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Topic 1 Communication: An Overview

1) 6 elements which are present in all communication acts
Context
Source-receiver
Message
Channels
Noise
Effect
2) 4 main purposes in communication:
- To inquire
- To inform
- To persuade
- To develop goodwill
3) 7 ways/forms that oral communication often takes:
Intrapersonal communication - self-talk or a conversation you hold with yourself under
certain circumstances
Interpersonal communication - communication between several people
Small group communication - takes place in a group, usually comprising 5 to 10 people
Public communication - involves communication between a speaker and an audience
Mass communication - sent out from a source to many receivers all over the world
Corporate communication - takes place among members of an organization
Intercultural communication - communication between people of diverse cultures and
ethnicity




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Topic 2 Oral Communication: Some Basic Principles
1) Oral communication involves two crucial skills
- listening
- speaking.
2) Mindful Attention

3) What is the difference between hearing and listening?
- Hearing begins and ends when one receives a sound stimuli.
- Listening does not begin and end just with hearing a sound as it involves deriving meaning
from the sound
4) What is the difference between passive listening and active listening?
In passive listening, you listen passively, at a low level of concentration and absorb the
minimum number of words.
Active listening involves a higher level of concentration.
5) Active listening can be improved by:
paraphrasing the speaker message,
identifying your weaknesses,
preparing yourself mentally and physically,
setting priorities.
6) Rules in Communication
- Constitutive Rules - define what communication means by showing us the meaning behind
certain kinds of symbols used in communication.
- Regulative Rules - These unwritten rules tell you when, where, how and with whom you have
a conversation

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7) Voice Attributes
- Volume
- Pitch
- Intonation
- Tone
- Tempo
- Enunciation
- Pronunciation
8) WHY WE NEED GOOD ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Building Friendships
Knowledge Acquisition
Developing Workplace Competencies
9) ROLES OF SPEAKER AND LISTENER
A) Evaluate the Situation
Avoid Miscommunication receiver should listen carefully to ensure message is
understood correctly
Give and Receive Feedback ask question
Maintain Goodwill - listener should accept and receives the speaker message with an
open mind.
B) Understand Needs
Physical Needs
Security Needs
Social Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization Needs

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C) Use Interpersonal Skills
Make You-Statements
Have A Positive Attitude
Be A Good Listener
Keep Things Confidential
Be Considerate
10) INTERFERENCE IN COMMUNICATION
Physical Interference - This kind of interference is external and outside the control of
both the speaker and the receiver.
Physiological Interference - These are barriers to communication due to physiological
challenges on the part of the speaker or the receiver.
Psychological Interference - This type of interference stems from the mental makeup of
the receiver or sender, and includes biases, prejudices, narrow-mindedness, and extreme
emotional behavior.
Semantic Interference - These barriers include language, dialectal and cultural
differences.
Topic 3 Active Listening Skills
1) Active listening has several benefits:
- enables people to listen attentively to others;
- prevents misunderstandings
- encourages the speaker to explain more
2) TIPS FOR ACTIVE LISTENING
Focus on the Message - Think about what the speaker is saying and do not let your
attention wonder.
Anticipate What the Speaker Wants to Say - Try to figure out where the speaker is
going and what the next point is.
Identify Main and Supporting Points - Begin by breaking what is said into main points
and supporting points.
Check for Bias - Ask yourself questions about the speaker sources and their validity
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Listen between the Lines - To listen effectively, one has to listen to two channels at the
same time.
Minimize Distractions

Topic 4 Listening in Formal/Academic Contexts
1) Lecturers presentation or lecturing styles include
- Reading Style
- Conversational Style
- Rhetorical Style
2) Whatever style the lecturer uses, there will always be cues that point listeners to important
ideas and information in the lecture. Some of these devices or cues include:
- Stress, Intonation, Pauses
- Use of Relative Clauses or Other Supporting Clauses
- Logical Connectors, Number, and Other Phrases
- Vocal Underlining
3) FACTS AND OPINIONS
Facts - A fact is something that has objective reality; it is not a matter of perception or
opinion and is true.
Opinions - Opinions are often based on what one believes to be true or on how a person
feels about something
4) MEANING FROM INTONATION
Falling intonation - This type of intonation pattern usually accompanies positive
statements or declarative sentences.
Rising Intonation - This type of intonation pattern usually accompanies statements
expressing doubt or yes/no questions




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Topic 5 Speaking: Speech Training
1) HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR PRONUNCIATION
- Listening and watching a lot of English program on radio and television
- use a dictionary that has a phonetic alphabet page, Dictionaries are also useful as a tool to
learn word stress or emphasis
- Do not speak too fast because the tendency to make mistakes is then higher
2) 2 kinds of stress
In word stress, stressing certain syllables signal their meaning.
In a sentence stress, stress picks out the most important words.
3) How Can We Say the Same Thing in Different Ways by Using Stress?
(i) When we say words of two or more syllables in isolation, we stress one of the syllables.
(ii) When words are arranged in a sentence, certain syllables will be stressed to convey the
message.
(iii) Intonation is used to give further subtleties of meaning to the syllables that are deliberately
stressed.

Topic 6 Speaking in a Social Context
1) TOPICS SUITABLE FOR SMALL TALK





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2) Topics to avoid as they are personal and/or sensitive are:

3) When communicating with people from different cultures and ethnicity, use these guidelines:
Avoid figures of speech or idiomatic expressions.
Dont use fancy, cute or trendy terminology.
Use specific and accurate terms
Be careful of words which may have different meanings in different cultures or nationalities.
Avoid the use of slang, e.g. cool which means in style.
Avoid using abbreviations e.g. Atty instead of Attorney or acronyms

Topic 7 Group Interaction Skills
1) These are some phrases that we can use to negotiate:
Can we do this another way ?
What about...
How about
All right then
Okay, then
Are you sure ?
2) The fundamental rule of turn-taking is that speakers should take turns to hold the floor
There are also two other rules to be observed, which are that:
Long silences are to be avoided,
We should listen when others speak.
3) The skills we can employ in turn-taking include:
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(a) Recognizing the appropriate moment to get a turn;
(b) Signaling the fact that you want to speak;
(c) Holding the floor while you have your turn;
(d) Recognizing when other speakers are signalling to speak;
(e) Yielding the turn; and
(f) Signaling the fact that you are listening.

Topic 8 Public Speaking
1) THE IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
- Improve Your Social Skills - learn to conquer your fear of speaking in front of an audience,
boost your self-confidence and project yourself better in diverse situations
- Improve your Academic and Professional Skills
You will learn to be:
(a) A persuasive and effective communicator;
(b) More confident and able to project a positive self-image to others;
(c) More critical when analyzing arguments and information given to you;
(d) Able to respond appropriately to criticisms and arguments.
- Improve Your Public Speaking Skills - overcome feelings of self consciousness and fear of
speaking at length to an audience
2) HOW TO BUILD CONFIDENCE IN PUBLIC SPEAKING
Change the Way You Think
Systemic Desensitization
Skills Training
Prepare and Practice Your Speech
Relaxation Techniques
Gain Experience

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3) TIPS FOR GIVING AN EFFECTIVE SPEECH
Appearance - Dress suitably for the occasion.
Body Language - Adopt a confident posture
Voice
- Speak well with good pronunciation, intonation and articulation.
- Pause at intervals when you speak.
- Speak loud enough so that you can be heard by all your listeners.
4) DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPEECHES
-The informative speech increases the listeners knowledge, understanding or ability pertaining
to a particular issue, topic or skill.
-The persuasive speech aims at influencing listeners attitudes, behavior, beliefs or even values.
-The negotiation speech is used in conflict negotiation, mediation, and for third-party
intervention in a crisis situation.
-The argumentative speech is concerned mainly with reaching conclusions through logical
reasoning that is based on evidence
5) Types of Informative Speeches
-Instruction -Description
-Demonstration -Briefing
-Explanation -Reporting
6) Guidelines for Making Effective Informative Speeches
(i) Begin with a clear thesis statement.
(ii) Organize your speech well so that it is easy to follow.
(iii) Be sensitive to your listeners values and experiences.
(iv) Adjust the level of complexity, usefulness and relevance of your content to your listeners.
(v) Design your speech to facilitate retention and learning.
(vi) Invite audience participation.
(vii) Make use of presentation or visual aids.

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7) Types of Persuasive Speeches:
-Facts -Values -Policy
8) Guidelines for Making Effective Persuasive Speeches
(i) Anticipate selective exposure;
(ii) Expect gradual changes, a little at a time;
(iii) Identify with your audience;
(iv) Make logical appeals
(v) Use emotional appeals
9) Types of Negotiation:
-Distributive Bargaining
-Integrative Bargaining
-Attitudinal Bargaining
-Intra-organizational Bargaining
10) Guidelines for Making Effective Negotiation Speeches
(i) Do your research well;
(ii) Abide by the rules set out by both parties;
(iii) Make sure the parties involved trust you;
(iv) Use deductive arguments;
(v) Know yourself and take stock of your intellectual and emotional makeup;
(vi) Understand your and the other party expectations;
(vii) Be prepared to make bids and also give concessions.
11) Types of Argumentative Speeches
-Debate and Negotiation
-Eristic Dialogue
-Legal Debate
-Tournament Debate

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12) Guidelines for Making Effective Argumentative Speeches
(i) Arguments ought to comply with certain principles or norms;
(ii) Give reasoned arguments for and against a proposition;
(iii) Make rational arguments, not emotional statements and personal viewpoints;
(iv) Debaters need to follow the rules of debate depending on the debate format e.g. the
Parliamentary Debate format;
(v) Critically evaluate and analysis the opponent speech;
(vi) Be ethical, fair and honest.

Topic 9 Preparing an Oral Presentation
1) INPUT AND OUTPUT
Occasion for the Speech - Profiling the occasion for making the speech involves asking
questions about the aim, that is, what the speech is meant for.
The Audience - Make enquiries about the audience
The Setting - Making yourself familiar with the setting in which the speech is to be made
is one way to reduce panic attacks and minimize the risk of unexpected problems
cropping up at the last minute
2) DETERMINING THE PURPOSE AND TOPIC
Determine the Aim
Determine the Objectives
At the end of the presentation, the audience should be able to:
- Understand the progress that the nation has made;
- Cite examples of the nation achievements;
- Accept the important role people play in nation building; and
- Identify problems and solutions and achieving its goals.
3) COLLECTING MATERIAL
Information Resources
Life Experience
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Adapt Material
More is Best
4) Why Structure is Important?
the audience cannot pay attention for a long period of time and may find the presentation
difficult to follow if it is not systematically structured and organized

5) STRUCTURING THE ORAL PRESENTATION
Basic Procedures
(a) Inform the audience what they are going to listen to;
(b) Present the content of the presentation; and
(c) Summarize the main points.

6) The Need for Visual Aids
(a) Firstly, they can enhance the audience comprehension of the subject matter.
(b) helps listeners to be more focused as they can catch their attention and hold it for longer time.
(c) visual aids can add authenticity, beauty, credibility and variety to the entire presentation











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Topic 10 Making an Oral Presentation

10.1 INTRODUCING THE TOPIC
Some useful phrases commonly used to introduce a topic are as follows:
Good morning ladies and gentlemen,
Today, Id like to talk about
Good morning ladies and gentlemen,
My topic for today is
Good morning ladies and gentlemen,
is the topic of my presentation today.

10.2 PRESENTING THE CONTENT
Prepare the outline as below:
(a) Introduction of the topic.

(b) Body of the talk:
(i) Definition of terms (if any);
(ii) Describing the situation;
(iii) Points in favour; and
(iv) Points against.

(c) Conclusion
(i) Summarise the main points; and
(ii) Concluding with an appeal, proposal, etc

The Actual Presentation
(a) Stand straight, dont slouch.
(b) Maintain eye contact with the audience.
(c) Greet the audience, and then start your presentation.
(d) Give an overview of what you are going to talk about.
(e) Try not to read from your notes. Talk to the audience instead.
(f) Use your notes as prompts only.
(g) As you speak, turn your head slowly to look at one section of the crowd
before turning to another section.
(h) Pause between ideas. Dont rattle on at full speed.
(i) Speak with an even tone. Be loud enough to be heard but do not shout.
Similarly, dont talk to yourself, mumble or speak too softly.
(j) At the end, summarise what you have said.


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10.3

Type of Conclusion EXAMPLE
Straight conclusion In conclusion, ladies and gentlemen, let me say (that
children have their rights and we should respect those
rights.) Thank you.

Summarising Before I conclude, ladies and gentlemen, let me
summarise what I have said. First,... Second,...

Summarising And that, ladies and gentlemen, is the end of my talk. Now let
me open the floor for any questions or comments.