ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY OF PLANT ORGANS

Anatomy of roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruit

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REFERENCES USED IN ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY SECTION

Anzai, T. 1975. Two phases in adventitious root formation in Phaseolus mungo hypocotyl cuttings. J. Exp. Bot.
26:580-588.
Argles, G.K. 1959. Root formation and root development in stem cuttings: A re-examination of certain fundamental
aspects. Ann. Appl. Bot. 47:626-628.
Cameron, R.J. and G.V. Thomson. 1969. The vegetative propagation of Pinus radiata: Root initials in cuttings. Bot.
Gaz. 130:242-251.
Clowes, F.A. 1961. Apical Meristems. Bot. Monogr. Vol. 2, Oxford, Blackwell.
Davies, F.T., J.E. Lazarte and J.N. Joiner. 1982. Initiation and development of roots in juvenile and mature Ficus
leaf bud cuttings. Amer. J. Bot. 69:804-811.
Dermen, H. 1960. Nature of Plant Sports. Amer. Hort. Mag. 39(3):123-173
Dore, J. 1965. Physiology of regeneration in cormophytes. Encycl. Plant Physiol 15:1-91.
Esau, K. 1960. Anatomy of Seed Plants, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY
Esau, K. 1965. Plant Anatomy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NY
Ginzburg, C. 1967. Organization of the adventitious root apex in Tamarix aphylla. Amer. J. Bot. 54:4-8.
Girouard, R. M. 1967. Initiation and development of adventitious roots in stem cuttings of Hedera helix. Can. J.
Bot. 45:1877-1884.
Hartman, H.T., D.E. Kester and F.T. Davies, Jr. 1990. Plant Propagation - Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Leopold, A.C. and P.E. Kriedemann. 1964. Plant Growth and Development. McGraw-Hill, Inc., NY.
Naylor, E.E. and B. Johnson. 1937. A histological study of vegetative reproduction in Saintpaulia ionantha. Amer.
J. Bot. 24:673-678.
Romberger, J.A. 1963. Meristems, Growth and Development in Woody Plants, USDA Technical Bulletin No. 1293.
Sachs, 1965, Annual Rev. Plant Physiol. 16:73-96.
Siegler, E.A. and J.J. Bowman. 1939. Anatomical studies of root and shoot primordia in 1-year apple adventitious
roots. J. Agr. Res. 58:795-803.
Smith, D.R. and T.A. Thorpe. 1975. Root initiation in cuttings of Pinus radiata seedlings. I. Developmental
sequence. J. Exp. Bot 26:184-192.
Stewart, R.N. and H. Dermen. 1979. Ontogeny in monocotyledons as revealed by studies of the developmental
anatomy of periclinal chloroplast chimeras. Amer. J. Bot. 66(1):47-58.
Strangler, B.B. 1955. Origin and development of roots in stem cuttings of chrysanthemum, carnation and rose. N.Y.
Ag. Exp. Sta., Mem 342, pp.3-24.
Tilney-Bassett, R.A.E. 1986. Plant Chimeras. Edward Arnold Ltd., Baltimore, MD.
Walker, R.I. 1940. Regeneration in the scale leaf of Lilium candidum and L. longiflorum Amer. J. Bot. 27:114-117.
Wardlow, C.W. 1957. On the organization and reactivity of the shoot apex in vascular plants. Amer. J. Bot. 44:176-
185.
Wareing, P.F. and I.D.J. Philips. 1981. Growth and Differentiation in Plants, Pergamon Press, NY
Wilkenson, R.E. 1966. Adventitious shoots on salt cedar roots. Bot. Gaz. 127:103-104.
Yarborough, J.A. 1936. Regeneration in the foliage leaf of Sedum. Amer. J. Bot. 23:303-307.
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ORGANS AND TISSUE SYSTEMS

Plants are composed of 3 vegetative and 1 reproductive organ.
Three tissue systems comprise each organ and are contiguous between each of the three organs.







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PLANT ORGANS, TISSUE SYSTEMS, TISSUES AND CELL TYPES

3 TISSUE SYSTEMS OCCUR IN PLANTS
1) Dermal Tissue System
Function: Protection from the environment and water loss.
Tissues:
a) epidermis - single layer of cells on primary (herbaceous ) plant parts.
b) periderm or bark - a corky tissue that replaces epidermis on secondary (woody) plant
parts.
2) Vascular Tissue System
Function: Conduction of water, nutrients, sugars and hormones throughout the plant.
Tissues:
a) xylem - conducts water and nutrients up roots, stems and leaves.
b) phloem - conducts water, sugar, hormones, etc. primarily down roots, stems and leaves,
but also can move up at times.
3) Ground or Fundamental Tissue System
Function: Storage, support, filler tissue and site of photosynthesis.
Tissues:
a) cortex - outer region of stems and roots.
b) pith - center of stems.
c) mesophyll - middle of leaves and flower petals


CELL TYPES



1) parenchyma
-thin, non-lignified primary
cell walls
-filler, storage, protection,
photosynthesis
-examples: flesh of potato,
lettuce
isodiametric



2) collenchyma

-unevenly thickened, non-
lignified primary cell walls
-support in growing tissues
-example: strings in celery longer than wide
3) sclerenchyma
2 Types
a) fiber
b) sclereid or
stone cell
-evenly thickened, lignified
(tough) secondary cell walls
-support in mature tissue
-examples:
fiber -bamboo cane
sclereid - seed coat
stone cell -pear fruit
fiber

sclereid stone cell
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MERISTEMS AND GROWTH

Primary Growth - growth in length that gives rise to primary (herbaceous) tissues called the
primary plant body.

2 -Types
apical meristem or apex - the growing points located at the tips of stems and roots
intercalary meristem - the growth region at the base of grass leaves that causes
leaves to elongate.


Secondary Growth - growth in width or diameter that gives rise to secondary (woody
or corky) tissues called the secondary plant body.

lateral meristem - meristematic regions along the sides of stems and roots.

2 Types
vascular cambium or cambium - gives rise to secondary xylem (wood) on the
inside and phloem on the outside.

cork cambium or phellogen - gives rise to the periderm (bark).



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MORPHOLOGY OF APICES

Shoot and Root Apex
(Fig. 3.2 from Esau 1960)


Flower Apex
(Fig. 2.20 from Wareing and Philips 1981)


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ORGANIZATION OF APICAL MERISTEMS

Geometrical Organization or Tunica-
Corpus Concept - Shoot
(Esau 1965, Romberger 1963)
1) tunica (mantle)
outer covering of apex
only anticlinal divisions
2) corpus (core)
- inner region of apex
- anticlinal and periclinal divisions



Morphological Organization - Shoot
Wardlaw (AJB 44:176 1957)
1) distal - outer covering (like tunica)
2) sub-distal - region of physiological
inception of growth centers
3) organogenic - region of 1st visual
appearance of growth centers
4) subapical - region of growth of organs
5) region of maturation
Sachs (ARPP 16:73 1965)
1, 2 & 3) - apical region, where
differentiation/organogenisis occurs
4 & 5) - sub-apical region - where elongation
occurs




Cytological and Histological Organization -
Shoot
Buvat (see Esau 1965, Romberger 1963)
1) distal zone - waiting or promeristem
2) peripheral zone - initiating ring or
eumeristem
3) inner zone - medullary or rib meristem




Quiescent Center Concept - Root
Clowes (Bot.Mono., vol. 2, 1961)
1) initials for root cap
2) initials for epidermis
3) initials for cortex
4) quiescent center - no cell division
5) initials for vascular cylinder




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MONOCOTS, DICOTS AND GYMNOSPERMS
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTIC
DIVISION Spermatophytes (Spermatophyta-seed bearing plants)

SUBDIVISION
Angiosperms
(Angiospermae)
(flowering plants with seeds enclosed)
Gymnosperms
(Gymnospermae)
(naked seeds)

CLASS
Monocots
(Monocotyledoneae)
(1 cotyledon)
Dicots
(Dicotyledoneae)
(2 cotyledons)

Seeds
1 cotyledon; endosperm
often present
2 cotyledons;
endosperm often
lacking
1 to many cotyledons; no
endosperm; female
gametophyte tissue present
Flowers
Flower parts in
multiples of 3
Flower parts in
multiples of 4 or 5
No true flowers
Leaves
Linear; leaf base or
petiole (if present)
sheathing; parallel
venation
Broad; petiole
present; net venation
Needle-like or scale-like
Vascular
System of Stem
Scattered vascular
bundles; no cambium or
secondary growth
Ring of vascular
bundles in primary
growth; cambium
present in secondary
growth
Ring of vascular bundles in
primary growth; cambium
present in secondary
growth

Growth Habit
Herbaceous to wood-
like (ex. palm), but no
true wood (secondary
xylem)
Herbaceous or
woody
Herbaceous or woody


Morphology


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STEM ANATOMY




(Fig. 16.1 from Esau 1960)
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STEM ANATOMY








(Plate 28 from Esau 1965)
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STEM ANATOMY





(Plate 58 from Esau 1965, Fig. 17.8 from Esau 1960)
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ROOT ANATOMY

Dicot, Gymnosperm or Monocot - Primary Growth



(Plate 84 & 86 from Esau 1965)
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ROOT ANATOMY
DICOT/GYMNOSPERM - SECONDARY GROWTH

A woody dicot or gymnosperm root in secondary growth looks very similar to a stem in
secondary growth.



(Fig.15.4 from Esau 1960)
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LEAF ANATOMY




(Plate 73 from Esau 1965)

MONOCOT
(Similar to dicot, except no palisade, mesophyll is all spongy parenchyma)

(Fig. 19.6 from Esau 1960)
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GYMNOSPERM LEAF







(Plate 78 from Esau 1965)
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LEAF PARTS - FUNCTION

STOMATE
An open aperture surrounded by 2 guard cells.
a) open when guard cells are turgid
b) closed when guard cells are flaccid
Diurnal Cycle
a) open in day
b) closed at night
c) except CAM plants, just opposite (open night, closed day)
Designed for gas exchange
a) CO
2
in and 0
2
out for photosynthesis
b) CO
2
out and 0
2
in for respiration
c) H
2
0 out during transpiration
Usually more frequent on epidermis of lower leaf surface

MESOPHYLL
Palisade parenchyma
- contains 70-80% of the chloroplasts in the leaf
- specialized for photosynthesis because it contains a large number of chloroplasts and it occurs
towards the adaxial side of leaf
- thinner on a sun grown leaf
Spongy mesophyll
- contains large air spaces
- specialized for gas exchange -because of the large air space and more stomata occur on the
epidermis of abaxial leaf surface
- thicker on a shade grown leaf

ABSCISSION ZONE
Leaves of deciduous plants form an abscission zone in a discrete region at the base of the petiole.
The surface is sealed and suberized over before the leaf falls off.

(Fig. 18.10 from Esau 1960)
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SUMMARY OF ANATOMY

MONOCOT DICOT GYMNOSPERM






STEM


PRIMARY
(herbaceous)
GROWTH



SECONDARY
(woody)
GROWTH


none









ROOT


PRIMARY
(herbaceous)
GROWTH



SECONDARY
(woody)
GROWTH



none










LEAF

PRIMARY
(herbaceous)
GROWTH



SECONDARY
(woody)
GROWTH

none



none

none
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FLOWER
FLOWER - A determinate shoot with leaves highly modified into reproductive parts


FLOWER STRUCTURE





FLOWER TYPES BASED ON PARTS PRESENT

complete - contains all floral parts, i.e. sepals, petals, stamens and pistils

incomplete - lacks one or more of the floral parts

perfect - contains both pistils and stamens (may or may not have sepals or petals)

imperfect - lacks either pistils or stamens (may or may not have sepals or petals)

pistillate - contains only pistils (may or may not have sepals or petals)

staminate - contains only stamens (may or may not have sepals or petals)

sterile - both stamens and pistils are absent, or are non-functional



PLANT TYPES BASED ON FLOWER TYPES PRESENT

monoecious - both staminate and pistillate flowers occur on the same plant.
Example corn, cucumber

dioecious- staminate and pistillate flowers occur on separate plants.
Example holly, persimmon
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FRUIT - a ripened or matured ovary and its contents plus any accessory tissues.

pericarp - the fruit wall, which developed from the ovary wall

Composed of 3 layers:
1) exocarp - outer layer of the pericarp

2) mesocarp - middle layer of the pericarp

3) endocarp - inner layer of the pericarp.




FRUIT STRUCTURE


Example of a dry fruit Example of a fleshy fruit


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SEED

seed - a ripened or matured ovule consisting of an embryo with associated stored food and
covered by a testa.

STRUCTURE



TESTA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
(Fig. 22.3 from Esau 1960, Fig. 10-10 from Leopold and Kriedemann 1964)