1.

Hydrological cycle
Precipitation > runoff > infiltration > evaporation & transpiration >
2. Main processes
3. Water budget equation
Inflow outflow = ground water runoff
Above surface
P+R1-R2+Rg-Es-Ts-I = Ss
Below surface
I + G1-G2-Rg-Eg-Tg = Sg
Together
P+R+G-E-T=S
Over long
P-R -ET=0
4. Temperature thermometer (measure in a box at 1.25m above the ground)
Radiation radiator
Wind anemometer
Rain intensity Rain gauges or weather radar
(Effect: Shape of building or tree, animal activities, heavy rain, strong wind)
(Use reflected electromagnetic energy, cons: not as accurate as gauges, expensive, complex to
calibrate radar)
5. Humidity (Water vapour of air)
e / e
s

6. Dew point temperature the vapour begins to condense
7. Web-bulb temperature the resultant temperature when vapour saturation is reached by
evaporating water into the air
8. Bowen Ratio (is in fact a ratio of the latent heat and the sensible heat during phase change
(e ew) = (

) where
9. Double mass curve
Work out the mass (cumulative) value
Plot the dots on the graph
Draw the lines and fit the dots
If there is exiting two different linear straight lines, find out the changing point
Apply the first slope to the points that have a new series of Gauge X mass value
By subtracting mass value of previous year, you can obtain the yearly value of the current year
10. ET Evaporation & transpiration (it is depended on plant physiology and soil moisture)
(effect: wind, evaporating surface, supply of water, temperature, saturation of deficit, soil
moisture)
E
0
Open water surface evaporation
PET (if soil moisture is unlimited) The actual ET is less because limit on supply of water
Thornthwaite Method
PET = c

Vlaney-Criddle method
Monthly consumptive use in cm (CU = kf = PET)
f = (1.8T
m
+ 32)P / 39.37
What is E
a
in deriving Penman equation
It can be obtained from conventional meteorological observation
Assumption Sufficient water supply effective and continuous vapor removal
Penman equation describes evaporation from an open surface which requires daily mean
temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and solar radiation to predict E.
Energy balance
R
A
is the radiation of short wave (Income)
R
C
is the radiation of short wave after the effect of clouds
R
I
is the radiation of short wave (effective income) after the reflection of the surface
R
B
is the radiation of long wave (out-going)
R
A
(given)
R
C
= R
A
(0.18 + 0.55 n / D)
R
I
= R
C
(1 r) where r = 0.06
R
B
=

( )( ) where T
a
= C + 273
Net Incoming energy (H = R
I
R
B
)
H = E0 + K + S + C
Where H is radiation energy
K is convective heat transfer
S is heating of the water body
C is heating of the environment
As the assumption of the empirical equation of evaporation is E
0
= C (

-e) f(u)
Similarly, K = C
1
(

-t) f(u)

)
(

)

H = E
0
+ K = E
0
(1 +)
From saturation curve,
= tan =
(

)
(

)

E
0
=

( )

(
(

)
(

)
)

(
(

)
(

)
)

As E
a
= C(e
s
e)f(u) and E
0
= C(

e)f(u)

)
(

)

(

)
(

)
(

)
E
0
=

(
(

)
(

)
)

)

11. Preciptitation aanalysis
Cause of preciptitation
(Rain or snow) Condensation by cooling the moist air which occur near the ground
12. Intensity (mm/h) I = R/t
Duration I =

()

(depended on the precipitation mechanism) a, m, b, n are empirical constants

1 day rainfall = measurement start at 9:00am to next day 9:00am
24 hours rainfall = measurement in any 24 hours period
Frequency = number of occurrence of the event over a period of time n / N
Probability = p = n / N
Return period = T = 1 / p

Areal Precipitation Normally, Precipitation is measured at a point. But the engineers are
interesting in the amount of precipitation falling down into a given area.
Methods
Arithmetic Average (the most comfortable approach, include the larger error)
Summarize all the rainfall value / the number of observations
Thiessen Method (apply with weighted average of all gauges values, 1) Triangulation 2) draw
bisectors to create polygons 3) finalizing by intersecting with catchment boundary 4)

Isohyetal method ( 1)obtain contours 2) measure the area between every two neighouring isohyets
3)get the average rainfall

Spatial interpolation it is a computation analysis (more generic, calculated by computer, using
different interpolation schema: polynomial, natural neighbour, inverse-distance weighted,
Krigging)
13. Able to describe the generic procedure from point rainfall to design rainfall
Synthetic rainfall events with desired frequency (or return period) are obtained by measurement
Using reference vale of M5 with relevant specific return period in Flood Studies Report obtains the
M5 value in design return period with adjusted duration, then using the growth factor to define the
relevant rainfall MX value to adjust the areal rainfall value. Finally, to multiply the areal reduction
factor
14. In order to quantify the relationship between intensity and duration for given return period, we
need to retrieve i-D pair first.
Step 1: Draw a graph of D against number of storms with intensity as parameter.
Step 2: To get a series of (I,D) just draw a vertical line passing the corresponding number of
storms
Step 3: the vertical line will cross all curves at a number of locations.
Step 4: using the data draw a log I against log D on other graph. A straight line is otbained
Step 5: the equation of the line is log I = log a + nlog D (y = c +mx).
Step 6: the relationship of I = (

15. Infiltration (effect: Precipitation, soil type, soil water content, vegetation over, slope group)
Effective rainfall Rainfall loss (infiltration, evaporation, transpiration etc) = surface runoff
Infiltration excess runoff: when rainfall intensity is higher than infiltration capacity
Saturation excess runoff: When soil is saturated. Good vegetation cover
Direct runoff the consequence of the effective rainfall; Removing the base flow from the
hydrograph
Base flow soil flow and ground water relies on local geology
River flow
Effluent streams fed by ground water
Influent streams feed surrounding group water and aquifer
Intermittent stream sometimes both in influent and effluent stream
Perennial stream flow all year around
Ephemeral stream sometime flowing; sometime dry
River discharge measurement
Velocity method Q = AV
Acoustic Doppler Current Profile scan by ultrasonic wave
Hydraulic structure - weir
























Calculation
Double mass curve (able to fill the gap of missed date, check the neighbouring gauges) (Abrupt
change point)
Empirical equation (reflect the relevant factors: saturation deficit, wind effect)
E
a
= C(e
s
e) f(u)
E
a
= 0.35(e
s
e) (0.5 + 0.54u
2
) u
2
is wind speed
Assumption same temperature for the air and the water surface
E
0
= C(e
s
e) f(u)
Assumption sufficient water supply, continuous water vapour removal
R
I
= R
A
(1 r) (0.18 + 0.55 n/D) the incoming radiation after going through the cloud and after
reflection of the surface
R
B
=

(0.47 0.077)(0.20 + 0.80 n/D) the out going radiation (Blackbody radiation,
emissivity coefficient) T+273 = 117.4 x 10
-9
r = 0.06
Net incoming energy
H = R
I
- R
B

H = E
0
+K where K is convective of heat transfer
Where E
0
= C(e
s
e) f(u) & K = C
1
(t
s
t) f(u)
K / E
0
= =
( )
( )

H = E
0
(1 +)
(es es) / (ts t) = tangent of curves (slope) =
K / E
0
= =
( )
( )

H = E
0
(1 +)
E
0
= H / (1 +)
E
0
= H / (1 +
( )
( )
)
E
0
= H / (1 +

))
E
0
= (

) / ( )
Ea can be obtained from conventional meteorological observations
Other surface E
B
= ratio x E
0

Pan evaporation (measurement)

Depth Area Time Relationships

= P (1

)
Calculation of design rainfall

Infiltration (f(t) = f
0
+ (f
c
+f
0
)e
-kt



Rational Method estimate flood peak (no hydrograph) runoff

Concentration time estimate

Time area method estimate runoff

Derive the unit hydrograph