C

CCE
EEA
AAL
LLM
MMU
UUJ
JJA
AA JOAQUN M. CRUZ



SUBORDINATION

Subordination and coordination are two different ways of linking sentences. If you think about a balance, we can say
that, being each of the sides a clause, these are coordinated if balanced. On the other hand, if one of the sides of the
balance is heavier than the other (i.e. more important), we are talking about subordination.

The main forms to introduce subordination are three:

1. Subordinating conjunctions: if, that, when, because, although, etc
2. Wh- clause element: what, who, whoever, what time, how, etc.
3. Non finite predicators: infinitive, participle or ing forms.

FINITE SUBORDINATION
(Noun, Adverbial, Relative, Comparative and Prepositional Clauses)

Finite VBPh are those containing finite verb, which is a verb showing tense (past or present) and Subject Concord (for person and
number) and is either the operator (the first auxiliary in the VBPh) or the main VB (if there is no operator)


1. Noun Clauses (DS: direct subordination [rankscale]; IS: indirect subordination [rankshift])

1.1. That clauses: IS- Postm. H/AdjP Im [glad that I joined the CEALM] (that !)
IS- Postm. H/NP (Appositive Cl.) [The fact that the CEALM is a great centre] is
common knowledge. (that has no function [!] and
cannot be replaced by which)
cf. Postm. H/NP (Adnominal AdjCl.) [The news that appeared in the paper this
morning] was well received. (that has function and
can be replaced by which)
DS- Subject That ghosts exist is highly controversial (that !)
DS- C
s
What I think is that we shouldnt have moved
abroad (that !)

1.2. Zero That clauses: DS- DO I told you the CEALM is a very good centre
1.3. Wh- clauses: DS- DO At the CEALM

they really taught us how grammar
works (how performs as adverbial)
DS- C
o
The accident made him what he is today
IS- Comp. H/PrepP Watch out [for how you write your essay]
(how performs as adverbial)

2. Adverbial Clauses

2.1. Place (where, wherever) Students go wherever they find good teachers
2.2. Time (when, before, after, as, while, until) I realized that when I joined the CEALM
2.3. Manner/Comparison (as, as if, as though) There you learn as you need, thats to say, easily
2.4. Reason (because, as, since) So, you should apply for courses because there you learn
2.5. Purpose (so that, in order that) all you need so that you can communicate.
2.6. Condition (if, unless) I mean, apply for CEALM courses if you need some help
2.7. Contrast (although, though) and yes, although its hard to believe, it really works

3. Relative Clauses

3.1. that clauses Do you know anyone that can teach good English?
3.2. Zero that clauses 1981 is the year I was born
3.3. Wh- clauses 1981 is the year where I was born

4. Comparative Clauses B1 lessons are less difficult than B2 ones

5. Prepositional Clauses (Preposition + Wh- Noun phrase = Prepositional Clause)

We were astonished at what we learnt at English
tm
.
C
CCE
EEA
AAL
LLM
MMU
UUJ
JJA
AA JOAQUN M. CRUZ
















NON-FINITE SUBORDINATION

Corresponding to the three non-finite forms of the verb [Infinitive (Vinf), Participle (Ven) and Gerund (Ving)] there are three types
of clause, in which those forms occur as the first (or only) element of the predicator. Even though they lack a finite verb, such
constructions are analysed as clauses, because they can be analysed into P, S, O, C, A, etc, just like finite verbs.

There are one or two details, apart from the verb, which distinguish non-finite from finite clauses. For example, in some infinitive
clauses a conjunction for normally precedes the subject, and the infinitive particle to normally precedes the VBPh (ie, It is important
for me to tell everyone). In Ving clauses the subject is often a genitive form (ie. Spocks having pointed ears was just a funny thing). It
is also common to find passive meanings in Ven clauses and thus the typical complements of such structures (as seen in 3.3). But it is
more significant, in other respects, that these non-finite clauses have almost the same structural possibilities as finite clauses: they
can, for instance, be classified in terms of clause patterns. One point about non-finite clauses, however, is that the subject is
frequently omitted (ie. Having pointed ears is a characteristic of Vulcans).

1. Non-finite noun clauses [these clauses often perform those functions typical of nouns, as is the case of Direct Object in
1.1 and Subject in 1.2. Other functions are Subject Complement (The best excuse is to say that
you have an examination tomorrow morning) or even apposititive (Your ambition, to become a
farmer, requires ambition and perseverance)]

1.1. Infinitive noun clauses: They advised me to join the CEALM courses
1.2. Ving noun clauses: because studying there helps a lot to find out how English works.

2. Non-finite adverbial clauses (Adverbial clauses here perform as adverbials would do in a sentence. In the case of 2.1, for
example, we can introduce the conjunction in order to before the infinitive, what comes to
show that such clauses meaning is that of an adverbial of purpose)

2.1. Infinitive adverbial Clauses: I do have to go to CEALM courses

(in order) to learn syntax.
2.2. Ving adverbial Clauses: Not knowing Hitlers intention, the allies signed the agreement.
2.3. Ven adverbial Clauses: Heavily disguised as human beings, they frequented the University of Jan

3. Non-finite relative clauses (These usually have the function of adjectives, which they resemble, as modifiers of noun
phrases, as can be appreciated in the examples below)

3.1. Infinitive relative clauses: The CEALM is the best place for you to go
3.2. Ving relative clauses: We admire the teachers working in the university
3.3. Ven relative clauses: We love the lessons given in the CEALM.

4. Non-finite comparative clauses (These are much less common)

4.1. Infinitive comparative clause: She is more likely to act than to think
4.2. Ving comparative clauses: He is better at sleeping than doing a job


5. Non-finite prepositional clauses

5.1. Ving prepositional clauses: We passed our CEALM courses I by giving an oral presentation





luut`ou o Su|od`uut !uu::

Direct Subordination (rankscale)
Noun Clauses Subject, Object, Complement
Adverbials Clauses Adverbial
Prepositional Clauses Adverbial
Indirect Subordination (rankshift)
Relative Clauses Modifier in Noun Phrases
Comparative Clauses Modifier in Noun, Adjective and Adverb Phrases
Prepositional Clauses Modifier in Noun, Adjective and Adverb Phrases
C
CCE
EEA
AAL
LLM
MMU
UUJ
JJA
AA JOAQUN M. CRUZ




IF YOU WANT TO PRACTICE, YOU CAN TRY TO FULLY ANALYZE THE SENTENCES IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLES, AND CONTINUE
WITH THE FOLLOWING ONES:


1. Identify the non-finite clauses in the following sentences and say what function they have
I regret (speaking to you so rudely)
I am very sorry (to have caused you offence)
(For Max to pay his gas-bill on time) would be very surprising
I saw (Spurs beaten by Villa) last Saturday
(Having remarkably strong teeth), Batman soon severed the ropes confining him

2. The following sentences are grammatical ambiguous. Show the ambiguities by giving two different analyses for each and add a comment to
explain how the ambiguity arises.
I regret criticising her bitterly
I clearly remembered the time when I looked at may watch
I told him that I had written the essay before he gave the lecture
To speak the truth frankly is an unsafe policy.

In the following sentences, three different analyses can be given
The combatants agreed to sign a peace treaty in Geneva last week
We must ask the farmer who owns the farm where we can camp
I found the dog smoking a cigar




For the answers check p. 208 in:
Leech, G. (1982). English Grammar for Today. Macmillan.