Earthquakevolcano interactions detected from radon

degassing at Stromboli (Italy)

C. Cigolini

, M. Laiolo, D. Coppola
Dipartimento di Scienze Mineralogiche e Petrologiche, Universit di Torino, Via Valperga Caluso 35, 10125 Torino, Italy
Received 16 June 2006; received in revised form 6 March 2007; accepted 6 March 2007
Editor: M.L. Delaney
Available online 19 March 2007
Abstract
We investigated earthquakevolcano interactions by using a network for radon monitoring at Stromboli volcano. Radon is an
alpha emitting radioactive gas produced from the decay of uranium bearing rocks, soils and magmas. Its spatial and temporal
variations have been regarded as precursors of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Here we provide evidence of how radon
emissions at Stromboli can be correlated to high magnitude (M
L
N5) regional earthquakes and erupted magma volumes. The
Palermo earthquake of September 6, 2002 (M
L
=5.6), characterised by shallow hypocentral depth (15 km) and higher number of
energetic aftershocks, enhanced more efficiently postseismic dynamic triggering that may have contributed to triggering the
eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli by the end of 2002. Aviscoeslastic relaxation mechanism seems to be compatible with the
onset of both eruptions. The rate of erupted magma volume at Stromboli is positively correlated with the rate of radon degassing,
and suggests a possible link between magma chamber volume, gaseous transfer and dynamic response of the volcano to near field
seismic triggering.
Single and isolated deep earthquakes related to active subduction, such as the Salina event (M
L
=5.1) of May 5, 2004, are
capable of mobilising fluids (due to the passage of seismic waves at higher depths) but their dynamic effect on the fracture network
and the feeding system of the volcanoes seems to be limited, likely due to the near-surface attenuation of seismic waves. It is not
excluded that the coupling of two or more earthquakes of similar depth and/or higher magnitude in the near field, could play a more
efficient role in the triggering process.
2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: earthquakevolcano interactions; degassing; radon anomalies; magma volume; dynamic response of volcanoes
1. Introduction
The spatial and temporal relationships between
volcanic eruptions and regional earthquakes is currently
one of the most intriguing and debated issue in earth
sciences [1,2]. The recent Yogykarta earthquake of
May 27, 2006, offshore of south-central Java (M
L
=6.3),
was followed by a drastic increase in the activity of the
nearby erupting Merapi volcano, with the ejection of
several pyroclastic flows 4 km down its flanks. This
phenomenon, coupled with the occurrence of the major
SumatraAndaman earthquake of December 24, 2004,
further focused the attention of the scientific community
on the possible link between the cited events. In the
seventies, Japanese scientists first suggested a cause
effect correlation between tectonically-induced earth-
quakes and some volcanic eruptions [3,4]. Following
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
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Corresponding author.
E-mail address: corrado.cigolini@unito.it (C. Cigolini).
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doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.03.022
the Landers (California) earthquake (M
L
=7.4) of 28
June 1992, Hill et al. [5] first demonstrated that dynamic
stresses associated with seismic waves from a major
earthquake are capable of triggering both seismicity and
volcanic unrest at large distances from the epicentre.
Several subsequent events included the Hector Mine
(California) earthquake (M
L
=7.2) of 16 October 1999
and the Denali Fault earthquake (Alaska) of 2
November 2002 (M
L
=7.9). All of these earthquakes
triggered seismicity at widely scattered sites in western
United States, many of which were geothermal areas or
areas of young volcanism such as the Long Valley
caldera and the Yellowstone National Park [68].
However, in the near-field static stresses may also be
effective in triggering eruptions [9,10]. Linde and Sacks
[11] reported nearly synchronous relationships between
the onset of regional earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
due to the passages of seismic waves in volcanic areas.
In addition, coseismic and postseismic stress diffusion
has been regarded as a feasible triggering mechanism
[12,13]. Although more earthquakevolcano interac-
tions have been recently reported [14,15], the triggering
mechanism of volcanic eruptions is still strictly linked to
the problem of decoding the interplay between high-
magnitude earthquakes and remotely triggered seismic-
ity (not only in volcanic and/or geothermal areas). From
this perspective the role of fluids and pore-pressure
perturbations along faults and hydrothermal clusters
within the earth's crust seem to be a key factor in
inducing rapid and/or delayed triggering [16,17]. In this
paper we will provide additional evidence of how
networks for radon monitoring can be used to detect
diffuse degassing on sectors of active volcanoes, and
how its spatial and temporal distribution can be
correlated to regional seismicity [18,19].
Radon gas, essentially represented by the isotope
222
Rn (with a half life of 3.82 days), is an alpha emitting
radioactive gas produced from the decay of uranium
bearing materials. Its spatial and temporal variations
have been regarded as precursors of earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. Radon anomalies have been ob-
served before, during and after the onset of regional
seismic events (e.g., [2022]). In addition, positive
anomalies in radon emissions have been associated with
changes in volcanic activity and volcanically-related
earthquakes on Hawaii [23,24]. During a recent radon
survey at SommaVesuvius (Italy), Cigolini et al. [18]
were able to discriminate radon anomalies due to
regional earthquakes from local volcanic seismicity.
Recently, Burton et al. [25] used radon anomalies to
infer the geometry of a hidden fault during the seismic
crises of October, 2002 at Mount Etna.
Radon anomalies have also been regarded as
precursors to volcanic eruptions [26,27]. Su and Huh
[28] recorded increased contents of
210
Po (a daughter
product of
222
Rn) deposited by the plume of Mayon
volcano prior its last eruption. Cigolini et al. [19]
showed that major eruptive events at Stromboli volcano
occurred when summit stations reached and/or exceeded
the threshold values of 20,000 Bq/m
3
(lasting for at
least 3 days) 12 to 14 days before the 20022003
paroxysmal eruptions. However, these critical values
were recorded in absence of major regional earthquakes.
2. The Aeolian islands and Stromboli volcano
The Aeolian islands, located in the Southern Tyr-
rhenian Sea (Fig. 1), were built in the last 1.3 m.y. [29].
Erupted lavas and tephra are subduction-related calcalka-
line, HK-calcalkaline, shoshonitic and potassic suites
[30,31]. Subduction of the Ionian plate beneath the
Calabrian arc ceased about 1 m.y. ago, when a general
uplift (0.50.7 m.y.), associated with extensional tecton-
ics, affected Southern Italy [32,33]. Uplift occurred in the
forearc region, and was due to the rebound of the upper
plate (Calabrian Arc and part of the Ionian lithosphere)
decoupled from the main Ionian plate [34,35]. This
process has been ascribed to the post-10.7 m.y. rollback
of the slab. Plate decoupling was associated with mantle
upwelling that was first controlled by a main WNWESE
striking system of faults (Fig. 1). From Pleistocene to the
present, the southern propagation of the Tyrrhenian rifting
and the western margin of the roll-backing crust generated
the NNWSSE striking TindariLetojanni (TL) fault
[36,37]. Mount Etna and the central cluster of the Aeolian
Islands are located on this major structure (Fig. 1).
Stromboli is the north-eastern island of the Aeolian
arc (Fig. 1) and is located on a NESE strike-slip fault:
the StromboliPanarea (SA) alignment (i.e., a branch
connected to the TL fault). The cone of the volcano rises
924 m above sea level and was formed during the last
100 kyr [29]. Volcanic activity is strombolian, with
continuous explosions and eruptions of scoriae, lapilli,
ash and bombs [38] at three summit vents located in
the upper part of Sciara del Fuoco, a collapsed sector
delimited by a horseshoe-shaped scarp opening north-
westward [39]. The persistent strombolian activity may
be interrupted by lava effusions, major explosions and
paroxysms with the generation of tsunamis that may
threaten the West-Central Mediterranean [40]. The most
recent major eruption started December 28, 2002 with
the eruption of a hot avalanche from the NE crater that
preceded the emplacement a lava flow onto Sciara del
Fuoco. This event was followed by a composite slump on
512 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
the Sciara del Fuoco (December 30, 2002): flank failure
included also slices of the submerged part of the volcano
and generated a tsunami that affected the northern coast
of the island [41]. The almost continuous effusion of lava
persisted until July 21, 2003 [42] and was interrupted by
the major explosion of April 5, 2003, with the ejection of
a column 1 km high [43]. By the end of July 2003,
typical mild Strombolian activity has resumed at the
summit craters.
The hydrothermal system at Stromboli is rather
complex and consists of an upper portion, surrounding
the conduit and the crater area, and a lower sector located
at the base of the cone where several thermal waters are
found in the village of Stromboli [44,45]. Recently,
Cigolini et al. [19] outlined the areas of major degassing
on the NE flank, that coincide with the geometry of the
most active sectors of the hydrothermal system.
3. Methods
We started our radon surveys at Stromboli in May
2002. Initially, we planned to measure monthly and
Fig. 1. Structural setting of the Southern Tyrrhenian region and the Aeolian Islands; a) locations of recent major earthquakes, their magnitude and
focal mechanisms as reported by INGV (inset shows the epicenter of the AlgiersBoumerdes earthquake and the location of the Southern Tyrrhenian
region: small rectangle ); b) detailed map of the Aeolian Islands with the major tectonic units of the region.
513 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
seasonal radon variations by means of a network of
25 stations (Fig. 2) using track-etch detectors (LR115)
finely calibrated for alpha-particle beams [46], which
were exposed from 2 to 5 weeks. During our periodic
surveys we also utilised E-PERM electretes [47] which
were exposed fromone to 4 days. Following the onset of a
new major eruptive cycle, that started on December 28,
2002, we performed repeated surveys by using E-PERM
electretes to be able to correlate radon emissions with
short-term variations in volcanic activity. Therefore,
track-etch detectors were exposed permanently, whereas
E-PERM electretes were used (several times during a
single campaign) when we were physically present on the
island for our periodic surveys. Both detectors were
placed in subsurface pipe-like samplers (1.20 mlong with
a diameter of 12 cm, which were set to a depth of about
60 cm) isolated by a cap to minimise condensation. They
can both coexist within a single station and can be sampled
independently within a single day. Gervino et al. [48] have
recently shown that these dosimeters are essentially
unaffected by daily temperature or soil humidity variations.
Moreover, the long-term exposure of track-etch detectors
(LR115) minimizes the effects of short-termfluctuations in
radon emissions, essentially due to variations in atmo-
spheric pressure and microseismicity. Therefore, these
detectors give a reliable integrated measurement of radon
activity over their time of exposure, and we may easily
recalculate monthly radon emissions by opportunely
recombining the results obtained for each station during
a single campaign (since their exposure time not always
coincides with the end or the beginning of the month).
The use of the above detectors contemporaneously for
all the stations of the network, gave us the opportunity to
better discriminate the effects of regional seismicity on
radon degassing from those related to variations in vol-
canic activity (cf., [19]).
4. Major earthquakes and related processes
The locations of major regional seismic events that
affected the Mediterranean region in 20022004 are
shown in Fig. 1. Seismic parameters and focal mech-
anisms are those reported by the seismic catalogues of the
Italian National Institute for Geophysics and Volcanol-
ogy (INGV) at http://www.ingv.it.
The Palermo earthquake of September 6, 2002, with
M
L
=5.6 and a hypocentral depth of 15 km, was gen-
erated in the Western sector of the Southern Tyrrhenian
basin. Focal mechanism resolution indicates a an ob-
lique (strike-slip/reverse) solution with a subhorizontal
Fig. 2. The radon monitoring network at Stromboli. Sampling stations
are numbered and subdivided into three classes: summit stations
(triangles), lower stations (squares) and other stations (dots).
Table 1
Summary of geologic events triggered by the Palermo earthquake of September 6, 2002, in North-Western Sicily, Atnean region and Panarea island,
prior the 20022003 eruption of Stromboli
Site Date Phenomena Reference
North-Western Sicily September 6, 2006
few hours after the
Palermo earthquake
Changes in the flow rates and temperatures of hydrothermal
springs and triggering of the major Cerda landslide
[1]
Etna September 22, 2002 Marked increase in seismicity in the Aetnean region [2, 3, 4]
October 26November 5, 2002 Violent phreatomagmatic explosions, lava fountains
and violent strombolian explosions followed by lava
flows from eruptive fissures on the NE and S flanks
[3]
November 15, 2002 to January 28, 2003 Explosive activity and lava flows onto the S flank [3]
Panarea November 2December, 2002 Anomalous degassing from the sea bottom off the coast
of Panarea related to a submerged geothermal system,
due to the input of magmatic fluids
[5, 6]
January, 2003 Restoration of the mild steady-state degassing typical
of this submerged geothermal depression
[5, 6]
References: 1. Agnesi et al. [49]; 2. Acocella et al. [50]; 3. Andronico et al. [51]; 4. Patan et al. [52]; 5. Capaccioni et al. [53]; 6. Caliro et al. [54].
514 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
compressive P axis striking NWSE, coupled with a
relative NESW extensional motion [37]). This event
was followed by 8 aftershocks with M
L
N4, and 25 with
M
L
N3 coupled with a dramatic increase in the regional
seismicity of the Southern Tyrrhenian domain. Several
geologic processes followed this seismic crisis affecting
mainland Sicily and the Aeolian islands (cf., Table 1).
The immediate response to the Palermo earthquake was
the triggering of a major landslide near the village of
Cerda in North-Western Sicily (about 30 km inland from
Palermo) that occurred just one hour after the major
seismic event. This episode was followed by an in
increase in the flow rates and temperatures of several
hydrothermal springs in the surrounding area [49]. In the
following days, the Palermo earthquake triggered minor
seismicity in the Aetnean region that culminated, on
September 22, 2002, with the onset of a stronger
earthquake (of M
L
=3.7) along the Pernicana Fault,
located on the Eastern sector of Mount Etna [5052].
This event was followed by the moderate seismicity in
the surrounding region coupled with microseismic
swarms below the volcanic edifice leading to the
eruption of Mount Etna on October 26, 2002 [52].
The eruption persisted until January 28, 2003 (Table 1).
On November 2, 2002, anomalous strong degassing
has been observed from the sea bottom off the coast of
Panarea, one of the Aeolian island situated at about
20 km SE of Stromboli and located along the Stromboli
Panarea structural alignment (Fig. 1b). The anomalous
gas flux was released from a submerged geothermal
system, normally active in this area (Table 1). This phe-
nomenon has been related to the input of magmatic fluids
Fig. 3. Histograms of the monthly number of earthquakes that affected the Southern Tyrrhenian and Aetnean regions during 20022004 compared
with the seismic energy released in those sectors of Southern Italy. Energies have been calculated according to McGarr, [58]; a, b) Peaks in the number
of earthquakes and seismic energy are related to the onset of the Palermo earthquake. The contribution of the Salina event to the energy released in
May 2004 can be clearly observed; c, d) Histograms for the Aetnean region also show peaks, both for number of earthquakes and seismic energy
during September 2002. Most of the earthquakes (with magnitude M
L
2) occurred during October 27 and 28, 2002, thus overlapping the onset of
eruption at Mount Etna.
515 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
Fig. 4. a) Normalised cumulative-step curves for the seismic energies released within the Southern Tyrrhenian and Aetnean regions compared the
cumulative curve for radon emissions at the summit stations of Stromboli (Fig. 2). Variations in volcanic activity during 20022004 are also
indicated. Radon data have been collected by means of -track-etches (LR115): single measurements have an average error of 12% [46].
b) Histograms of monthly radon emissions at Sromboli volcano (measured by -track-etches, LR115 with an average error of 12% on single
measurements; cf., [46]) with the indications of major earthquakes and major eruptive events at Etna and Stromboli volcanoes during 20022004.
Histograms were obtained by summing the radon activity measured at each stations for each single class: lower stations, summit stations and other
stations (cf. Fig. 2). The sum of the three represents the total monthly emissions of
222
Rn monitored at Stromboli.
516 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
from a deeper source, likely stored in the subvolcanic
environment [53,54].
The AlgiersBoumerdes earthquake of May 21,
2003 (M
L
=6.7), offshore the Algerian coast and
15 km deep, is among the largest events that has oc-
curred in the western Mediterranean over the past
25 years. Rupture occurred on a reverse fault trending
ENEWSW with its upper edge 6 km offshore and
lower edge 4 km inland [55]. Solutions indicates pure-
reverse faulting with a subhorizontal P axis striking
NWSE. The major seismic event was followed by
8 aftershocks with M
L
4.3, two of them with M
L

5.2. Intense microseismicity was persistent throughout

June 2003 [56]. This event was not accompanied by an
increase in seismicity in the Southern Tyrrhenian region.
The Salina earthquake of May 5, 2004 is a deep event
(250 km in depth) essentially associated with active
subduction with M
L
=5.1 [57]. Focal mechanism solu-
tions by INGVare consistent with an oblique-transitional
from strike-slip to normal fault with a marked plunge
(52) for the P axis striking NS. The earthquake was
preceded by two events with M
L
of 2.7 and 3.2, and was
followed by two aftershocks with M
L
3. All the latter
events were located at a depth of 58 km.
5. Radon monitoring and seismicity
Systematic radon monitoring at Stromboli started in
May, 2002. The network for radon monitoring is de-
ployed on the NE edge of the Sciara del Fuoco, the
summit area surrounding the craters, and the Eastern
sector of the volcano (Fig. 2).
In Fig. 3 we report the histograms of the monthly
number of earthquakes (with M
L
2) that affected the
Southern Tyrrhenian and Aetnean regions during 2002
2004 (the full catalogue for the Italian earthquakes is
available at http://www.ingv.it; a synthesis consisting of
one table, for the data of our regions of interest, is
available as supplemental material) compared with the
seismic energy released in those sectors of Southern
Italy. Energies have been calculated according to
McGarr, [58]. It must be emphasised that the peaks in
number of earthquakes and seismic energy for the
Southern Tyrrhenian area are essentially related to the
onset of the Palermo earthquake and related aftershocks.
They both decrease exponentially until March 2003,
then gradually increase finally and reach their minima
during October 2003. It can also be noticed that the
Salina event released a relatively high energy but was
preceded and followed by a minor number of earth-
quakes. Data for the Aetnean region also show peaks,
both for number of earthquakes and seismic energy,
during September 2002. In this case the most of the
earthquakes (with magnitude M
L
2) occurred during
October 27 and 28, 2002, and were seismic events
caused by the eruption as a dike intruded to the surface.
In Fig. 4a we compare the normalised cumulative
curves for seismic energy in the above sectors of Southern
Italy with the normalised cumulative curve for radon
degassing at the summit stations of Stromboli. The curve
for the Southern Tyrrhenian region shows a major step
due to the Palermo seismic crisis, and then moderately
increased during 2003 and 2004. The relatively flat trend
in the cumulative curve is due to the change from the
Fig. 5. Nomalised cumulative curves for radon emissions at summit stations and cumulative magma volume at Stromboli during the last effusive
cycle. Radon measurements were performed with LR115 detectors, with an average error of 12% on single measurements (cf., [46]). Cumulative
magma volume was estimated from average effusion rates obtained from MODIS images according to Coppola [69], being consistent with the data
reported by Calvari et al. [43] and Ripepe et al. [42].
517 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
logarithmic scale to the normalised scale. Anyhow, a
rather similar and delayed trend is represented by
seismicity in the Aetnean region, which is associated with
the activation of the southern sector of the TLfault system
along a zone of crustal weakness where the volcanic
edifice of Etna was built. The cumulative curve for radon
shows that degassing at the summit of Stromboli
increased after the Palermo earthquake (September and
October 2003). It further increased during the onset of the
effusive eruption, peaked in February and then slightly
decreased during March 2003: i.e., before the major
explosion of April 5, 2003. After this event the radon
curve follows a rather uniform slope until the onset of the
Salina earthquake when both radon and seismicity in the
Southern Tyrrhenian region dramatically increased. In the
case of the Palermo earthquake, anomalous radon
emissions are definitely postseismic.
Histograms in Fig. 4b give a better clue for variations
in radon degassing. During September and October
2002 we observed a remarkable growth in volcanic
Fig. 6. Precursory radon anomalies before the AlgiersBeaumerdes earthquake recorded at some lower stations of the Stromboli network
(measurements by E-PERM detectors with an average error of 7%on single measurements; [47]). Background values are also reported. They were
calculated for single stations according to Hernandez et al. [70] on the basis of the principles outlined by Sinclair [71]. Background calculations were
performed on a set of
222
Rn data collected from May 2002 to April 2005, and involve: 160 measurements for st. 2; 130 for st. 24; and 153 for st. 25.
Fig. 7. Sequence of 222Rn emissions before, during and after the Salina seismic event of May 5, 2004. Radon emissions (squares) are compared with
seismic foreshocks and aftershocks in the area surrounding Salina. Horizontal error bars define the exposure time. Vertical error bars reflect 2
uncertainties on single measurements performed with E-PERM detectors, with a mean error of 7% on single measurements [47].
518 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
activity and, by the end of October 2002 the magma
column reached the floor of the NE crater and explo-
sions were particularly vigorous. The relative maximum
in
222
Rn emissions of February 2003 was related to the
persistent effusive activity coupled with the opening of
the fracture network [19]. The bulk trend then shows a
222
Rn decrease, with the exception of August 2003,
when the Strombolian activity at summit vents replaced
the lava flow. The maximum peak in radon degassing is
reached in May 2004, due to the seismic crisis that
culminated in the Salina earthquake. In addition, Fig. 5
shows a very good correlation between the cumulative
radon emissions with the cumulative magma volume
produced during the last effusive cycle.
The AlgiersBoumerdes earthquake (May 21, 2003)
did not particularly affect bulk radon emissions during
that month. However, we were able to detect the
precursory radon anomalies with E-PERM detectors
Fig. 8. Topographic DEM images of radon anomalies onto the NE sector of Stromboli during the Salina seismic sequence. Dots represent
measurement sites. Radon measurements were performed with E-PERM detectors (which have a mean error of 7% on single measurements; [47]).
See text for details.
519 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
(Fig. 6). Anomalies recorded at single stations are not
synchronous, likely due to structural discontinuities and
local variations in rock-soil porosities and permeabilities.
The presence of water is also critical in modulating radon
migration in porous media [59]. The sites where these
monitoring stations are located are underlain by an aquifer
connected to an active hydrothermal system extended
throughout the NE sector of the island [19,60]. Therefore,
a complex interplay among all these factors may have
contributed to produce the observed radon anomalies.
Following the AlgiersBoumerdes earthquake, regional
seismicity and bulk radon emissions at Stromboli have
been relatively moderate until JulyAugust 2003, when
the lava flow ceased and the typically mild Strombolian
activity at summit craters was resumed (Fig. 4b). During
August 2003, summit stations reached a relative peak due
to the increased strombolian activity.
As previously mentioned, the Salina earthquake of
May 5, 2004 with M
L
=5.1 occurred at a relatively high
depth (250 km) for the Aeolian islands and may be
related with active subduction. In this case we could not
discriminate precursory signals since E-PERM detec-
tors were exposed from May 3 to May 7, and throughout
the whole seismic crisis. However, the higher Rn
monthly anomaly that reaches the maximum peak is
due to the Salina event, with radon activities up to
97,000 Bq/m
3
at summit stations (Fig. 7). Radon anom-
alies projected onto topographic DEM images show that
the first sector affected by a drastic increase in radon
emissions is just north of the crater area (Fig. 8a) along
the main direction of dyking and fracturing (cf., [39]).
From May 7 to May 10 radon anomalies (Fig. 8b) are
spread onto the whole crater area and the lower edge of
Sciara del Fuoco, likely related to degassing of a
submerged portion of the hydrothermal system that was
involved in the activation of fractures during the sub-
marine slumping of December 30, 2002 [19]. Over this
time period, the area exhibiting the May 3May 7
anomaly shifted to very low Rn-emissions. During May
12 to May 14 (Fig. 8c) the area with the higher anomaly
is located above the N60E fracture zone detected by
Finizola and Sortino [61]. At this time, degassing at the
summit as well as at lower edge of Sciara del Fuoco
drastically decreases. The sequence of images shows
that once each of the single sector has degassed (and
showed higher Rn-anomalies), radon emissions reach
their minima, and so on throughout the mapped area. By
May 16 the residual radon anomaly is concentrated in
the crater area where radon emissions are normally
higher and persistent (Fig. 8d). For the Salina seismic
event we cannot say, due to the exposure time of radon
detectors (i.e., 4 days that overlap the earthquake time),
if the earliest anomaly is coseismic (Figs. 79). How-
ever, it is clear that in this specific case the response of
the volcanic edifice in terms of radon degassing occur-
red relatively rapidly.
Fig. 9. Weighted average best fit for regional seismic energies released within the Southern Tyrrhenian region and radon emissions at the summit
stations of Stromboli. Following the Palermo earthquake the delay in time for the radon curve in respect to the one of the released seismic energy is
particularly evident. For the Salina event radon degassing peaks during the evolution of the sesimic crisis (see text for details). Radon measurements
were performed by E-PERM detectors, with an average error of 7% on single measurements [47].
520 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
6. Discussion
Cumulative energy releases for the Southern Tyrrhe-
nian region during 20022003 suggest a causeeffect
relationship for the triggering of seismicity within the
Aetnean sector. In particular, the seismic sequence asso-
ciated with the Palermo earthquake (September 6, 2002)
remotely triggered seismicity along the southern part of the
TindariLetojanni fault system and prepared the ground
for the eruption of Mount Etna on October 26, 2002. Focal
mechanism solutions for this major seismic event are
consistent with a NWSE compression coupled with a
NESW extensional component that, in turn, likely
affected the strike-slip motion of the TL structural
alignment. The dynamic response of the area surrounding
Mount Etna has been particularly efficient, likely due to the
presence of the hydrothermal cluster within the volcanic
edifice coupled with the complex fault and fracture
network of the area (cf., [50]). This further supports the
idea that pore-pressure perturbations are key factors in the
triggering mechanism of remote seismicity and may
eventually be involved in the onset of volcanic eruptions.
Essentially on geotectonic grounds, we are attempted to
speculate that the increase in seismicity along the Tindari
Letojanni fault system contributed to postseismic stress
diffusion (cf., [12,13]) along the StromboliPanarea
alignment and led to an increase in radon emissions at
Stromboli during September and October 2002 (Fig. 9),
followed by the anomalous degassing at Panarea (from
November 2002 to January 2003).
222
Rn degassing at
Stromboli further grew before and during the onset of the
last major eruptive cycle (December 28, 2002), peaked in
February and then slightly decreased during March 2003
(Fig. 9): i.e., before the major explosion of April 5, 2003.
The correlation between the release of seismic energy and
radon emissions reported in Fig. 9, gives us an idea of the
time-delay for the dynamic response of the volcano to the
Palermo earthquake, whereas the response to the Salina
event has been relatively rapid. Therefore, we tested an
alternative hypothesis that establishes a direct link
between the Palermo earthquake and the eruptions of
both Etna and Stromboli. It is well known that seismic
transients directly affect magma chambers inducing over-
pressures, essentially related to the viscoelastic response of
the wall rocks [e.g., [6264]]. Bubble nucleation and
growth also play a significant role in promoting eruptions
(e.g., [1,2]; and references therein).
A rough estimate for a viscoelastic response of a
magma chamber may be obtained by introducing the
Maxwell time relationship =
wr
/ E, which relates the
effective wall rock viscosity (
wr
) to the elastic modulus
(E). By substituting the value 10
17
Pa s for viscosity,
which is consistent with Borgia [65] for the roots zone
of basaltic volcanic edifices, and 10
10
Pa for E, which
has been shown to be appropriate for crustal rocks (e.g.,
[64]; among others), we obtain =116 days. This esti-
mate scales well with the time span occurred between
the Palermo earthquake on the onset of the major
eruption at Stromboli, i.e. 113 days. For Etna, we have
to reduce the effective viscosity to
wr
=510
16
Pa s
(which is still compatible with wall rock viscosities of a
porous medium affected by microcracking and fluid
migration, cf., [66]), or alternatively to set E=210
10
Pa,
to get 58 days, which is only 8 days in delay from the
beginning of the 20022003 eruption (the effective time
being 50 days since the Palermo earthquake). Since the
distance of the volcanoes from the epicentre is nearly
equal, being 138.8 and 136.4 km for Stromboli and Etna,
respectively, and the effective and the estimated time
ratios are 2, we may infer that magma chamber volumes
may be involved in modulating the response time for these
eruptions. Directivity of seismic wave trains, modulated
by structural discontinuities, may also have played a role
in promoting eruption at the two sites. An alternative
hypothesis is that bubble nucleation and growth are key-
factors in generating the critical overpressures necessary
to activate eruption. In this specific case, Etna may have
erupted first because of the increased deep supply of
undegassed magma since February 2002 [67]. This is also
consistent with the observation that the system was
pressurised [52], and microcracking likely induced a
decrease in wall rocks' viscosity. Another possibility is
that that focal mechanism of the Palermo earthquake
promoted shear along the StromboliPanarea alignment
and compression along the TindariLetojanni fault
system, which resulted in the local anisotropy in the
strain distribution within the two tectonic domains.
Precursory radon anomalies have been recorded for the
AlgiersBoumerdes earthquake of May 21, 2003. These
were not associated with a growth in the bulk radon
degassing in Stromboli's eruption rate due to the fact that
the epicenter was very far from Stromboli (1120 km),
and the event was not accompanied by a marked and
persisting increase in seismicity in the Southern Tyr-
rhenian region. Precursory radon anomalies to major
tectonic earthquakes have been recognised by several
authors (e.g., [2022]; among others). The most striking
observations have been presented by Fleischer and
MogroCampero [20] who reported precursory anoma-
lies for seismic events located over 1000's of km from
their sites of measurements. Although Planici et al. [22]
provided, essentially on statistical grounds, a causeeffect
relationship between the two phenomena, additional
geological evidences are needed to better refine this
521 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
correlation. A feasible explanation is that stress accumu-
lation within the crust would induce gaseous transfer
before rupture may occur also very far from the site of
measurement. In their experiments on the emission of
thoron associated with rocks fracturing, Hishimuma et al.
[68] have experimentally shown that fluid release was
taking place right before and during incipient fracturing,
definitely before rock failure. To minimise the scale
effects related to their laboratory experiments, they have
used thoron (
220
Ra), a very short lived isotope of the
radon family with a half-life of 55.6 s. Their results are
particularly significant because they throw light on the
behaviour of radon as a stress tracer. However, definite
answers could only be given by analysing the dynamic
response of large-scale faults to regional earthquakes by
means of radon networks, with automated stations
operating continuously and contemporaneously.
The peak in bulk radon emissions of May 2004 is due
to the Salina seismic event of May 5, 2005, and related
aftershocks. In this case we detected the dynamic re-
sponse of the volcanic edifice to the release of seismic
energy. Data indicate that radon emissions along fracture
zones are activated first, and are followed by anomalies
related to degassing through the hydrothermal system.
We thus suggest that major earthquakes with shallow
hypocentral depths (1525 km) and higher number of
energetic aftershocks would perturb more efficiently the
feeding systems of open-conduit volcanoes and may
lead to volcanic eruptions. The role of fluids is critical in
reducing fault friction thus promoting failure in
tectonically active areas, as well as inducing pore-
pressure perturbations within the hydrothermal systems
of active volcanoes. However, relatively isolated deep
earthquakes due to active subducion, such as the Salina
event, are capable of mobilising fluids (due to the
passage of seismic waves at higher depths) but their
dynamic effect on the fracture network seems to be
limited and less pervasive, due to the near-surface
attenuation of seismic waves. In this particular case, the
peak in radon emissions is due to the dynamic effect of
the passage of seismic waves that would mobilise fluids
circulating within the active hydrothermal system of
Stromboli, thus producing higher and more extended
anomalies. However, anomalies will persists at summit
stations since the crater area is affected by the con-
tinuous and deeper degassing of the magmatic system.
7. Conclusions
We attempted to investigate earthquakevolcano inter-
actions by assessing the dynamic response of Stromboli to
three major tectonic earthquakes by analysing radon
emissions. Networks for radon monitoring are shown to
be a very powerful tool for discriminating anomalies due to
regional earthquakes from those induced by the variations
in volcanic activity. In particular, the Palermo earthquake
(M
L
=5.6) characterised by shallow hypocentral depth
(15 km) and higher number of energetic aftershocks,
enhanced more efficiently postseismic dynamic triggering
that led to the eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli by
the end of 2002. A viscoeslastic relaxation mechanism
seems to be feasible for explaining the onset of both
eruptions and is basically consistent with the onset and
delay of radon anomalies recorded at Stromboli. In
addition, bubble nucleation and growth within the
magma chamber contributed to generate the critical over-
pressure to promote eruptions. The rate of erupted magma
volume at Stromboli positively correlates with the rate of
radon degassing and suggest a possible link between
magma chamber volumes, gaseous transfer and dynamic
response of the volcanoes to seismic triggering in near field.
The geodynamic setting of the Southern Tyrrhenian
region, coupled with the following sequence of events:
Palermo earthquake (September 6, 2002) Etna erup-
tion (September 26, 2002) anomalous degassing in
the submerged geothermal field of Panarea (November
2, 2002) onset of the major eruption of Stromboli
(December 28, 2002), does not exclude that stress
diffusion might have played a minor role in the trig-
gering process.
In contrast, the subduction-related single and deep
earthquake of Salina (M
L
=5.1) of May 5, 2004, was
capable of mobilising fluids (due to the passage of seis-
mic waves) which generated marked radon anomalies,
but its dynamic effect on the fracture network and the
feeding system of the volcano seems to be limited, likely
due to the near-surface attenuation of seismic waves.
However, it is not excluded that the coupling of two or
more earthquakes of similar, and/or higher magnitude
and depth in the near field, could play a more efficient
role in the triggering process. In this perspective, future
work should take into account the combined effects of the
two regional seismic events (with M
L
N5) that affected
the southern Tyrrenhian region during the end of 2006,
and preceded the onset of the current effusive cycle at
Stromboli (that started on February 27, 2007).
Precursory radon anomalies have been recorded for the
AlgiersBoumerdes earthquake of May 21, 2003 (M
L
=6.7)
but were not followed by significant and extended radon
anomalies at Stromboli that, in turn, did not change its
typical eruptive style. In this case the release of seismic
energy occurred very far from Stromboli (1120 km), and
the event was not followed by an increase in remotely
triggered seismicity within the Tyrrhenian region.
522 C. Cigolini et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 257 (2007) 511525
We may conclude by stressing that a network of
automated stations for radon monitoring, that will allow
real-time continuous and systematic measurements, is a
key-factor for optimising surveillance on active volca-
noes, and will surely lead to a better understanding of
the complexity of these dynamic systems.
Acknowledgements
The research was funded by the National Institute for
Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV, Project V2), and
the Italian Civil Defence. Additional funds for MIUR
are gratefully acknowledged. We are also particularly
grateful to the staff of the Italian Civil Defense for
their logistic assistance, in particular to C. Cardaci and
A. Scalzo. M. Ripepe and K. Cashman provided valued
and stimulating suggestions. We thank A. Finizola for the
topographic DEM image of Stromboli. The criticisms of
two anonymous referees to an earlier draft of the paper
were very much appreciated. Special thanks to G. Gervino
and R. Bonetti for some earlier measurements. M. Zaia,
M. Pruiti and L. Russo helped us in the field.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be
found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.epsl.
2007.03.022.
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