Research Methods in

Primary Education

Developed by Nor Aziah Alias
For internal use only

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Research Methods for Primary
School Education

This module is designed to help you grasp
basic research concepts and perform tasks
that will eventually assist you in
developing a research proposal. General
elements of research will be presented
before we focus on the specific context of
primary education research. As mentioned
by researchers such as Rosemary Webb in
her book Researching Primary Education:
Methods and Issues (2010), accessing the
views and experiences of children is
crucial. But unlike adult participants,
children do not respond well to controlled
environment and structured
questionnaires ; they are free spirited and
immensely creative. Thus the research
design and data collection techniques are
rather unique.

Student Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. state what an educational research is
2. state a research problem, research purpose and research questions pertaining
to research in primary education
3. conduct literature search and write a literature review
4. describe qualitative and quantitative research paradigms and approaches
5. describe various quantitative, qualitative and mixed method research designs
6. discuss quantitative and qualitative data analyses and identify relevant analysis
for ones proposed research
7. explain reliability, validity and trustworthiness of research
8. write a complete research proposal that encompasses the research background
and justification, the statement of the problem, research questions/hypotheses,
limitations and significance, concepts and operational definitions, review of
literature and the methodology pertaining to a chosen research within the
context of primary education.

The text by Fraenkel and Wallen is available at :
http://www.scribd.com/doc/83189593/How-to-Design-and-Evaluate-Research-in-Education

There are links to other files in this module. The links should work when clicked. However, if they
dont, please open the files from the module folder.
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Contents of the module
Contents of the module ................................................................................................ 3
Section 1: Introduction to Educational Research ......................................................... 5
What is research? ..................................................................................................... 5
Definition of research .............................................................................................. 6
Scientific approach in research ................................................................................. 7
Characteristics of research ....................................................................................... 7
Why do we conduct research? ................................................................................ 10
The Research Problem ............................................................................................ 11
Finding research problems .................................................................................. 13
Five criteria for choosing a problem ..................................................................... 14
Section 2: Types of Research ...................................................................................... 19
Types of Research ................................................................................................... 19
Qualitative and Quantitative Research ................................................................... 21
Definitions of Qualitative and Quantitative Research ........................................... 21
Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research. ............................... 21
Section 3: Stating the Research Problem and Writing Research Questions ................. 24
Writing the research questions ............................................................................... 29
Research questions in Quantitative and Qualitative Research ............................. 32
Scope and limitations ............................................................................................. 33
CHECKLIST ............................................................................................................ 36
Section 4: Reviewing the literature ............................................................................. 37
What is literature? .................................................................................................. 37
Purposes of the Literature Review ........................................................................... 37
Strategies for searching literature ........................................................................... 38
Taking notes from literature ................................................................................ 38
Conceptual and theoretical framework ................................................................... 42
Section 5: Formulating the Method ............................................................................ 44
Student Learning Outcomes ................................................................................... 44
Introduction to the method chapter ....................................................................... 44
Reviewing Validity, Reliability And Objectivity of Research ...................................... 44
Reliability of the Research ................................................................................... 45
Revisiting Variables ................................................................................................ 46
Measured and categorical variables ..................................................................... 46
Research Designs ................................................................................................... 50
Population and Sampling ........................................................................................ 56
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Probability and Non Probability Sampling ............................................................ 57
Determining sample size ...................................................................................... 62
CHECKLIST ............................................................................................................ 67
Section 6 : Data Collection and Data Analysis ........................................................... 68
Student Learning Outcomes ................................................................................... 68
Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 68
Collecting Quantitative Data ................................................................................ 68
Collecting Qualitative Data .................................................................................. 68
Data Analysis ......................................................................................................... 69
Analyzing quantitative data ................................................................................. 69
Analyzing qualitative data.................................................................................... 74
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 78
CHECKLIST ............................................................................................................ 82































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Section 1: Introduction to Educational Research


Student Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. State what research is
2. Distinguish between non-scientific searching and scientific problem solving
(research).
3. Describe the characteristics of an educational research
4. Describe the basic processes of research
5. Identify the five parts of a traditional study (thesis)
6. Describe the five criteria for choosing a problem (workability, critical mass,
interest, theoretical value, practical value)
7. Identify differences between, and examples of, inductive and deductive kinds of
reasoning

What is research?
I want to buy a new mobile phone. I do a research by looking at pamphlets, asking
friends, and visiting mobile phone outlets.

I am also a university lecturer. I attend a Research Methods course. I then conduct
research on student engagement in online learning. I investigate students view on
how lecturers responses keep them engaged on their learning tasks.

Q. In what ways is the word "research" as used in a course entitled "Research
Methods" different from the kind of research done when looking for the best
mobile phone to buy?

How is my research on student engagement different from the one I did when
buying a new mobile phone?















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Definition of research
What is research?

The word "research" can be confusing because it is frequently used in conversation to
describe a non-scientific searching process. For example, you might say that you
conducted "research" to find the best price for a computer, or maybe you "researched"
the best biryani recipe. In both instances you clearly did not follow a rigorous, scientific
method of inquiry.
Research as defined in several ways including

1. The systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach new conclusions (Merriam Webster)

2. As an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions. (Brigham
Young University)

3. The creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new
and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and
understandings (Australian Higher Education)

4. Any extracurricular activity of an intellectual or professional nature which
extends knowledge, understanding, and appreciation, or facilitates the
extension of knowledge, or contributes something of scholarly value, or
contributes something of practical value to the university or the community
(Open University Malaysia)

Now , what similarity (ies) do you notice in the definitions?

Two things stand out i.e the term systematic and the phrase extension to knowledge.
Research is always associated with a scientific method and seeking to confirm or
understand.

When doing research, one basically
Asks a question
Collects data
Indicates how the data answered the question

In education, we define educational research as












A systematic, and organized effort to investigate and provide
trustworthy information about educational problems, issues and
topics

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Scientific approach in research
We keep mentioning the term scientific. But what do we mean by scientific ?

Remember the science experiments that we used to conduct in the school labs? What
did we do?
What were the components of our lab report?
Remember, we have
1) Purpose of experiment
2) Apparatus
3) Theory
4) Procedures
5) Data/ Results
6) Analysis
7) Conclusion and discussion

These are basically the things we do when we approach research in a scientific way.
Scientific problem solving involves answering four questions. The answers to these
questions comprise the typical four chapters in a thesis.

Q. What were these four questions - guess if you don't know
o What was the problem? (Introduction)
o How was the problem studied? (Methods)
o What did you find? (Results)
o What do the findings mean? (Discussion)

These four questions constitute a logical problem solving approach and should be your
guide when designing and conducting research.

Characteristics of research
1. Systematic - research begins with research question, the identification and
labeling of variables followed by the design of research that is required to
answer the research questions. Data are collected and related to variables to
permit evaluation of the problem.
Identification and labeling of variables /constructs
Design of research
Collection of data
Analysis of data
Evaluation of the problem

2. Logical - as you can see the procedures follow a logical pattern that permits the
results to be evaluated.

3. Empirical observable evidence /data (in some form e.g. numbers, statements,
scores, etc.) are collected on which to base decisions. Your decisions are not
based on guesswork or intuition but on solid evidence.

4. Reductive - scientific research takes many individual events (in the form of
data) and uses them to establish more general relationships. Lots of data is
"reduced" to specific conclusions. For example, if everytime you enter your
statistic class, your palms become sweaty, your head starts pounding, your
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pulse and heart rate increases, your blood pressure goes up, we can say these
findings might be "reduced" to the conclusion that you are experiencing Stats
anxiety!

When we collect data from many subjects we also reduce it to drawn common
conclusions about the group as a whole.

Do you know the difference between deductive and inductive?






5. Replicable - if you've followed the preceding steps and if you have recorded what
you've done it should be possible for another person to replicate your study.
Replication of studies is often performed to test the findings of original research
especially if the findings are construed as controversial.
a. Knowledge can be tested over and over again
6. Published/reported and all claims are open to questions


Now, list the characteristics of research to help you remember them.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

So, did you manage to find out the difference between inductive and deductive?

Inductive : You induce. You dont know much, you collect data to see the pattern,
you have enough data, you establish a theory

Deductive : You deduce. You know a theory about something, you hypothesize, you
collect data to test your hypothesis and confirm your theory






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The following description is adopted from a web based textbook by William Trochim
The Research Methods Knowledge Base . Read it and try to understand the difference.


Inductive and deductive reasoning
Finding research problems also involves two kinds of reasoning - inductive and
deductive.
In other words you will probably find yourself thinking about problems from one of the
two basic approaches.
Suppose, for example, you are a teacher and notice that some of your Malay
students seem to be more creative than their peers of different races. You might
hypothesize that Malays are more creative. You design a session to test this
hypothesis and based on your results you develop a theory to explain your
findings.
Is this an example of inductive or deductive reasoning? Did you begin with the
observation of events and develop a theory or begin with a theory and test it through
observations of specific events?
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Suppose you read an interesting article in a psychology journal in which the
author theorizes that intelligence is related to physical fitness. You decide to
test this theory through a carefully designed experiment. Is this an example of
inductive or deductive reasoning?
In any study both types of reasoning are used typically in some sort of feedback loop.
deduction - proceeds from the general to the particular
induction - proceeds from the specific to the general
deduction - involves hypothesis development
induction - involves theory building
TASK: Watch this video
Think of a possible research related to this footage. Be prepared to distinguish
between deductive and inductive types of reasoning using the research you are
thinking of conducting.
Write down your ideas







Why do we conduct research?
As a teacher, what may lead you to do research?
You may think of other importance but the main reasons we get involved in research
may be:

Reason 1: Research adds knowledge and understanding of educational issues
Addresses gaps in knowledge
Expands knowledge
Adds voices of individuals to knowledge
Reason 2: Research helps improve practice and solve problems
Educators gain new ideas
Educators gain new insight into methods
Educators gain new insight into students
Reason 3: Research informs policy debates
Research helps people weigh different perspectives on issues
Research helps people make informed decisions regarding policy
Now, refer to your research idea will it inform policy? Solve a practical problem?
Enhance understanding on an issue?


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The Research Problem
From where do problems come?
Problems are anywhere and everywhere.

Consider this class and the goal I would like to achieve which is to provide the best
possible learning experience.
1. I could teach it many ways. I could give three hour lectures, I could lecture a bit
then give some practical assignments, and I could write a self-study guide and
tell you to follow the guide and see me when something is unclear. Which would
be the most effective from the viewpoint of your learning? I could guess or I
could design a research study to test the effectiveness of the various methods.

2. I'm also interested in how motivation affects performance. In other words do
people perform better when highly motivated or is the relationship a little more
complex? To discover the truth I could design a study in which the relationship
is examined closely.

Take a moment to think about these two examples. Obviously they are different
topics but they also differ in a significant way that was explained in the text.
a. Notice that in the first study I proposed I was seeking the solution to a practical
problem that I face as a teacher.
b. In the second study I did not give any indication that I was looking for solutions
to problems but rather that I wanted to learn more about human behavior. It's
possible (in fact likely) that the results of the second study might have
implications for practice but I was not trying to solve any practical problem in
conducting the study.
c. Can you suggest a research that will inform policy?

The research problem is the educational issue, concern, or condition that
requires discussion, a solution, and information. It implies the possibility of
empirical investigation, that is, of data collection and analysis.

It may be
An issue/ matter you want to understand
Existing educational problems that you are seeking to solve
Situations that you want to improve
Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed


Write down an issue or a topic related to education. We are going to turn this
into a research problem.






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Answer the questions below:

1. What is the issue/problem/concern being addressed?
2. Why is it important?
3. Can and should the issue/problem/concern be researched?
4. Can data be collected in order to study the issue/problem/concern?
5. Can you gain access to the research site /participants?
6. Is it linked to some theory?
7. Does it advance knowledge?
8. Does it contribute to practice?

If you can answer these questions in a positive manner, then you have yourself a good
research problem. Otherwise keep reading the literature and search for a sound
research problem.

In other words , you must be able to fill the blanks below.

The main issue/concern is___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
which is related to/relevant to _______________________________________________.
_____________________________________________________________________________
It is important since _________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________. The
issue/concern has been raised in other contexts such as _________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
If I were to proceed with this study, data will be collected via __________________
__________________________________________________________________ and from
_____________________________________________________________________________.
In terms of theoretical significance, it will contribute to _______________________
______________________________________________________________________________.
In practice, it will contribute to _______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________.
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Finding research problems
It was mentioned earlier that research problems exist all around us. While that may be
true, many students have great difficulties coming up with something that fulfills the
criteria discussed and at the same time, satisfies their curiosity and passion. Try
asking:
1. What research is currently being conducted by your lecturer or members of your
department/school?
This is a smart move because you can build on existing knowledge and know
that you have someone with somewhat "expert" knowledge to guide your study.
You have a much better chance of avoiding design errors if you are building on
past research.
2. What are the areas of controversy in your field?
Obviously controversial areas could use some research. Ask yourself however if
you are qualified or willing to become qualified to explore these areas. Also, who
will be able to give you advice on your study? Faculty members may have
general knowledge but not the kind of specialized knowledge that you really
need.
Remember the banning of handphones in school what is the controversy?




3. Talk to other students and professors.
This approach will not only generate some ideas but you will learn about the
types of problems current graduate students have encountered. You will learn
about the faculty and get a better idea of how to proceed with your research.
4. Locate and read a review paper.
Suppose you are interested in goal setting. You could probably find an article in
which the author reviews a number of previously conducted studies. Reading
this review might stimulate an idea for a topic that could build on existing
knowledge.

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5. Read research papers listed in a review or article.
The reference page of any article is one of your best sources for additional
information on a topic. It saves hours of searching if you simply copy the titles
of articles on your topic of interest. Eventually, when you find the same authors
are constantly being quoted you can have some confidence that you have found
all there is to know on your topic.
6. Begin to list unanswered or debatable questions.
Wow! This is really using your head. Unfortunately, it's also probably the
hardest way to approach research because you are beginning with nothing but
an idea. While creative thinkers have undoubtedly added volumes to our
knowledge you should ask yourself if as a graduate student (usually in a hurry
to graduate) you have the time and patience to pursue this type of quest.
Be sure you can explain the importance of the following criteria, as described before.
Five criteria for choosing a problem
1. Workability (can it be done?)
2. Critical mass (so what? what's the importance?)
3. Interest (to you and to a targeted group!)
4. Theoretical value (does it fill gaps in knowledge?)
5. Practical value (will the findings affect anyone?)

Although it is unlikely that any single study will perfectly meet all these criteria,
consideration of the five criteria will at least help you evaluate your ideas.

Q. Do some background reading and start listing some of the ideas for your
research.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Are they
Workable (can it be done?)
Of critical mass (so what? what's the importance?)
Of interest (to you!)
Of theoretical value (does it fill gaps in knowledge?)
Of Practical value (will the findings affect anyone?)
Please remember that a research problem is not
how to do something;
a vague or too broad a proposition
a value question.
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Refer to the scenarios below. Identify those that can be turned into a research and
how it can be researched.

The Ministry of Education
should change the current
school uniform especially the
ones worn by female
students. I think the
uniforms are too sexy.
I want to know if students find
the guidelines I developed for
technical writing useful
Should BR1M be given
again? Must government
allocate the sum of money
every year?

TAKE A BREAK
Research methods process overview
The picture presents the basic steps involved in the research process.






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Different types of research have different methodology and may be presented in
alternative formats. However, you can anticipate that in a research report, information
will be presented in the following order:

1. Introduction and background to the research
2. Review of literature
3. Method
4. Results
5. Discussion and conclusions

There are four key steps involved in the scientific method of problem solving.


Step 1: Developing the problem (defining and delimiting it)
For now we'll assume you've come up with a reasonable problem (we'll return to
this task later). You should be able to identify what exactly you plan to study.

Review the slides given.
Characteristic of research
Research begins with a question in the mind of the
researcher.
Research demands a clear statement of the
problem.
Research requires a plan
Research seeks direction through appropriate
hypotheses or research questions
Research deals with facts and their meaning.


Now ask the questions
o What are you measuring?
What are your constructs?
What are your variables?
o Are you manipulating any variable? What are your independent and
dependent variables?
The independent variable (IV) is what you plan to manipulate. For
example, suppose you want to discover which technique produces
the highest test scores. You might choose to test three different
techniques (self learning, lecture, and a combination of both).
o What will your dependent variable (DV)? It's the quality that you want to
change. In the example just discussed, what is the DV?

Step 2: Formulating the hypothesis

Q. What is a hypothesis?
It's the anticipated result of your research and is usually based on previous
research. Hypotheses (there may be more than one) must be testable and your
study should be planned in a way that allows you to support or refute your
hypotheses.

I emphasize the word testable because you must be able to make a valid measurement
of the quality you claim to be influencing. For example, suppose you wanted to
improve test scores and chose to use web based learning. Some of your learners may
not have easy access to the internet. At the conclusion of your study you might find
half your subjects unable to score because they cant access your website.


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Does this mean your IV was ineffective?
Clearly, your study did not allow you to test your hypothesis in any truly
meaningful way.

There will be more on hypotheses later!

Step 3: Gathering the data
As we've learned, data needs to be collected to support or refute a hypothesis. How
you collect data is part of your research design. Care is essential to select appropriate
data collecting methods and to avoid measurement errors. During this stage you must
plan to maximize internal and external validity. What are these factors?

Internal Validity - to what extent are the results of the study attributable to the
treatment? For example, let's suppose a PE teacher wants to test the effects of her
fitness program. She tests Std. 2 and standard 5 pupils, finds the standard 5s score
higher and concludes that her fitness program was effective. Do you see any
problems? Is it okay to compare 2nd and 5th graders?

External Validity - to what extent are the results generalizable outside the study? For
example, if educators in Pahang report that AIDS knowledge among first formers is
below a minimum acceptable level, is it okay to conclude that Malaysian are
insufficiently educated on AIDS? Do you think this concern is a greater concern with
basic or applied research?

Q. Be prepared to discuss differences between internal and external validity. Give
an example of studies that lacked these types of validity. Make notes on
common research error to try to minimize.

Step 4: Analyzing and Interpreting Results
This part of a study often generates the most anxiety among graduate students
because it may involve using statistics. In most instances the actual computations can
be done by computer. The tough part is deciding what type of analysis to perform,
then later making sense of the figures the machine spews out! It's at this stage you
begin to examine the extent to which your data answer your research questions,
support or refutes your hypotheses. You will also relate your findings to those of
previous investigators and to existing theories.


TASK :

3. Identify a possible area/ topic
4. Search info and articles related to the area/topic
5. List reasons for embarking on this topic


Before we move to the next section, read pages 1-5 of this research article.
Analyse the research problem and the research questions.



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Additional task:

Browse through the titles below. These are broad ideas in primary education. Try
googling these articles and read some of the things people research on:

K.L. Seifert, Cognitive Development and the Education of Young Children.
G.W. Ladd, S.L. Herald, R.K. Andrews, Young Children's Peer Relations and Social Competence.
E. Johansson, Children's Morality: Perspectives and Research.
S.A. Denham, The Emotional Basis of Learning and Development in Early Childhood Education.
D.L. Gallahue, J.C. Ozmun, Motor Development in Young Children.
M.A. Runco, The Development of Children's Creativity. Part II: Early Childhood Educational
Curriculum.
J. Anderson, L. Moffatt, J. Shapiro, Reconceptualizing Language Education in Early Childhood:
Socio-Cultural Perspectives.
R. Rueda, D.B. Yaden, Jr., The Literacy Education of Linguistically and Culturally Diverse
Young Children: An Overview of Outcomes, Assessment, and Large-Scale Interventions.
A.J. Baroody, M-l. Lai, K.S. Mix, The Development of Young Children's Early Number and
Operation Sense and Its Implications for Early Childhood Education.
C.M. Thompson, Repositioning the Visual Arts in Early Childhood Education: A Decade of
Reconsideration.
K. Bradley With M. Szegda, The Dance of Learning.
G.F. Welch, The Musical Development and Education of Young Children.
R.D. Kavanaugh, Pretend Play. P.G. Ramsey, Early Childhood Multicultural Education. Part III:
Foundations of Early Childhood Educational Policy.
J.A. Sutterby, J. Frost, Creating Play Environments for Early Childhood: Indoors and Out.
R.M. Ryan, R.C. Fauth, J. Brooks-Gunn, Childhood Poverty: Implications for School Readiness
and Early Childhood Education.
B. Chambers, A.C.K. Cheung, R.E. Slavin, Effective Preschool Programs for Children at Risk of
School Failure: A Best-Evidence Synthesis.
A-M. Wiese, E.E. Garcia, Educational Policy in the United States Regarding Bilinguals in Early
Childhood Education.
C. Howes, K. Sanders, Child Care for Young Children.
B.H. Fiese, T. Eckert, M. Spagnola, Family Context in Early Childhood: A Look at Practices and
Beliefs That Promote Early Learning.
M.M. Ostrosky, B.M. Laumann, W-Y. Hsieh, Early Childhood Teachers' Beliefs and Attitudes
About Inclusion: What Does the Research Tell Us?
O.N. Saracho, B. Spodek, Preschool Teachers' Professional Development. Part IV: Research and
Evaluation Strategies for Early Childhood Education.
D.F. Gullo, Alternative Means of Assessing Children's Learning in Early Childhood Classrooms.
R. Lambert, M. Abbott-Shim, A. Sibley, Evaluating the Quality of Early Childhood Educational
Settings.
J. Pelletier, C. Corter, Integration, Innovation, and Evaluation in School-Based Early Childhood
Services.
C.D. Thornton, L.S. Goldstein, Feminist Issues in Early Childhood Scholarship.
S. Grieshaber, S. Ryan, Beyond Certainties: Postmodern Perspectives, Research, and the
Education of Young Children.
J.L. Roopnarine, A. Metindogan, Early Childhood Education Research in Cross-National
Perspective.





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Section 2: Types of Research

Student Learning Outcomes
At the end of this week, you will be able to:
1. Describe differences between basic and applied research.
2. Explain what quantitative research is
3. Explain what qualitative research is
4. Describe the differences between qualitative and quantitative research approach
5. Identify

Normal scientific problem solving methods existed for many years as the standard for
"good" and "objective" scientific problem solving. Researchers typically have followed
this type of approach. As you can see however, there have been questions raised about
the supposed objectivity of normal scientific methodology as well as criticism regarding
the value of its findings.

The bottom line is that different problems require different solutions....The nature
of the research questions and setting should drive the selection of approaches to
acquiring knowledge.

One may not have any hypothesis but may be conducting a research as well.
No one method is better than another and your choice should depend on the type of
question you are seeking to answer. However, each type of research does involve
different procedures and expects the user to develop skills in application.
It's probably obvious that you can't conduct an experiment unless you have
some understanding of statistics. The same is also true for analytical and
descriptive research.
Conducting an interview, for example, requires certain skills that must be
developed through knowledge and practice.
Historical studies demand specific analytical approaches.
What this means is that if you want to pursue a particular type of research you would
be wise to learn more about the specific methodology demanded in that research.

Now what is unique about primary education? Can you use questionnaires when
collecting data from seven year olds?
Think about it.

Types of Research
Because there are different contexts and many different types of problems that can be
studied in education, there is an equally diverse array of approaches to solving these
problems. As noted in the Fraenkel and Wallen text there are the traditional
"scientific" approaches that use experimental (predictive) statistics as well as many
approaches that use statistics in descriptive ways.

Read page 7 -16 and be thinking about how you might use some of these approaches
in your area of interest. We will discuss many of these different types of research over
the semester.


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Differences between basic and applied research
The examples given above illustrate some of the differences between studies that
people might characterize as "basic" research and research that is viewed as "applied."

Q. What are some of the major differences between applied and basic research?

Here's the list of distinctions discussed in class.

Applied -----------------------------------------------------------Basic
1. Answers immediate problems Deals with theoretical issues
2. Uses real-world settings Conducted in laboratories
4. Lacks rigorous controls Study is carefully controlled
5. Results are directly useful Results often lack application

In addition , applied research
Apply to specific group of people and situations
Not necessarily related to broader field of knowledge
Results have immediate and clear implications for practice
And basic research
Apply to many people and situations
Relate to general theory
Results may not have immediate or clear implications for practice
Educational research often involve one of these
Basic
contribute to the advances of knowledge and theory
Applied
provide insights into educational concerns
solve a particular problem within a particular setting
Evaluation
Decision making


Q. I am conducting a research on motivation. I hypothesize that there is another
level in the Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. Which type of research am I doing?

I seek to explore the level of parental involvement in school activities and how it
relates to the childs school engagement. What type of research am I doing?








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Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Novice researchers normally face the dilemma of taking a qualitative or a quantitative
approach. It is not just the type of data that defines a quantitative or a qualitative
research; the research paradigm must be understood.
Definitions of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research
A type of educational research in which the researcher decides what to study, asks
specific, narrow questions, collects numeric (numbered) data from participants,
analyzes these numbers using statistics, and conducts the inquiry in an unbiased,
objective manner.

Qualitative Research
A type of educational research in which the researcher relies on the views of
participants, asks broad, general questions, collects data consisting largely of words
(or text) from participants, describes and analyzes these words for themes, and
conducts the inquiry in a subjective, biased manner.

Recall earlier discussion. Which research is deductive? Which one is inductive?
In what ways are Quantitative and Qualitative Research similar?
They both follow the steps in the process of research
Format for reporting the research problem is the same
Both have data collection steps


Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research.

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Please click this link to go through more differences. The table below also provides
other aspects.

Now, how does the research problem differ for quantitative and qualitative Research?

When do you employ quantitative approach? Qualitative approach?

A simple advice
Use quantitative if your research problem requires you to
Measure variables
Assess the impact of these variables on an outcome
Test theories or broad explanations
Apply results to a large number of people

Use qualitative if your research problem requires you to
Learn about the views of the people you plan to study
Assess a process over time
Generate theories based on participant perspectives
Obtain detailed information about a few people or research sites.

Now read chapter 2 -Frankael and Wallen



23

Q. I am conducting a research to explore the experience of abused husbands and
how they feel. Which approach shall I take? Quantitative or qualitative?

I am researching students coping strategies based on Lee (1967)s theory.
Which approach shall I take?

Coming back to researching primary schoolers, what approach would you take?

Q. My students do not do well in Calculus. I want to find out why and how to solve
the particular learning problem? Can I take a mixed approach using both
qualitative and quantitative approaches at different stages of my research?

Classroom learning problems can be explored using a mix of quantitative and
qualitative approach. One may collect quantitative data (eg exam results over a
few years etc), seek to find a relationship between variables such as parental
involvement and achievement first and then develop an action plan to solve the
problem in the particular setting.

















24

Section 3: Stating the Research Problem and
Writing Research Questions

Student Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. State the research problem
2. Write research questions
3. State research hypotheses

Recall our discussion on research problem in Section 1. Basically, the research
problem is
a set of conditions needing discussion, a solution, and information.
implies the possibility of empirical investigation, that is, of data collection and
analysis

You need to ask : What do I want to find out? Can I collect data?

A research problem may not necessarily be something that is seriously wrong
Can be
o an issue of interest
o Find answers to improve existing situation
o A situation where a gap exist between actual and desired state
o An issue/ matter you want to understand
o Existing educational problems that you are seeking to solve
o Situations that you want to improve
o Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed
o Situations in which the researcher is trying to answer a research
question empirical
Example
Essentially, all researchers will start with a
broad area
Children and the use of
multimedia in learning

To conduct a research , one may begin with
broad questions but it is important to narrow
down to specific issue and operationalize what
to be observed/measured

To what extent does multimedia
enhance childrens engagement in
learning a language ?
(Operationalize engagement)

Observe/Measure
Collect observational data

Analyze data
Analyse data qualitatively

Reach conclusions
Children are more attentive and
engaged
Generalize back Multimedia supports language
learning engagement

25

To state the research problem, you need to bring in
1. Concern
2. Context
3. Corroborations/Evidence

Thus, it is important to highlight your research concern and justify your choice of the
area in research.
Why is there a need to do this research
What is the gap
This needs backing up
Government policies
Institutional reports/ strategic plans
Research reports
Press report/ speeches
You then need to bring in the context within which you are researching. If you are
researching Malaysian students, this requires local data, local findings etc to support.
PLEASE do not write strong remarks without backing it with data or with literature.

Stating the research problem
The Problem statement is a clear, precise and succinct statement of the
question/issue that is to be investigated. There is no one "right" way to state actually.
Generally, the statement of the research problem
Introduces the reader to the importance of the problem. The reader is
oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or
hypotheses to follow.
o You could relate your problem to the findings of prior research ( a few)
Places the problem in a context
Provides the framework for reporting the results. Indicate what is probably
necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present
this information.
Refer to the diagram below.
Based on the diagram, make note of your own research problem.

What is the topic area: _______________________________________

What is your research concern: _______________________________________________



26


What is the evidence : (Take time to fill this in read, observe, ask, search..)







What is missing? The gap?






Justification/significance/benefit














27

Examples are given below. Are the researchers able to convince you?
Search for more examples of problem statement and analyze them.


PROBLEM STATEMENT 1

This study is undertaken to investigate if the use of drama techniques can help in the
teaching of listening (aural) and speaking (oral) skills among the Year 4B learners of a rural
primary school at Sekinchan, in the district of Sabak Bernam, Selangor. These learners have
learnt English language for the past three years. It is expected that they would be able to use
some words, phrases and sentences in their conversation among them and with others
especially teachers. It has been observed that these learners prefer to use L1 in their daily
communication with their peers. Therefore L1 is the preferred tool of communication. What
causes their drawbacks? What make them reluctant to use English in their daily
communication?
Occasionally, English is spoken between the English subject teacher and her pupils
during English periods, Other than that, it is mostly a one way track, a teacher to the pupils.
Rarely, there are conversations between both sides but only through greetings and agreements
like Yes or No sir/teacher. This passiveness shows that these learners need help to be able
to speak L2. For a long time, teachers have to encourage, persuade and motivate and train the
learners to speak especially for some events or competition such as story telling held between
schools and districts. But there are only a few of the kind (learners).
One particular reason why there are only few of them who are able to use English to
communicate is the unsupportive environment especially in the rural. There is very limited
use of English at home, at school and in the community. They find very little need of using the
language among them. As time passes by, as they grow, from primary to secondary students,
these young learners still have not developed the skills of listening and speaking the L2
despite their excellence in the reading and writing skills
The failure in mastering these skills could also be caused by inadequate listening and
speaking practices. The early process of L2 learning has not helped much in development of
the skills among them. However, this is not considered as total failure becausemost of these
rural learners are able to further their studies using L2, which also proves that they are
capable of reading and writing in English and excel in their respective fields although they still
lack the capability, the ability what more confidence when it comes to speaking or
communicating orally.
According to the Malaysian School syllabus, (Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Malaysia) the
language skills are divided into 4: aural skill, oral kills, reading skill and writing skills. This
indicates that in Language learning, these 4 skills are vital. Hence, they not only need to learn
the rules of the language but they should be able to understand, speak, read and write the
language. Another cause is that they are afraid to be laughed at for making mistakes. So,
eventually, the learners are more comfortable corresponding in their mother tongue
throughout their primary years. As a result, they never have experienced speaking freely and
effectively. Some common problems faced are observed. These problems are shared by
teachers too.
Firstly, the size of the class is too big. Secondly, the arrangement of the classroom
rarely favours communication. Thirdly, the number of hours available for teaching the
language which cannot and should not all be spent on oral work. Finally, the syllabus itself is
examination oriented.
In conclusion, these problems should be overcome and dealt with. If not, the young
generation would end up doing only English in reading and writing but unable to speak the
language for communication purposes.



28

PROBLEM STATEMENT 2
Although the increase in distance learning courses and enrollments in 4-year
institutions is remarkable, it is even more evident in the community colleges. The 1998 and
2000 National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) reports state that the majority of
students enrolled in distance learning courses attended public 2-year colleges. According to the
Report of the Distance Learning Steering Committee on Distance Learning in the
Commonwealth (2000), in Fall 2000, the Virginia Community College System (VCCS) offered
over 1500 distance learning courses, which was a 3 fold increase over 1997.
As a result of the increase in distance learning, the amount of research conducted on
distance education has also grown. However, while much has been published about distance
education from the designers, administrators and instructors points-of-view, little has been
written about the student perspective of this new learning environment (Hara & Kling, 2000;
Miller & Husmann, 1994; Roblyer, 1999; Schlosser & Anderson,1994; Wang & Newlin, 2000).
Hara and Kling state that, Clearly, we need more student-centered studies of distance
education that are designed to teach us how the appropriate use of technology and pedagogy
could make distance education more beneficial for more students (p. 22). They continue by
pointing out that there need to be more detailed descriptions of on-line classrooms as well as
indications about how problems develop and how students deal with these concerns (p.
3). .Miller and Husmann also discovered that most research on distance education focuses on
administrative or faculty issues. However, they state that in order to truly understand distance
learning, educators must know the learner, who is the critical component in determining the
quality and success of distance education programming (p. 107).
Research reveals that there is a need for studies from the on-line students pointof-
view and that the majority of on-line courses are offered by community colleges. As a result,
the purpose of this dissertation study is to enrich the literature on distance learning by
providing observational and ethnographic data to describe the perspectives of community
college students taking on-line courses.
In order to solicit data to provide a rich description of the experiences of
community college students taking web-based offerings, the study focuses on the
overarching research question, "How do community college students construct their online
experiences?


How would you improve on the statement of the problems given above?

















29

Specific
Topic Area
Research
Problem
Purpose
Research
Question (s)
General
Writing the research questions
The research questions are questions you asked and to be answered using the data
collected in your research.

Your research questions must
guide your purpose
give clear idea of your research
Quantitative or qualitative?
Experimental? Correlational?
Should you interview people, or would the data from a survey answer it?

Important to ask:
Can data be collected on all of your research questions? If so, how?
What is the difference between research topic, research problem, research
purpose/objective and research question?
A research topic is the broad subject matter being addressed in a study.
A research problem is an educational issue or problem in the study
A purpose is the major intent or objective of the study.
Research questions are questions the researcher would like answered or
addressed in the study.
o What about survey questions??
Further illustrate these terms in your own research






How do we develop a set of research questions? A starting point may be just to ask :
Who? Where? When? What? or Why? Of course, we need to develop, focus and narrow
the research topic



30

Example
Lets try one simple example
Topic area: Cooperative learning
Who:
Primary schoolers ?
12 year olds ?

Where:
in a rural school
in several schools in the district
in an integrated Islamic school

When:
In the classroom
Informal learning sessions
Both

Why: who are the stakeholders in this issue. Who or which groups
Will benefit from this research?
Teachers
Students
Curriculum developers
Administration

What exactly?
What are the specific issues in this topic area?
Effect on social skill
Effect on task engagement
Effects on self concept
Effect on leadership skill


Any assumptions made?
Primary school students can learn in cooperative learning groups
Cooperative learning may enhance learning engagement and improve students social
skills

Thus, this research proposes to investigate the effects of cooperative learning on task
engagement and social skills of primary school students.

From this preliminary analysis it is possible to develop a list of research questions
1. Does cooperative learning increase rural primary school students task engagement?
2. To what extent does cooperative learning enhance the rural primary school students
social skills?
3. How do rural primary school students perceive their role in a cooperative learning
group?


31

Specific
Topic Area
Research
Problem
Purpose
Research
Question (s)
General
In summary,
Cooperative learning
Primary school students are active , creative and
free spirited children (lit). They learn best in non
structured environment and from each other (lit).
Their present learning experience is limited to
direct instruction in a classroom (lit).
Cooperative learning inside and outside the
classroom is a viable approach to enhance task
engagement and social skills (lit) but has not
been practiced in many rural schools (lit).



Purpose is to investigate the effect of cooperative learning on task engagement and social
skills of rural primary schoolers .

RQs
1. Does cooperative learning increase rural primary school students task engagement?
2. To what extent does cooperative learning enhance the rural primary school students
social skills?

Another example



It is always best to limit the scope of the research and to shy away from research
questions that require a YES or NO answer. You may need to refine your research
question(s) as you complete your literature review. Knowledge gained in the literature
review may lead to a deeper understanding of the issues involved in your research
topic.

32

Research questions in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Good research questions normally illustrate the approach you are taking.
Research questions for descriptive and qualitative research are generally straight
forward questions asking what or how
What is the level of .?
How does group discussion facilitate concept formation?
To what extent does..?
Are sixth graders motivated to use this multimedia enhanced PBL environment?
In what way?
How do homeless women perceive ?


In a quantitative research, one tends to study a relation between two or more variables
Is A related to B?
How are A and B related?
Does academic self concept predict.?
Is there a significant difference between A and B in terms of ?
Is there an association between .and .?
What is the relationship between students motivation and their science
learning?

These questions require hypotheses testing and quantitative data analysis.

Please spend some time going through this Powerpoint slides by Griffin (2006)

Task
Read the abstract below . focusing on the purpose and the findings.

The purpose of this study was to examine African American adolescent females, how their
development may be influenced by their cultural values (racial identity development), societal
values (skin color preference) and self-concept. The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS), a
Demographic Questionnaire, and the 30-item Racial Identity Attitude Scale were administered
to 100 African American adolescent females between the ages of 14 and 18 years. An Analysis
of Variance and a Multivariate Analysis of Variance were conducted; the findings in this study
suggest that in the population sampled, there is an association between African American
adolescent females scores on skin color satisfaction, the RIAS-B, and self-concept. The
participants widely supported internalization attitudes (79%), were satisfied with their skin
color (74%), and had high self-concept (74%). Finally, limitations and delimitations to the study
are discussed along with implications for counselors.

Can you write two research questions and state at least one hypothesis pertaining to
the above research?







33

Scope and limitations

Researchers tend to underestimate the importance of letting others know the scope
and limitations of their research. Well, you must not do so. By stating the scope ,
limitations and delimitations of your research, you refrain others from questioning the
pertinent aspects of your research such as its external validity or generalizability.

Basically you tell others what your research will not do or include.

Q. What is the difference between limitations and delimitations?


Setting the limits on your research

Now that you have decided on a suitable research problem, it is important that you
define the research question unambiguously. This is the first delimitation of your
research your variables and the operational definitions

1. You must be sure of what you are measuring what are your constructs and
what are the research variables?
CONSTRUCTS:
a. A construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general
way.
b. Higher-level concepts are called constructs.
c. Constructs express the ideas behind a set of particulars; a construct is not
directly observable.
d. Constructs change their meaning or are discarded as theories are developed.
Example: Creativity is a construct generally recognized to consist of flexibility,
originality, elaboration, and other concepts. In ten years time, creativity may be
defined in a different manner.
Since constructs are not directly observable, researchers use indicators or
variables as a way of measuring or classifying most of the particulars of the
construct.
VARIABLES:
a. anything that can take on differing values
b. an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied way
c. "an event, category, behavior, or attribute that expresses a construct and
has different values depending on how it is used in a particular study" (M &
S, p. 88)

34


Operational Definition of Variables:
Assigns meaning to a variable by specifiying the activities and operations
necessary to measure, categorize, or manipulate the variable

Thus, the researcher must provide explicit definitions for all concepts used in the
research question. This is because language is often not precise as we think it is. It is
important that the researcher, everyone involved in the research, and the eventual
consumer of the research, understands the question in precisely the same way.

*(We will continue our discussion on variables in the next section)

In addition, the researcher must specify the limits of the study in a way that makes it
clear what is, and is not, to be studied. A common mistake is to define the question
too broadly (or to set no limits at all) and then find that the resources required for
such a large study are not available.

The following example, which moves from the idea for a research question to a
research question itself, makes this clearer. Remember that this is just one example of
how a research question could be refined - not a model for your own research.

We start with the idea for a research question...

"How have teacher use of instructional technology changed over the years, and what has
been the impact of these changes?"

But this is a huge area! We need to determine some appropriate boundaries in order to
make the project manageable.

The broad question needs to be restated more precisely so as to indicate both the
purpose of the project and the direction that the research will take. Here it is helpful
to define the key terms and concepts that must be investigated, and possibly
determine a specific period that the study will cover.


Definition of instructional technology
Instructional Technology is the theory and practice of design, development,
utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for
learning. ...
35





We might decide the following:
To define instructional technology for purposes of this study as computer
based technologies that make learning more efficient so that the project can
exclude all soft technologies such as problem based learning and aspects of
management and evaluation.
To restrict the study to primary school teachers teaching science. After all,
there is such a range of different subjects at different levels that the study can't
cover them all.
To restrict the period of time covered by the study. A good starting point would
be when the MSC was first launched. Why?

Now we know what type of instructional technology we are investigating, within which
subject and level and over what time period.

However, and we still need to narrow down the areas of impact which the study will
consider. Impact on students? What kind of impact? Motivation? Interest in science?
Impact on teachers ICT knowledge and skills? Teachers morale?


For purposes of this study we might decide the following:
To look at the impact on the students achievement and motivation to learn.

Again, we can choose one aspect only i.e motivation to learn Science
36

The research question can now be reformulated as follows:
"How did the increase in teacher use of computers in the classroom since the
establishment of MSC impact primary school childrens motivation to learn science?

Question: How do you operationalize motivation to learn ?
How best to measure motivation to learn?

What else to limit??

You should also thinking of limitations in terms of
- Research approach ( quantitative, qualitative)
- Research population and sample
- Sampling strategy
- Techniques and instrument used
- Research design ( descriptive, experimental )



CHECKLIST

Before we proceed to the next section, you should have all the listed items/tasks
completed.

Identify a topic area
Run a background literature search on the topic
Define a research problem in the topic area
Identify the research gap
Identify literature and statistics /data that will support the rationale for
conducting the research
Justify the significance of the research
Identify the research variables/constructs and how each will be operationalized
Identify the context and target research group
State the research problem
Write the preliminary research questions
State the initial research hypotheses
Identify the scope and limitation of the research













37

Section 4: Reviewing the literature

Student Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Identify relevant sources of literature for your research
2. Describe strategies for searching the literature
3. Distinguish essential information when taking notes from literature.
4. Write a review of the literature


What is literature?
It can be
Scholarly Journal ( eg Educational Technology R &D)
Professional Journals ( Educational Leadership, )
Monographs
Books; research reports; dissertations; Whitepaper
Popular magazines (e.g. Dewan Siswa, Time)
Newspapers (e.g., Berita Harian; The STAR)
Web based /websites
Supposing that you have a reasonable research problem the next step is to consider
how you can use the literature to help develop your problem.
A literature review
1. Is a discussion of published information in a particular subject area
2. Can be a simple summary of the sources
3. Has organizational patterns and combine both summary and synthesis



Purposes of the Literature Review
What useful information will you hope to get from the literature review. Here are some
possibilities:
A literature search will provide you with:
a. Background information
Has the study already been done?
Is a similar study in progress?
Is there any related research?

38

B. Hypotheses
What have been proposed by others?
Do these studies provide ideas, theories, explanations or
hypotheses useful in understanding and formulating the problem?
C. Methods and analysis
What research procedures and methods of analyzing the data were
used by others?
D. Interpretation
Will these studies provide comparative data useful in interpreting
your results?
Do these studies help to justify the significance of your research?
Strategies for searching literature
Six steps recommended when searching the literature
1. Write the problem statement
2. Consult secondary sources
3. Determine descriptors or key terms
4. Search preliminary sources
5. Read and record the literature
6. Write the literature review.

In particular, this is what you do:

Taking notes from literature
The literature searching part of your study can easily become the most time
consuming if you aren't organized.
Your goal is to find out anything that is directly relevant to your topic. Unless you
have lots of free time stick only to the relevant information.
Identify
key word
Search and
retrieve
Step 1
Summa
rize
Map
Step 2
Synthesize
Highlight
gaps
Step 3
Relate to
your
research
Frame your
research
Step 4
39

Many articles that are relevant may be up to 30 pages long. How much of the article is
important to you? Often you just need to review the abstract and take a few short
notes. Remember, you don't have to read the entire article. In fact I suggest that you
learn to skim articles
It is not necessary to print/photocopy every article that contains interesting
information. Learn to record the essential information either on note cards or if you
are really into technology, directly onto a laptop computer.
Usually you need to record the following information:
1. Statement of the problem
2. Characteristics of the subjects
3. Instruments and/or tests used
4. Testing procedures
5. Independent and dependent variables
6. 7. Design and statistical analysis
8. Findings
9. Questions raised for further study
10. Citations/references to additional studies (not yet reviewed)
Note taking advice
Recording information from books and articles is extremely time consuming. That's
one of the reasons you need to train yourself to be rigorously disciplined.
1. Do not read anything that is not essential for your study.
2. A second time saving method I mentioned above is to record your information
directly into a laptop computer.
3. Jot down information of article
Title/ year Author(s) Source Use/Purpose of article
For the scope of the topic or problem.
- definition
- identifying the variables and constructs
To trace the history of the topic or problem.
For context of theory related to the topic or
problem.
To aid in the selection of research
methodologies
To assess previous research.
To justify selection of the problem for
research.
To address duplication.


40

4. Once relevant articles are identified , one should note each of its relevance.
Title/ year Author(s) Variables /
constructs
Theories/ principles Methodology Findings
Approach:
Sample:
Instrument:




When to stop? How much information do you need to record? It depends a lot on your
topic and the quantity of previous research completed. If your study has already
received a lot of research interest there will be more to review. If you choose a
somewhat original study there may not be much written. As a general guide you'll
know that you have done a thorough review when article authors begin quoting studies
you have already reviewed.
Now read chapter 5 : Fraenkel and Wallen

TASK :

1 Conduct a literature search on social media and social learning
2 List all the articles you found
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
41

l.
m.
n.
o.
p.

3 Draw ( or at least try to draw) a literature map






































42

Conceptual and theoretical framework
A good literature review frames the research. Thus a solid theoretical framework and
/ or conceptual framework will emerge as a result of the review.

Conceptual framework
a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant fields of enquiry
and used to structure or shape your research
provides clear links from the literature to the research goals and
questions
informs the research design
provides reference points for discussion of literature, methodology and
analysis of data
contributes to the trustworthiness of the study
It is the researchers own position on the problem and gives direction to the
study.
It may be an adaptation of a model used in a previous study, with
modifications to suit the inquiry.
Aside from showing the direction of the study, through the conceptual
framework, the researcher can be able to show the relationships of the
different constructs that he wants to investigate.
Is it a diagram? Or a description?
Should you have a conceptual framework if you are doing a pure
qualitative research?
In a good conceptual framework
Variables clearly identified
Important relationships theorized
Indication of positive or negative relationships if there are sufficient
findings from previous research
Clear explanation of why the relationships are expected
Researcher developed through identifying and defining concepts and
proposing relationships between them



So what then is a theoretical framework?
Theoretical framework
Based on propositional statements resulting from existing theory/
theories
A structure that can hold or support a theory of the research work
43

EXAMPLE
Theoretical Framework: Stimulus elicits response.
Conceptual Framework: ROTAN teaching method improves students academic
performance.
The theoretical framework basically differs from the conceptual framework in
terms of scope. The theoretical framework describes a broader relationship
between things. When stimulus is applied, response is expected.
The conceptual framework is much more specific in defining this relationship.
The conceptual framework specifies the variables that will have to be explored
in the investigation. In this example, the variable ROTAN teaching method
represents stimulus while the students academic performance represents the
response. The variables make clear the kind of statistical treatment that will
have to be used to analyze the relationship.

What does the examiner look for in your Review of Literature?
To what extent is the review relevant to the research study?
Is there evidence of critical appraisal of other work, or is the review just
descriptive?
How well has the candidate mastered the technical or theoretical
literature?
Does the candidate make the links between the review and his or her
methodology explicit?
Is there a summary of the essential features of other work as it relates to
this study?
Did the candidate synthesize the findings from the other work reviewed?
DOES THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE FRAME THE RESEARCH?






Read more:

Handbook of Research Design & Social Measurement, Sixth Edition Delbert C. Miller & Neil J. Salkind
Pub. date: 2002 | DOI: 10.4135/9781412984386
Print ISBN: 9780761920465 | Online ISBN: 9781412984386




44

Section 5: Formulating the Method

Student Learning Outcomes
At the completion of this module, students will be able to:
1. Identify the typical four section format of the Methods chapter and describe the
essential types of information to be included in these sections ( design,
variables, population, sampling, data collection techniques, instruments and
analysis)
2. Describe validity and reliability
3. Identify and describe quantitative and qualitative designs such as descriptive,
correlational research, experimental, causal comparative, ethnographic, case
studies and action research.
4. Develop an example for each research design in outcome (2).

Introduction to the method chapter
The second or third chapter in a thesis is usually entitled "Methods" or "Procedures." If
you remember that one of the distinguishing characteristics of scientific research was
replicability you will understand that the purpose of a Methods chapter is to explain a
study in sufficient detail to enable duplication of the study.
Typically, a Methods chapter has four sections i.e
Research approach and design
Population and sampling - Subjects
Instruments/apparatus
Procedures and Analysis

While all chapters of your study are important, the Methods chapter is especially
important because you want to ensure that your study is really going to test what you
want to test.

Q. What was this characteristic called?
YES, this is internal validity.

Reviewing Validity, Reliability And Objectivity of Research
Generally, measures are valid if they are relevant and clean measure of what the
researcher wants to assess. Hence, validity deals with the appropriateness of the
method to the research question. It also involves the validity of the researchers
interpretations of the data. Three measures of validity are of interest:
(1) construct validity - Construct validity is defined as establishing correct
operational measures for the concepts being studied (Yin, 1984).
(2) internal validity- Internal validity is the extent to which research findings are
free from bias and effects such as the Hawthorne effect and the interview effect
To the degree that we are successful in eliminating confounding/extraneous
variables within the study itself is referred to as internal validity.
(3) external validity - External validity is the extent to which the findings can be
generalised. We often try to do it in a way that enables us to make statements
about people at large. A study that readily allows its findings to generalise to
the population at large has high external validity. Writing the Methods chapter
will help you catch the procedural errors before you invest time in the study.
45

Reliability of the Research
Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy, and precision of measurement. In its
everyday sense, reliability is the "consistency" or "repeatability" of your measures.
How do we ensure reliability when using an instrument/ questionnaire/test?
There are four general classes of reliability estimates, each of which estimates
reliability in a different way. They are:
Inter-Rater or Inter-Observer Reliability
Used to assess the degree to which different
raters/observers give consistent estimates of the
same phenomenon


Test-Retest Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of a measure
from one time to another.



Parallel-Forms Reliability
In parallel forms reliability you first have to
create two parallel forms. One way to
accomplish this is to create a large set of
questions that address the same construct and
then randomly divide the questions into two
sets. You administer both instruments to the
same sample of people. The correlation between
the two parallel forms is the estimate of
reliability



Internal Consistency Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of results across
items within a test In internal consistency
reliability estimation we use our single
measurement instrument administered to a
group of people on one occasion to estimate
reliability. In effect we judge the reliability of the
instrument by estimating how well the items
that reflect the same construct yield similar
results
Average inter item
correlation
Split Half Reliability
Cronbachs Alpha*

* Read more on Cronbachs Alpha if you are doing a quantitative research
In a qualitative research, reliability pertained to the extent to which the study is
replicable and how accurate the research methods and the techniques used produce
data.

46


Objectivity
In a qualitative research, objectivity is crucial. The researcher must look at her bias
and preconceived notions of what she will find before she begins her research. The
researcher was aware of her own biases. In order to explicate the participants true
experience, the researcher must make her/his research intention known and avoid
placing the learners in situations where they will feel exploited or be obliged to provide
what is expected account of their experience. The interviewer-interviewee
relationship must be maintained at a level that allows the participants to provide their
first hand experience and opinion without feeling any threats

Now read Fraenkel and Wallen Chapter 6, pg 102-103
Chapter 7, pg 111
Chapter 8
Chapter 9

Example: A graduate wants to study and make a general statement about the
relationship between primary school teachers soft skills and students
satisfaction level. He chooses 15 teachers from a total of 60 in one
primary school. He wants to interview and ask them to answer
questionnaire. He is also thinking of using multiple regression. What do
you think? What would you suggest or comment?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Revisiting Variables

We have already mentioned variables and constructs in the last section. We shall now
look at the different ways to describe variables
Measured and categorical variables

Some variables can be measured and can be assigned numbers
These variables exist in degree. Examples are
Height
Weight
Age
Time spent on task
So are
Interest
Student motivation
School engagement
Sleepiness
Level of anxiety

Quick Q:
How do we measure interest or sleepiness? Is there an instrument for each of them?
Can we assign numbers to represent sleepiness?
47


Have you ever measured your daytime sleepiness using the Epworth Sleepiness Scale?
TRY THIS






Some variables are categorical. These are also known as qualitative variables because
they are qualitatively different
Eye color
Gender
48

Religion
Race
Occupation
Program
Subject taught
Political party membership

We describe eye color as brown or blue. We do not say Your eyes are 2.0!

Next we look at how variables are characterized /used in a particular research. In a
quantitative research where you study relationships, it is important to identify the
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Extraneous variables
Moderating
Intervening

The dependent variable is basically of primary interest to the researcher. A researcher
measures this variable to predict its variability.
The independent variable influences the dependent variable, positively or negatively.
When the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present

Extraneous variables are variables that are not manipulated (i.e., not an independent
variable) but still might have an effect on the dependent variable. Extraneous variables
are the cause of experimental error (or NOISE), making it more difficult to measure
the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.
In an experiment for instance, extraneous variables can take the form of
a. Participant (or Subject or Person) Variables participant may differ
b. Task variables difficulty of task, time allocated for task
c. Treatment variable the way or order of the treatment
d. Situation variable physical environment, noise

Creswell (2002) aptly illustrates the family of variables.

49

Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright 2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.
Slide 80
The Family of Variables in
Quantitative Studies
Probable
Cause
Effect
Independent
Variables
Treatment
Measured
Intervening
Variables
Dependent
Variables
Control
Variables
Moderating
Variables
Confounding
Variables



Intervening variable (Mediating Variable):
An attribute or characteristic that stands between the dependent and independent
variables

Moderating variable:
One that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable- dependent
variable relationship. Its presence will modify originally expected relationship


Now try this:

The relationship below is proposed by the researcher







Which of these are moderating variable (s)? intervening variable(s)?






Math scores
Students SPM
Math grade
The use of AlJabr
method in first
semester Math
class
Student
increases time
on Math
problem solving
Student finds
Math fun with
AlJabr
Students Math
anxiety
50

Research Designs

Now that you have decided on your basic approach i.e quantitative or qualitative, you
need to decide on the research design.

Refer to the decision tree below:





But of course, you need to know the different designs and whether it is appropriate for
primary school researchers.

Descriptive
o The researcher attempts to describe - document what is actually occurring
o May be either qualitative (descriptions in words) or quantitative (descriptions
in numbers)
o The researcher has no control over the phenomena of study, but simply
records what is observed or reported.
Quantitative descriptive research = survey research
Correlational research (This is a quantitative research)
o The research relates the level of one variable to a corresponding level of
another variable in an attempt to discover any relationships between them
o The purpose is to predict the level of one variable by knowing the level of a
second variable
Is data numerical or narrative?
Cause effect
relationship
Past event?
Independent
variable
manipulated?
Relationship?
Prediction?
Historical
research
Qualitative
research :
Descriptive/
Exploratory
Ethnography
Grounded
Theory
Case study

Experimental
research
Causal
comparative
research
Correlational
research
Descriptive
research
numerical
narrativ
e
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
yes no
Numerical
and
narrative
equally
substantial
MIXED
METHOD
Case study

51

o The researcher has only moderate, if any, control over the variables in this
type of study
Experimental (This is a quantitative research )
o The researcher randomly assigns subjects to at least two groups (experimental
and control)
o The researcher seeks to see the difference between the two groups
o In the experimental group, the researcher manipulates the level of one
(independent) variable and observes the corresponding change, if any, in the
level of another (dependent) variable.
o Purpose is to determine if there is a causal relationship between the two
variables.
o The effect of something on another thing is a basic cause-effect
relationship
Causal comparative / ex post facto research (This is a quantitative research )
o Explores relationship among variables that cannot meet the true experimental
research.
o Usually the independent variable cannot be manipulated / has already
occurred eg. age, gender, smoking
o At least two different groups are compared on some dependent variable
o Math achievement of non smoker/ smoker



If you are thinking of a quantitative research, decide on your research design :

_________________________________________

Provide the rationale for your choice

a.

b.

c.

Is it appropriate to conduct surveys with lower primary school students?

Explain your answer: __________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________




52

What if you are thinking of a qualitative research?

There are four common qualitative research designs
1. Phenomenology
2. Ethnography
3. Grounded theory
4. Case study



See the table from Frankel and Wallen
53


54

What about mixed method research?

Lets spend some time on action research. Click on the slide below to open a ppt.
file on action research. It will give you a basic overview of the what and how of
action research.

ACTION RESEARCH


Next, read the research article below (click
https://www.nfer.ac.uk/publications/pre/ and read article no. 24).
It illustrates an action research done in a nursery school.
Identify the defining characteristics of the action research. What makes it
different from other designs?



Exercise: Design an action research based on the topic of Raising self
esteem of rural primary schoolers


1) Describe the design clearly
2) Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the design
i. Describe the problem including the school, target group
etc.
ii. Review existing data/report etc
iii. Formulate the solution
3) Describe the cycles
4) Briefly describe how data will be collected and analysed (this
will be thoroughly discussed in Section 6 of this module
55

The Practical research for education is a bi-annual journal for education
practitioners, basically those interested in conducting ACTION RESEARCH.
You should browse the collection to get an idea of what have been researched
in teaching and learning, school management and school policy by practitioners
like yourself.

Now that you are familiar with several research designs, you need to answer
some of these questions

Subjects/ Participants/ Respondents
What information would you expect in this section?
1 How and why the subjects are selected
2 What pertinent characteristics these individuals have that make them
targets of selection
3 The number of subjects will be discussed under sampling methods
.
Instruments
Here you will describe any apparatus, instruments, or tests used. Also your
interview protocols.

For example, if you choose to use a certain personality questionnaire, you must
give information on the test's reliability and validity. Information on scoring and
a copy of the test should be included (Q. Where?) in your appendix.

If you are using equipment you must give specific details of the make and
models. In some instances you may want to include diagrams of equipment,
interview arrangement and facility layout. In short, include anything that will
help later replication of your study.

Procedures
What do you need to do and in what order will you do things? Who will be
involved in the experiment? The steps outlined in your text provide a helpful
checklist:
1 Explain the specific order of steps taken.
2 Include details on the timing of the various steps.
3 What will be told to the subjects told? If the instructions are written,
include a copy (possibly in appendix).
4 Detail any briefings, debriefings, and safeguards.

Piloting: Pilot all procedures before beginning the study.
NEXT read all of chapter 6 and 7, Fraenkel and Wallen


Are you ready to answer some of the questions?






56

Population and Sampling
What is a research population?

A research population is a group of individuals or collection of objects that is
the main focus of a research. We conduct research with the interest of this
group in mind. This group must be well defined secondary school students,
science teachers, principals etc.
However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot go to
each individual. It may be too expensive and requires time.

For instance, we want to study social competence of secondary school
students.
How many secondary schools are there in Malaysia? Secondary school
students?
Even if you are thinking of one state eg Selangor, you still have too many to go
to.

Thus , the need to sample the individuals in the population.

What is a research sample?

A sample is a subset of the population. We sample because normally we
are unable to study all the individuals in a given population.

If we are conducting a quantitative research, the sample must be
representative of the population from which it is drawn. How we sample
and the size of the sample must also be correct and appropriate to allow
generalization of the findings. Click www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZegP0pfw8Rg for
a brief intro to sampling in quantitative research.


Are you familiar with the word inference?

Try googling inference + sampling
and see what comes out.

Read through some of the descriptions
of statistical inference.

One such description is :
Statistical Inference makes use of
information from a sample to draw conclusions
(inferences) about the population from which
the sample was taken

As you can see, one can infer conclusions about a given population
based on results observed through the sample. This is possible if the
sample is random.
If sampling is not done randomly, you may end up with results that do
not depict the population.
57

The following shows possible combinations of accuracy and precision in
sampling.

Accurate and precise Accurate but not precise

Precise but not accurate Not precise and not accurate

Can you give an example for each? What would be an example of
sampling that is precise but not accurate?

We thus have to choose the most appropriate sampling strategies and
techniques. We must also address sampling error when we design our research.
Probability and Non Probability Sampling
Before you decide on the sampling technique, you need to ask :

What is the purpose of my research? Am I testing a theory and generalizing the
findings to a bigger population? Or am I exploring a phenomenon in depth and
perhaps work towards understanding something rather than establishing a
relationship?

If I seek to generalize, then I need random sample and thus use probability
sampling.

58

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the
population has a chance of being selected in the sample. Sampling is
random

Non probability sampling method is when selection is based on criteria .
It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the
population of interest. Some elements of the population have no chance
of selection. Sampling is non random.

Doherty (1999) describes how we generally conduct probability sampling

In probability-based sampling, the first step is to decide on the population of
interest, that is, the population we want the results about.
Example - all persons aged 18 years or over who are residents in rural
Selangor

We then establish a frame - a listing, at least in principle - of all the units of
that population.
Example : We may want to use a geographic frame such as districts.

We select a sample from this frame using a probabilistic algorithm ( the result
and/or the way the result is obtained depend on chance) . For example, coin
tossing. It is important that every element of the frame has a known chance of
being selected.

Suggest how you would select a sample of districts in Selangor.

(Refer Doherty, M. (1994) Probability versus Non-Probability Sampling in Sample Surveys, The New Zealand
Statistics Review March 1994 issue, pp 21-28.)
Probability /Random Sampling

Click this short video to watch a simple
explanation on three types of random or
probability sampling. (or go to
http://www.powtoon.com/p/fIKwl4Dlaj3/)




From the video, list at least 4 types of probability sampling:

1)
2)
3)
4)


59


TASK:

Read up on the four types of probability sampling
depicted in the video and list the advantages and
disadvantages of each.

Type Advantage Disadvantage

































There are instances when one type of sampling is not
sufficient. We thus have

5) Multistage sampling
6) Multiphase sampling
Multistage sampling
Complex form of cluster sampling
two or more levels of units are involved.

Time to review your own research
methodology
First reiterate your RQs. From
whom will get the data to answer
your RQs?
What approach will you be taking?
Quantitative?
Qualitative?
Mixed approach?
What will be your research design?
Survey?
Correlational?
Experimental?
Causal comparative?
Qualitative descriptive?
Phenomenology?
Ethnography?
Case study?
Mixed design?
Action research?
Who will be your population?
Will it be a census study?
What will be your sampling
strategy?
Probabilistic?
Simple random?
Systematic random?
Stratified?
Cluster?
Multistage?
Multiphase?
Quota?
60

Example : First stage, random number of districts chosen in Selangor.
Followed by random number of villages. Then third stage units will be
houses.
All units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed

Multiphase sampling
Essentially the process of taking random
samples of preceding random samples.
Part of the information collected from whole
sample & part from subsample.

Example:
In a Entrepreneuring via social media survey - all Facebook users in the
target population Phase I

FB users who use FB to buy and sell stuff Phase II

FB users who quit their jobs to pursue online business - Phase III

Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious & more purposeful

There are also instances when sampling is not purely random. An example
is quota sampling.

Quota sampling
The population is first segmented into exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.

Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on
a specified proportion.

Example: An interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300
males between the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-
probability sampling.

In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.




Non Probability /Purposeful Sampling
You may opt for an approach that requires you to find research
participants who fit certain criteria or characteristic. You may be exploring
or seeking to understand rather than testing a theory or establishing a
relationship. You choose the sample based on who you think would be
appropriate for the study. This sampling technique is basically
purposeful/purposive.
Purposive sampling is used in qualitative research
61


Differences Between Random
and Purposeful Sampling
Random Quantitative SampIing
Select Representative individuals
To generalize from sample to population
To make claims about the population
To build/test theories that explain the population
PurposefuI QuaIitative SampIing
Select people/sites who can best help us
understand our phenomenon
To develop detailed understanding
That might be useful: information
That might help people learn about the phenomenon


There are a number of techniques in purposive sampling. Here we
discuss three of such techniques. Read
http://www.sfu.ca/~palys/Purposive%20sampling.pdf for more .


Maximum Variation Sampling: The researcher selects cases or
individuals who cover a range in relation to the phenomenon being
studied. Example : Highest achiever to lowest achiever
Convenience Sampling: participants are selected because they are
willing and available to be studied
Snowball Sampling: the researcher asks participants to identify other
participants to become members of the sample.

You must also note that in qualitative research, sampling can be done at
the beginning or during the research. The diagram below explains briefly
some of the sampling techniques ( Adapted )



62




Sampling in action research

In an action research, one focuses on a particular group of individuals in a
specific context. For example,
- A science class
- Some of a school counselors clients
- A group of school prefects
- A group of teacher trainees

Thus the sample and the population are generally identical. Random
sampling is not as critical in these contexts and generalizing is not
necessarily likely or desired (Frankael & Wallen, 2009)
Sampling is thus purposive.
Determining sample size
In a probability sampling for a descriptive quantitative research or survey,
sample size is calculated using a sample size formula. This formula has been
applied and translated into a sample size table . Please see below the sample
size table from Krecjei and Morgan (1970). The size of the population and
amount of error determines the size of a randomly selected sample. This table
helps the researcher determine (with 95 percent certainty) what the results
would have been if the entire population had been surveyed.


63

If your
Population
is:
Then your
random Sample
size should be:
If your
Population
is:
Then your
random
Sample size
should be:
If your Population
is:
Then your
random
Sample size
should be:
10 10 190 127 800 260
15 14 200 132 850 265
20 19 210 136 900 269
25 24 220 140 950 274
30 28 230 144 1,000 278
35 32 240 148 1,100 285
40 36 250 152 1,200 291
45 40 260 155 1,300 297
50 44 270 159 1,400 302
55 48 280 162 1,500 306
60 52 290 165 1,600 310
65 56 300 169 1,700 313
70 59 320 175 1,800 317
75 63 340 181 1,900 320
80 66 360 186 2,000 322
85 70 380 191 2,200 327
90 73 400 196 2,400 331
95 76 420 201 2,600 335
100 80 440 205 2,800 338
110 86 460 210 3,000 341
120 92 480 214 5,000 357
130 97 500 217 10,000 370
140 103 550 226 15,000 375
150 108 600 234 30,000 379
160 113 650 242 50,000 381
170 118 700 248 75,000 382
180 123 750 254 1,000,000 384
Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities.
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610.
64

There are general rules of thumb for other research designs and for relationship
testing. The sample size also depends on the number of variables tested and
several other factors such as effect size and power.

o No less than 50 participants for a correlation or regression with the
number increasing with large numbers of independent variables
o For comparing two groups as in experimental research, 30 per group is
acceptable

Click this link for a more thorough explanation on sample size determination
and its implication on statistical testing
http://drr.lib.athabascau.ca/files/hadm/499/Vanvoorhis%202001%20Statisti
cal.pdf


Again, the above description and guidelines are for quantitative research that
seek to generalize and test relationships.

What about sample size in qualitative research?
How do you know the right number of participants?
How many should you interview or observe?
What does point of saturation mean?

Read this excerpt from Baker and Edwards (National Centre for Research
Methods, UK)

The number of people required to make an adequate sample for a
qualitative research project can vary from one to a hundred or more.
However, when considering the length of time this type of research often
takes, the difficulty of gaining entre to even the most mundane group or
setting, the difficulty in transcribing thousands of hours of interviews, and
the publish or perish world in which we live, our best bet is to advise in
the broad range of between a dozen and 60, with 30 being the mean.

In some cases, you may reach a point of saturation ( little that is new
coming out from your interviews or you have reached a point where you
can establish a consensus) after interviewing 10 participants. Thus this
is enough.
Is it possible to have only three participants for your qualitative
research?
Sample size in action research

So how do you determine the sample size in an action research?
Of course, the first thing to decide is the group you are studying. It may
be a class of 40 or a group of 15 school athletes.

The most important point is to make sure there are enough participants
from whom you are to get your data and to answer your research
questions.
65

Summary of random and purposive sampling methods (Source: http://www.interaction.org/annex-6-comparing-
random-and-purposive-sampling-methods)

Dimension Probability Sample Purposive sampling Mixed methods
Names Random sampling, QUANT sampling Purposeful sampling
Nonrandom sampling
QUAL sampling
Mixed methods
Overall purpose
To generate a sample that will
address QUANT research questions.
To generate a sample that will address
QUAL research questions.
To generate a sample that will address
research questions.
Generalizability
To generalize findings to adefined target
population (such as all low-income
households).
More limited transferability based on
judgmental considerations. Basically not
for generalization from research findings.
Focus on external validity issues for some
components of the evaluation and
transferability issues for others.
Techniques
Simple, stratified, cluster*, quota
sampling.*
There are a wide range of sampling
techniques including: convenience;
typical case and representative
samples; quota*; random- route*;
cluster*; unique, deviant, extreme and
negative cases; range; snowball; critical
case; and reputational samples.
All of the techniques used for probability
and purposive sampling.
Rationale for
selecting cases
Selection of cases that are together
representative of the total
population. Random selection means
that many cases will have a low
information value.
To address specific purposes related to
the research questions. Each case is
selected to address a particular set of
questions so that each case has a high
information content/value.
Representativeness for some components
and depth and richness for others.
Sample size
For social science survey, samples will
often include 400+ cases. Sample size is
determined from the target population
size
Usually small, often fewer than 30 cases.

There will often be multiple samples with
size being determined by whether the
purpose of a particular component is
more QUANT or QUAL. More rigorous size
estimation procedures may be used for
selecting quota samples, case studies,
participants in focus groups, etc. to
ensure a minimum level
of statisticalrepresentativeness.
66

Dimension Probability Sample Purposive sampling Mixed methods
Depth/breadth of
information per
unit
Focuses on breadth of information and
the ability to provide estimates for the
total population of interest.
Focuses on depth of information.

Combining depth and breadth.
When sample is
selected
Before data collection begins. Before the study begins, during data
collection or after the initial round of data
collection has been
completed. Sequential sampling can
continue for as long as deemed necessary
by the researcher.
The overall sampling strategy will
normally be defined before data collection
begins, but sub-samples may be
identified as the analysis evolves.
Selection method Using statistical formula Judgmental

An overall sampling strategy must be
developed with different sub-samples
being generated from this. It is essential
to ensure that procedures ensure the
different samples are comparable.
Sampling frame Formal sampling frame covering the
whole population of interest. For
considerations of time and cost an
existing sampling frame (such as a list of
families registered with an agency) may
be used.
Judgmental. Based on advice from
experts combined with researchers'
judgment and possibly checked through
rapid exploratory studies (for example
when the sampling unit is the
community).
A master sampling frame from which
different sub-samples are generated.

Source: Adapted from Teddlie and Tashakkori 2008 Table 8.1
67

CHECKLIST

Lets run through a short checklist to make sure you have grasped the important
elements in this section.

Are you now able to :
Describe validity and reliability
Identify and describe quantitative such as descriptive, correlational research,
experimental and causal comparative.
Identify and describe qualitative designs such as descriptive qualitative,
ethnography and phenomenology
Identify and describe mixed method designs such as case studies and action
research.
Describe population, the various sampling strategies and sample size
determination

We are now moving into data collection techniques, instruments and data analysis.





















68


Section 6 : Data Collection and Data Analysis

Student Learning Outcomes
At the completion of this module, students will be able to:
1) Describe the main processes involved in collecting quantitative and qualitative
data
2) Describe a valid and reliable research instrument
3) Explain the basic elements of a good survey instrument
4) Describe the protocols and procedures involved in collecting data through
interviewing, observations and document search
5) Describe how quantitative and qualitative data are analysed.

Data Collection

We will discuss data collection according to two processes
1. Collecting Quantitative Data
2. Collecting Qualitative Data

Click on the pics or links to launch the different processes

Collecting Quantitative Data
Data collection techniques 1.pptx
Data collection
techniques 1.pptx




Collecting Qualitative Data

Data collection techniques 2.pptx
Data collection
techniques 2.pptx




If you were to conduct an action research involving an intervention using Youtube
videos to teach English, what type of data do you think you will collect? And what will
be the techniques?





69


Now , lets take a look at the your research you are proposing.

Please fill in the table below. By now, you should be able to state your research
questions and decide the types of data and how you will collect the data.


Research Questions Types of data Technique


























Data Analysis
Analyzing quantitative data
We will first discuss quantitative data analysis. Remember the difference between
qualitative and quantitative research?
Now when we have collected the data, we need to analyse and use them to answer our
research questions.

For quantitative data, we deal with statistics.
1) Descriptive statistics that we use to summarize a collection of data in order to
describe a situation/event
2) Inferential statistics that we use to draw inferences about a population from a
sample. We run inferential statistics to generalize to a larger population. We
would commonly conduct hypothesis testing

In this course, we will focus on descriptive statistics. This means we will look at
measures of central tendency (measures the location of the middle or the center of the
distribution of data).
Mean this is the average of the distribution.
Median this is the centre of the distribution
70

Mode this is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

Suppose you have the test scores of 20 students who took a comprehension test
after been taught using videos ( Fulll mark : 25)

21 22 18 16 14
20 19 13 15 17
22 20 14 22 18
16 15 17 24 18

Find the mean : ________________________________ ( sum of all/20)

Find the median: (Arrange the distribution of test scores and identify the middle) :
_________________________________________

Find the mode: __________________________________(Identify the most frequently
occurring score)

Answer: 18.05, 18, 22

Standard Deviation is the measure of spread of the distribution. This is an important
descriptive statistic. It tells you how dispersed the data are from its mean.

To know more about standard deviation and other descriptors such as variance, click
this link ; http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/standard-deviation.html
It also gives you a standard deviation calculator.







71

Measures of Central Tendency
Mode Median Mean
Nominal X
Ordinal X X
Interval X X X
Ratio X X X
Measures of central tendency ( Mean, Mode and Median) are meant for certain type of
measurement. For example, you cannot find the mean for gender, a nominal variable.

But you may compute the mode in addition to frequency and percentages.
Nominal data such as gender are sometime given labels e. g 1 = Female, 2 = Male.
You may describe frequencies
Most frequent
Least frequent
Percentages
and illustrated using Bar graphs or pie charts



Take a look at the table below. It tells you the different measures of central tendency
and the type of data associated to it.

Interval data are discrete but
sometime treated as ratio
/continuous data. Hence, one can
compute
Mode
Median
Min, max
Mean if treated as
continuous

Basically when describing a
distribution of interval or ratio
data, one computes the
Central tendency
Dispersion

Skewness and kurtosis also describe the dispersion of the distribution. Skewness
illustrates the lean of the distribution while kurtosis measures its peakedness or
flatness.
Skewness
o +ve : tail to the right
o ve, tail to the left

Gender
Female
Male
72





Kurtosis
o Flatness/peakedness of
distribution
o + ve : peaked, -ve :
flattened



SO how do you compute skewness and kurtosis?
Of course, there are formulas but for now, you may compute the two by using
statistical tool or software. For instance , a simple descriptive analysis output from
SPSS will give you this in a few seconds. Skewness is +ve and so is kurtosis. So what
can you say about the distribution?



















You can easily learn to use SPSS to compute descriptive statistics by watching these
videos:
Statistics
20 20
00
24.1500 5.4500
23.0000 5.5000
23.00
a
4.00
a
7.1471 2.0894
51.0816 4.3658
2.829 -.095
.512 .512
9.340 -.992
.992 .992
32.00 7.00
18.00 2.00
50.00 9.00
Val i d
Mi ssi ng
N
Mean
Medi an
Mode
Std. Devi ati on
Vari ance
Skewness
Std. Error of Skewness
Kurtosi s
Std. Error of Kurtosi s
Range
Mi ni mum
Maxi mum
AGE SE
Mul ti pl e modes exi st. The smal l est val ue i s shown
a.
73

Introduction: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADDR3_Ng5CA

Frequency and descriptive analysis:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CWeHF3Mn00














Of course , you may also use MS Excel to compute descriptive statistics. Use the
formula @AVERAGE , @STDEV, @VAR, @SKEW, and @KURT

Now, suppose these are the test scores you collected.
Compute its mean, standard deviation, variance, skewness and kurtosis using MS
Excel.

21 22 18 16 14
20 19 13 15 17
22 20 14 22 18
16 15 17 24 18
22 18 21 22 10
19 13 20 19 12
20 14 22 20 15
15 17 16 15 23


Inferential statistics are required to test research hypotheses. We will not discuss
hypothesis testing and the different statistical tests in this module. If you need further
information, please refer to your instructor or browse these excellent web pages (click
on the pic)





74

Analyzing qualitative data

Qualitative data are basically narratives. Remember
Collecting qualitative data involves data from protocols (interview, observation)
developed during study and gathering text (words) or image (picture) data, and
Collecting information from a small number of individuals or sites
Qualitative data analysis
consist of text analysis
involve describing the information and developing themes

When you perform qualitative data analysis, you are basically performing an inductive
process of organizing the data into categories and identifying patterns among themes
and categories.
Data collected from interviews, observation and documents are rich data but they are
in overwhelming volume.

You thus need to :


Coding data:
Process of segmenting and labeling text to form descriptions and broad themes
in the data
Identifying the text segments:
Tags/labels for assigning units of meanings
Codes are labels used to describe a segment of text
Assigning a code word or phrase that accurately describes the meaning of
the text statement
One can code feeling, relationship, activity, action etc.
Developing themes
After coding the entire text, make a list of all code words
Identify themes from codes
Themes similar codes put together to form a major idea/
perspective
Support with evidence/ specific quotes

Organize
data
By type
By participant,
location, time etc.
Transcribe
data
convert to
text
Highlight
pauses,
questions,
clarification,
intonation
etc
Explore
data
Read
Develop
initial
analysis
Develop
themes
Indepth
understading
Use codes to
get themes
75



See examples of codes













76



Coding using a software




An example of codes and themes



77


TASK:

Interview a friend /colleague Ask him/her about online learning /e-learning and its
implications and relevance to a science teachers professional development.
Limit the interview to about 30 mins.
Transcribe the interview
Code the data and list the codes (manually or suing a software such as NVivo or
Dedoose).
Compare it with your friend who conducted a similar interview.
Work together to develop themes.
Illustrate your codes and themes in a diagram similar to the one shown
previously


































You have now reached the end of Section 6. Congratulations for completing the
module!

78

SUMMARY

Now your research proposal should be almost ready. Let us run through the process
again.
1) You are to identify your research area /research topic
2) You need to start with a background and justification of your choice of research
topic.
a. You have to bring in data, reports, government policies, current issues
(cite newspaper etc)
b. You may also refer to a research already conducted.
c. You may also conduct an interview to get information and early data
3) You must identify the variable or construct you are studying
a. State the operational definition the definition you are using in your
research. Basically you are telling people this is what I will be
measuring. Thus avoid stating definitions from dictionaries and then not
utilizing it to form your instrument.
4) You then state your research problem which is basically your research concern.
Describe the context of your research and the people involved. Again justify this
particular research problem with the use of literature.
5) Next, you write your research questions and form your hypotheses ( if you are
studying relationships)
a. Your research questions will let the readers know will you get the data
and from whom
b. Write both null and alternate hypotheses
6) It is very important to state the limitations and delimitations of your research.
The reader will understand the scope of your research. Think limitations in
terms of
a. The approach you are taking quantitative/ qualitative/ mixed
b. The method you are using the instrument, the technique
c. The theories that frame your research
d. The respondents/participants
e. The location
7) State the significance of your research Who will benefit?
8) You then write your review of literature. You summarize and synthesize
research findings to
a. Address the gap things that have not been addressed in the previous
research
b. Justify your research
c. Frame your research theories or established findings upon which you
base your research ; this includes the established definitions, the
theories/models/framework, established instrument etc
d. Remember to keep referring to your proposed research.
9) The methodology is next. You should describe
a. Your research approach
b. Your research design
c. Population and sampling
d. Data collection
i. Techniques
79

ii. Instruments describe the questionnaire ( sections, questions,
scales, level of measurement etc)
iii. Pilot your questionnaire and report the initial findings as well.
Inform the reader of any change made in your instrument or
procedures after piloting

e. Data analysis you only need to describe what you propose to do with
the data in order to answer the research questions
i. Depending on your research approach and design, you may use
descriptive or inferential statistics (quantitative) or you may be
transcribing, coding and developing themes (qualitative)

f. Validity , reliability and trustworthiness
i. Describe how you will ensure your instrument is reliable, your
data and findings are valid and trustworthy

For action research, go through this checklist aswell
1 Does the research project address a concrete issue or practical problem?
2 Is there participation by the practitioner in all stages of the research project?
3 Has researcher critically examined his or her own role, potential bias and
influence?
4 Is the research part of a continuous cycle of development (rather than a one-off
project)?

5 Are the data collection described for all stages of the research? Have
appropriate data sources been studied?

6 Is the intervention/project/action described in detail?

7 Is there a clear view of how the research findings will feed back directly into
practice?

8 Has the researcher reflected on his/her action?

9 Is it clear which kind of action research is being used-collaborative, practical,
or emancipatory?

10 Is the research sufficiently small-scale to be combined with a routine workload?
Have ethical matters been taken into consideration?


If you are thinking of conducting a research other than action research, you should go
through the three maps given below. They illustrate the elements you have to consider.



80

81


CHECKLIST
Are you now able to:
State what research is
Identify the pertinent elements of a research including ethics and access.
Describe the different approaches and methods used for academic research, in
particular when researching primary education
Make a clear statement of a research issue and pose appropriate research
questions
Select and justify a research approach appropriate for a specific research issue
Select and justify an appropriate methodology and data collection techniques for
a specific research issue
Identify the major sources of literature relevant to a given research issue
Be able to prepare a research proposal that addresses an appropriate research
problem with proper background, assumptions, delimitations, literature review
and methodology






ALL THE BEST!





















For internal use only
The module has been developed under the fair use policy to support the UiTM Distance
Learning Program.
Most of the authors of the different resources in the module are acknowledged.