: .n technical and some business writing, figures are preferred even when spellings would be brief, but
usage varies. 8hen in doubt, consult the style guide of the organiAation for which you are writing.
8hen several numbers appear in the same passage, many writers choose consistence rather than strict adherence to
the rule.
8hen one number immediately follows another, spell out one and use figures for the other: three -//-meter e,ents
.@ four-&oster beds.
9enerally figures are acceptable for dates, addresses, percentages, fractions, decimals, scores, statistics and other
numerical results, exact amounts of money, divisions of books and plays, pages, identification numbers, and the
time.
!ates Guly B, ECCJ, )J $0, A& ?*
Addresses CC 2atches 2ane, )EI 8est BFnd 4treet
,ercentages )) percent +or ))N,
"ractions- !ecimals Q, *.*BC
Scores C to ?, FE3E@
Statistics average age ?C, average weight E@*
Surveys B out of )
Exact Amounts of )oney (E*).?C, (E*J,***
!ivisions of .ooks volume ?, chapter B, page E@I
!ivisions of ,lays act ?# scene ? +or act ..., scene iii,
Identification Numbers serial number E*I@@JC)
(ime of !ay B:** p.m., E:?* a.m. +/acker, A Writer's 'eference ?E*3?EE,.
-: or -#ay?
$oth /0 and okay are acceptable in informal writing# however, avoid them in formal writing.
-n or (pon?1In or Into?
/n1upon and in1into are e7ually interchangeable according to the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage.
Parallelism?
",arallelism is the expression of similar or related ideas in similar grammatical form. $esides emphasiAing the
relationships of ideas, parallelism can create intriguing sentence rhythms and highlights."
"1nce you begin a parallel pattern, you need to complete it. .f you mix structures, creating incomplete or faulty
parallelism, your sentences may disappoint readers5 expectations and be hard to read.
;ixed 0onsider swimming if you want an exercise that aids cardiovascular fitness,
de,elo&s overall muscle strength, and &robably !ithout causing in=uries.
-arallel 0onsider swimming if you want an exercise that aids cardiovascular fitness,
de,elo&s overall muscle strength, and causes few in=uries."
+Anson, 4chwegler, and ;uth, The $ongman Writer's %om&anion ?IJ3?IC,
Parentetical +ocumentation?
To obtain the information for your specific documentation style, go to &r. 9rammar5s &ocumentation 6esources
page and click on the appropriate website.
Plurals of Abbreviations6 2etters6 and Numbers?
"'o two authorities seem to agree on how we should form the plurals of abbreviations +#( r&m 'B(,, letters +4 y
A,, and numbers +* -/,. 4hould we had s or 'sD 8here one style maven sees U<"'s, another sees U<"s2 1ne is
nostalgic for the -*@/'s, the other for the -*@/s. This is more a matter of taste and readability than of grammar, and
frankly, we have better things to worry about. %or the sake of consistency and common sense, here5s what .
recommend. To form the plurals of all numbers, letters, and abbreviation +with or without periods and capitals,
simply add 's" +150onner, Woe (s ( ?*,.
Plurals of Proper Names?
"/ere are a few rules that will help the curious pluraliAe proper names. -lease note that, in every case, the spellings
of the proper names should not change except for the addition of -s or -es.
"8ith proper names ending in a sound that blends well with s, simply add -s.
$rown R the $rowns 2indberg R the 2indbergs
Ericson R the Ericsons 4haw R the 4haws
/ogan R the /ogans 8hitlock R the 8hitlocks
"8ith proper nouns ending in sounds that don5t blend well with s, the sibilant sounds, add -es.
0ox R the 0oxes Gones R the Goneses
&ouglas R the &ouglases ;artineA R the ;artineAes
%irch R the %irches 'emetA R the 'emetAes"
+4trumpf and &ouglas, The #rammar Bible E)3EJ,.
Possessive wit a 3erund?
A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun.
Example: %rying is good for you.
8hen a pronoun modifies a gerund or gerund phrase , use the possessive case +my, our, your, hisSherSits, their,.
Example: Bour crying made me sad.
'ouns may also modify gerunds# add -'s to form the possessive case.
Example: The dog's suffering angered me.
Preposition at end?
".f a sentence that ends with a preposition sounds fine and makes sense, by all means, write the sentence. .t is
absolutely anti7uated to forbid ending a sentence with a preposition. /owever, it is always possible to reword the
sentence" +4trumpf and &ouglas, The #rammar Bible FEB3FE),.
Proportional or Proportionate?
$oth are correct and neither is preferred.
Punctuation of +ates?
"-ut a comma between the data and the year, between the day of the week and the date, and after the year when you
give a full date.
Example:! . ordered a laptop on ;ay ?, F**C, that arrived %riday, ;ay E@.
Lou don5t need commas when a date is inverted +) Guly EIC?, or contains only month and year, month and day, or
season and year.
Example:! 8e installed the software after its Gune F**C test.
+Anson, 4chwegler, and ;uth, The $ongman Writer's %om&anion BFI,
)uotation %ar#s and -ter Punctuation
There are three basic rules.
E. All commas and periods should be placed inside the 7uotation marks.
F. All colons and semicolons should be placed outside the 7uotation marks.
?. 2uestion marks and exclamation marks should be placed !ithin the 7uotation marks when they apply
only to the 7uoted material# they should be placed outside when the entire sentence, including the 7uoted
material, is a 7uestion or exclamation.
Reason is because?
"3eason is because is a redundancy. "se reason is that . . . . The reason we recommend 5reason is that5 is that the
grammatical sub=ect, reason, is balanced by a noun clause in the predicate, headed by that" +2ederer and &owis,
3lee&ing Dogs Don't $ay )E,.
Regular and Irregular Verbs?
"A verb is regular when its past tense and past participle are formed by adding -ed or -d to the base form.
Example:! honor, honored, honored.
A verb is irregular when it does not follow the +-ed or -d pattern. .f you are unsure about whether a verb form is
regular or irregular, or what the correct form is, consult . . .! a dictionary. &ictionaries list any irregular forms
under the entry for the base form" +2unsford, The E,eryday Writer F?*,.
'emicolon use?
"A semicolon creates a brief reading pause that can dramatically highlight a close relationship or a contrast. The
semicolon alone can5t specify the relationship the way words like because or ho!e,er can. $e sure, therefore, that
the relationship you are signaling won5t be puAAling to readers."
"Goin two sentences with a semicolon. A semicolon =oins main clauses that can stand alone as complete sentences.
Example:! The demand for paper is at an all3time high# businesses alone consume millions of tons each year."
""se a semicolon with words such as ho!e,er and on the other hand. 8hen you use a semicolon alone to link main
clauses, you ask readers to recogniAe the logical link between the clauses. 8hen you add words like ho!e,er or on
the other hand, you create a different effect on readers by specifying how the clauses relate.
Example:! . like apples# however, . hate pears."
""se a semicolon with a complex series. 8hen items in a series contain commas, readers may have trouble
deciding which commas separate parts of the series and which belong within items. To avoid confusion, put
semicolons between elements in a series when one or more contain other punctuation.
Example:! . interviewed &ebbie 6ios, the attorney# 6honda ;arron, the accountant# and the financial director."
+Anson, 4chwegler, and ;uth, The $ongman Writer's %om&anion B?F3B??,
'et or 'it?
Set is a verb meaning "to put" or "to place."
Example: /e set the urn on the table.
Sit is a verb meaning "to be seated."
Example: /e sat on the couch next to the dog.
'all or /ill?
"&ill has almost entirely replaced shall in American English except in legal documents and in 7uestions like "4hall
we have red wine with the duckD5" +$rians, %ommon Errors in English Usage,
'ic?
".n scholarly writing you should copy 7uotations exactly as they appear in your source, but you must also produce a
paper free of grammatical and mechanical errors. 4o how should you handle a source that contains an errorD 1ne
way is to rephrase the 7uotation in your own words, crediting your source for the idea. /owever, if the 7uotation is
so elo7uent or effective that you decide to include it despite the error, use 4sic5 +an abbreviation of the 2atin sicut,
meaning thus, to indicate that the original source is responsible for the mistake.
Example:! 51ne taste tester reported that the 0arb 0harge energy bar was to 4sic5 dry# she said it had the
consistency of sawdust5 +0isco FF,." +%aigley, The Brief 1enguin Handbook BIJ,
'ingle ;uotation mar#s?
"Single 6uotation marks enclose a 7uotation within a 7uotation. 1pen and close the 7uoted passage with double
7uotation marks, and change any 7uotation marks that appear !ithin the 7uotation to single 7uotation marks.
Example:! $aldwin says, "The title 5The "ses of the $lues5 does not refer to music# . don5t know anything about
music." +2unsford, The E,eryday Writer ??@,
'pacing after concluding mar#s of punctuation?
"ntil recently, there were two spaces after concluding punctuation. .t is now common to use one space after
concluding punctuation. Either one space or two spaces is correct# however, be consistent in whatever spacing you
use.
'plit infinitives?
"Today almost everyone agrees that it is 1: to split infinitives, especially when you would have to change the
meaning of the sentence or go through writing gymnastics to avoid the split." +%ogarty, #rammar #irl's )uick and
Dirty Ti&s )J,
"an I1"an me?
"4ome of the smartest people . know hesitate at the word than when it comes before a pronoun. 8hat goes next, I
or meD he or himD she or herD they or themD
The answer: All of the aboveM This is easier than it sounds. Take I and me as examples, since they5re the pronouns
we use most +egotists that we are,. Either one may be correct after than, depending on the meaning of the sentence.
Tri4ie lo,es s&aghetti more than I means more than ( do2
Tri4ie lo,es s&aghetti more than me means more than she lo,es me."
+150onner, Woe (s ( EF,
"at or /ic or /o?
&o not use which to refer to persons. "se who instead. (hat, though generally used to refer to things, may be used
to refer to a group or class of people.
Examples:! The player who not that or which! made the basket at the buAAer was named ;<-.
The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament +/acker, A Writer's 'eference E?J,.
"e faculty is or "e faculty are?
"aculty is a collective noun. "A collective noun is singular in form yet identifies a group of individuals +audience
mob cre! troo& tribe or herd,. 8hen the group acts as a single unit, choose a singular verb. 8hen group
members act individually, choose a plural verb.
Examples:! "ne 3ingle Unit: The staff is hardworking and well trained.
(ndi,idual Members: The staff have earned the respect of our clients."
+Anson, 4chwegler, and ;uth, The $ongman Writer's %om&anion ?)),.
"en or "an?
(han is used to indicate comparison or degree.
Example: /is drive was longer than mine.
(hen is used to indicate time.
Example: (hen he putted out and won the tournament.
"ru or "roug?
(hrough is acceptable in all forms of writing. (hru, if used at all, should be used only for informal writing.
"o6 "oo6 or "wo?
"(o generally shows direction. (oo means 5also.5 (wo is the number.
Example:! 8e, too, are going to the meeting in two hours." +2unsford, The E,eryday Writer ?E?,.
"oward.s06 ,orward.s06 Bac#ward.s0?
"'o final s +5towards5,, although that5s how they say it in $ritain. 4imilarly, in American English, standard practice
is not to add a final s to for!ard back!ard u&!ard on!ard do!n!ard, and so on.
Example:! 9eorge and :armer were last seen heading toward the buffet." +150onner, Who (s ( EEC3EE@,.
"ransitive verb or Intransitive verb?
"Any verb that re7uires a direct ob=ect is known as a transitive verb.
Example:! . trim the lawn. +The noun la!n receives the action of the verb, the trimming. The verb trim is a
transitive verb.,
Example:! . taught the children. +The noun children receives the action of the verb, the teaching. The verb taught is
also a transitive verb.,
<erbs that do not take ob=ects are intransitive verbs.
Example:! 8e shall run when we get the chance. +'o word receives the action of this verb. Therefore, run is an
intransitive verb.,
Example:! 8e stayed at the 6itA. +'o noun or pronoun receives the action of this verb either. .t is intransitive.,"
+4trumpf and &ouglas, The #rammar Bible CE,.
"ry and or "ry to?
"The phrase try and is collo7uial for try to. . . .!
to
Example:! -lease try and finish the report on time." +Alred, $rusaw, and 1liu, The Business Writer's Handbook,.
(ni;ue or %ore uni;ue?
"The primary meaning of uni6ue is 5one of a kind5# it5s an absolute, so something can5t be more uni7ue than
something else." +%ogarty, #rammar #irl's )uick and Dirty Ti&s JJ,.
/o or /om?
"The words who and whom are both pronouns , . . . and! you use who when you are referring to the sub=ect of a
clause and whom when you are referring to the ob=ect of a clause. . . . A! simple memory trick > we5ll call it the
5him3lich5 maneuver. .t5s as easy as testing your sentence with the word him: if you can hypothetically answer your
7uestion with the word him, you need a whom."
+%ogarty, #rammar #irl's )uick and Dirty Ti&s )*3)E,.
Example:! &hoS&hom do you loveD Lou love him. &hom do you loveD +)E,