UNIT 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF NANOSCALE SCIENCE

1.1 Introduction
Nanotechnology is the science of the extremely tiny. The prefix nano,
derived from the Greek nanos signifying dwarf, is becoming increasingly
common in scientific literature. "Nano" is now a popular label for much of modern
science, and many nano- words have recently appeared in dictionaries,
including: nanometer, nanoscale, nanoscience, nanotechnology, nanostructure,
nanotube, nanowire, and nanorobot. Many words that are not yet widely
recognized are used in respected publications, such as Science and Nature. These
include nanoelectronics, nanocrystal, nanovalve, nanoantenna, nanocavity,
nanoscaffolds, nanofibers, nanomagnet, nanoporous, nanoarrays, nanolithography,
nanopatterning, nanoencapsulation, etc. Although the idea of nanotechnology:
producing nanoscale objects and carrying out nanoscale manipulations, has been
around for quite some time, the birth of the concept is usually linked to a speech by
Richard Feynman at the December 1959 meeting of the American Physical Society
where he asked, What would happen if we could arrange the atoms one by one the
way we want them? The nanometer is a metric unit of length, and denotes one
billionth of a meter or 10
-9
m.
Nanotechnology refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology
whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the atomic and molecular scale,
normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices with critical
dimensions that lie within that size range. It is a highly multidisciplinary field,
drawing from field such as applied physics, materials science, interface and colloid
science, device physics, supermolecular chemistry, self-replicating machines and
robotics, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, biological engineering
and electrical engineering. Much speculation exists as to what may result from
these lines of research. Nanotechnology can be seen as extension of existing
science into the nanoscale, or as a recasting of existing sciences using a newer,
more modern term.
1.2 Nano and Nature
Nanomaterials can be natural or manmade. For example, nanoparticles are
produced naturally by plants, algae and volcanic activity. They have also been
created for thousands of years as products of cooking and burning, and more
recently from vehicle exhausts. Some proteins in the body, which control things
like flexing muscles and repairing cells, are nanosized. We can set out to make
nanomaterials in a variety of different ways. Some nanomaterials can assemble
themselves from their components. Carbon fragments, for example, can self-
assemble into nanotubes in this way. Another approach used in the production of
computer chips, is to etch nanomaterials from larger pieces of material.
Increasingly, these two methods are converging, leading to exciting new
production techniques.
Fig.1.1
Powerful microscopes have been developed which allow researchers not
only to look more closely at atoms and molecules, but also to pick them up and
move them around to form basic nanostructures.
1.3 Background of nanotechnology
Some nanotechnologies have
example nano-sized particles of gold and silver have been us
pigments (Fig 1.2) in stained glass since the 10
Fig.1.1 the scale of things nanometer and more
Powerful microscopes have been developed which allow researchers not
only to look more closely at atoms and molecules, but also to pick them up and
move them around to form basic nanostructures.
Background of nanotechnology
Some nanotechnologies have been around for hundreds of years; for
sized particles of gold and silver have been used as coloured
) in stained glass since the 10
th
century AD.
nanometer and more
Powerful microscopes have been developed which allow researchers not
only to look more closely at atoms and molecules, but also to pick them up and
been around for hundreds of years; for
ed as coloured
Fig 1.2 Gold and silver coated nanoparticle
The Lycurgus Cup (British Museum; AD fourth century) as shown in
Figures is a Roman cup depicting
triumph of Dionysus over Lycurgus. He is seen being dragged into the underworld
by the Greek nymph Ambrosia,
the cut-work design of the cup that shows the high levels of skill involved in its
production. The glass of the cup is dichotic; in direct light it resembles jade with an
opaque greenish-yellow tone, but
light) it turns to a translucent ruby colour. X
of silver-gold alloy, with a ratio of silver to gold of about 7:3, containing in
addition about 10% copper.
behaviour of the glass when the light shines from different directions.
Many chemicals and chemical processes have nanoscale features. Chemists
have been making polymers, large molecules made up of nano
for many decades. Computer chips have nano
surface, and nanotechnologies have enabled computers to be made smaller and
faster over the last thirty years.
Gold and silver coated nanoparticle
The Lycurgus Cup (British Museum; AD fourth century) as shown in
Figures is a Roman cup depicting figures, carved in deep relief, showing the
triumph of Dionysus over Lycurgus. He is seen being dragged into the underworld
by the Greek nymph Ambrosia, who is disguised as a vine. However it is not only
work design of the cup that shows the high levels of skill involved in its
production. The glass of the cup is dichotic; in direct light it resembles jade with an
yellow tone, but when light shines through the glass (transmitted
light) it turns to a translucent ruby colour. X-ray analysis has shown nanoparticles
gold alloy, with a ratio of silver to gold of about 7:3, containing in
. These nano particles are responsible for the differential
behaviour of the glass when the light shines from different directions.
Many chemicals and chemical processes have nanoscale features. Chemists
have been making polymers, large molecules made up of nano-sized com
for many decades. Computer chips have nano-sized features etched into their
surface, and nanotechnologies have enabled computers to be made smaller and
faster over the last thirty years.
The Lycurgus Cup (British Museum; AD fourth century) as shown in above
figures, carved in deep relief, showing the
triumph of Dionysus over Lycurgus. He is seen being dragged into the underworld
who is disguised as a vine. However it is not only
work design of the cup that shows the high levels of skill involved in its
production. The glass of the cup is dichotic; in direct light it resembles jade with an
when light shines through the glass (transmitted
ray analysis has shown nanoparticles
gold alloy, with a ratio of silver to gold of about 7:3, containing in
ticles are responsible for the differential
behaviour of the glass when the light shines from different directions.
Many chemicals and chemical processes have nanoscale features. Chemists
sized components,
sized features etched into their
surface, and nanotechnologies have enabled computers to be made smaller and
More recently, researchers have produced nano-sized wires and tubes. Nano
wires have remarkable optical, electronic and magnetic properties, so it is hoped
they will prove useful in storing computer data. Carbon nanotubes may lead to new
building materials, being much stronger and lighter than steel.
Nanoparticles - tiny particles with special properties have also found some
areas of application. Nanoparticles of titanium dioxide have been added to some
suntan lotions and cosmetics. These tiny particles are transparent on the skin and
can absorb and reflect ultra-violet rays. In contrast to their use in cosmetics, where
they are free to move around, nanoparticles can also be fixed into layers on
surfaces, to give them new properties.
1.3.1 History
In 1965, Gordon Moore, one of the founders of Intel Corporation, made the
astounding prediction that the number of transistors that could be fit in a given area
would double every 18 months for the next ten years. This it did and the
phenomenon became known as Moore's Law. This trend has continued far past the
predicted 10 years until this day, going from just over 2000 transistors in the
original 4004 processors of 1971 to over 700,000,000 transistors in the Core 2.
There has, of course, been a corresponding decrease in the size of individual
electronic elements, going from millimetres in the 60's to hundreds of nanometres
in modern circuitry.
At the same time, the chemistry, biochemistry and molecular genetics
communities have been moving in the other direction. Over much the same period,
it has become possible to direct the synthesis, either in the test tube or in modified
living organisms. Finally, the last quarter of a century has seen tremendous
advances in our ability to control and manipulate light. We can generate light
pulses as short as a few femtoseconds (1 fs = 10
15
s). Light too has a size and this
size is also on the hundred nanometer scale.
Thus now, at the beginning of a new century, three powerful technologies
have met on a common scale the nanoscale with the promise of revolutionizing
both the worlds of electronics and of biology. This new field, which we refer to as
biomolecular nanotechnology, holds many possibilities from fundamental research
in molecular biology and biophysics to applications in bio sensing, bio control,
bioinformatics, genomics, medicine, computing, information storage and energy
conversion.
1.3.1a) Historical background
Humans have unwittingly employed nanotechnology for thousands of years,
for example in making steel, paintings and in vulcanizing rubber. Each of these
processes rely on the properties of stochastically formed atomic ensembles mere
nanometers in size (Fig 1.3), and are distinguished from chemistry in that they
don't rely on the properties of individual molecules. But the development of the
body of concepts now subsumed under the term nanotechnology has been slower.
The first mention of some of the distinguishing concepts in nanotechnology
(but predating use of that name) was in 1867 by JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
when he proposed as a thought experiment a tiny entity known as Maxwell's
Demon able to handle individual molecules.
Fig 1.3 Atomic ensembles of nanoparticle
The first observations and size measurements of nano-particles was made
during the first decade of the 20
th
century. They are mostly associated with
RICHARD ADOLF ZSIGMONDY who made a detailed study of gold sols and
other nanomaterials with sizes down to 10 nm and less. He published a book in
1914. He used ultra microscope that employs the dark field method for seeing
particles with sizes much less than light wavelength. Zsigmondy was also the first
who used nanometer explicitly for characterizing particle size. He determined it as
1/1,000,000 of milli meter. He developed the first system classification based on
particle size in the nanometer range.
There have been many significant developments during the 20th century in
characterizing nanomaterials and related phenomena, belonging to the field of
interface and colloid science. In the 1920s, Irving Langmuir and Katharine B.
Blodgett introduced the concept of a monolayer, a layer of material one molecule
thick. Langmuir won a Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work. In the early 1950s,
Derjaguin and Abrikosova conducted the first measurement of surface forces.
The first use of the concepts found in 'nano-technology' (but pre-dating use
of that name) was in "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," a talk given by
physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on
December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to
manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of
precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, and so on
down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise
from the changing magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would
become less important, surface tension and Van der Waals attraction would
become increasingly more significant, etc. This basic idea appeared plausible, and
exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of
end products.
But I am not afraid to consider the final question as to whether, ultimately--
-in the great future---we can arrange the atoms the way we want; the very atoms,
all the way down -Richard Feynman, There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom
1.4 Scientific revolutions and opportunities at the nanoscale
With nanotechnology, a large set of materials and improved products rely on
a change in the physical properties when the feature sizes are shrunk.
Nanoparticles for example take advantage of their dramatically increased surface
area to volume ratio. Their optical properties, e.g. fluorescence, become a function
of the particle diameter. When brought into a bulk material, nanoparticles can
strongly influence the mechanical properties of the material, like stiffness or
elasticity. For example, traditional polymers can be reinforced by nanoparticles
resulting in novel materials which can be used as lightweight replacements for
metals. Therefore, an increasing societal benefit of such nanoparticles can be
expected. Such nanotechnologically enhanced materials will enable a weight
reduction accompanied by an increase in stability and an improved functionality.
There are many applications of nano technology; few of them are listed below.
Fig. 1.4 Applications of Nanotechnology
1.4.1 Medical application
a) Medicine
The biological and medical research communities have exploited the unique
properties of nanomaterials for various applications (e.g., contrast agents for cell
imaging and therapeutics for treating cancer). Terms such as
nanotechnology, bionanotechnology
hybrid field. Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them
with biological molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that
of most biological molecules and stru
for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the
reduction accompanied by an increase in stability and an improved functionality.
plications of nano technology; few of them are listed below.
Fig. 1.4 Applications of Nanotechnology
Medical application
The biological and medical research communities have exploited the unique
properties of nanomaterials for various applications (e.g., contrast agents for cell
imaging and therapeutics for treating cancer). Terms such as
chnology, and nanomedicine are used to describe this
hybrid field. Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them
with biological molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that
of most biological molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can be useful
for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the
reduction accompanied by an increase in stability and an improved functionality.
plications of nano technology; few of them are listed below.
The biological and medical research communities have exploited the unique
properties of nanomaterials for various applications (e.g., contrast agents for cell
imaging and therapeutics for treating cancer). Terms such as biomedical
are used to describe this
hybrid field. Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them
with biological molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that
ctures; therefore, nanomaterials can be useful
for both in vivo and in vitro biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the
integration of nanomaterials with biology has led to the development of diagnostic
devices, contrast agents, analytical tools, physical therapy applications, and drug
delivery vehicles.
Fig 1.5 Molecular imaging and therapy
b) Diagnostics
Nanotechnology-on-a-chip is one more dimension of lab-on-a-chip
technology. Magnetic nanoparticles, bound to a suitable antibody, are used to label
specific molecules, structures or microorganisms. Gold nanoparticles tagged with
short segments of DNA can be used for detection of genetic sequence in a sample.
Multicolor optical coding for biological assays has been achieved by embedding
different-sized quantum dots into polymeric microbeads. Nanopore technology for
analysis of nucleic acids converts strings of nucleotides directly into electronic
signatures.
c) Drug delivery
The overall drug consumption and side-effects can be lowered significantly
by depositing the active agent in the morbid region only and in no higher dose than
needed. This highly selective approach reduces costs and human suffering. An
example can be found in dendrimers and nanoporous materials. They could hold
small drug molecules transporting them to the desired location. Another vision is
based on small electromechanical systems; NEMS are being investigated for the
active release of drugs. Some potentially important applications include cancer
treatment with iron nanoparticles or gold shells. A targeted or personalized
medicine reduces the drug consumption and treatment expenses resulting in an
overall societal benefit by reducing the costs to the public health system.
Nanotechnology is also opening up new opportunities in implantable delivery
systems, which are often preferable to the use of injectable drugs, because the latter
frequently display first-order kinetics (the blood concentration goes up rapidly, but
drops exponentially over time). This rapid rise may cause difficulties with toxicity,
and drug efficacy can diminish as the drug concentration falls below the targeted
range.
d) Tissue engineering
1) Nanotechnology can help to reproduce or to repair damaged tissue. Tissue
engineering makes use of artificially stimulated cell proliferation by using
suitable nanomaterial-based scaffolds and growth factors. Tissue engineering
might replace todays conventional treatments like organ transplants or artificial
implants. Advanced forms of tissue engineering may lead to life extension.
2) For patients with end-state organ failure, there may not be enough healthy cells
for expansion and transplantation into the ECM (extracellular matrix). In this
case, pluripotent stem cells are needed. One potential source for these cells is
iPS (induced Pluripontent Stem cells); these are ordinary cells from the patients
own body that are reprogrammed into a pluripotent state, and has the advantage
of avoiding rejection (and the potentially life-threatening complications
associated with immunosuppressive treatments). Another potential source of
pluripotent cells is from embryos, but this has two disadvantages: 1) It requires
that we solve the problem of cloning, which is technically very difficult
(especially preventing abnormalities). 2) It requires the harvesting of embryos.
Given that each one of us was once an embryo, this source is ethically
problematic.
1.4.2 Chemistry and environment
Chemical catalysis and filtration techniques are two prominent examples
where nanotechnology already plays a role. The synthesis provides novel materials
with tailored features and chemical properties: for example, nanoparticles with a
distinct chemical surrounding (ligands), or specific optical properties. In this sense,
chemistry is indeed a basic nanoscience. In a short-term perspective, chemistry
will provide novel nanomaterials and in the long run, superior processes such as
self-assembly will enable energy and time preserving strategies. In a sense, all
chemical synthesis can be understood in terms of nanotechnology, because of its
ability to manufacture certain molecules. Thus, chemistry forms a base for
nanotechnology providing tailor-made molecules, polymers, etcetera, as well as
clusters and nanoparticles.
a) Catalysis
Chemical catalysis benefits especially from nanoparticles, due to the
extremely large surface to volume ratio. The application potential of
nanoparticles in catalysis ranges from fuel cell to catalytic converters and
photocatalytic devices. Catalysis is also important for the production of
chemicals.
Platinum nanoparticles are now being considered in the next generation of
automotive catalytic converters because the very high surface area of
nanoparticles could reduce the amount of platinum required. However,
some concerns have been raised due to experiments demonstrating that they
will spontaneously combust if methane is mixed with the ambient air.
Ongoing research at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
(CNRS) in France may resolve their true usefulness for catalytic
applications. Nanofiltration may come to be an important application,
although future research must be careful to investigate possible toxicity.
b) Filtration
1) A strong influence of nanochemistry on waste-water treatment, air purification
and energy storage devices is to be expected. Mechanical or chemical methods
can be used for effective filtration techniques. One class of filtration techniques
is based on the use of membranes with suitable hole sizes, whereby the liquid is
pressed through the membrane. Nanoporous membranes are suitable for a
mechanical filtration with extremely small pores smaller than 10 nm
(nanofiltration) and may be composed of nanotubes. Nanofiltration is mainly
used for the removal of ions or the separation of different fluids. On a larger
scale, the membrane filtration technique is named ultrafiltration, which works
down to between 10 and 100 nm. One important field of application for
ultrafiltration is medical purposes as can be found in renal dialysis. Magnetic
nanoparticles offer an effective and reliable method to remove heavy metal
contaminants from waste water by making use of magnetic separation
techniques. Using nanoscale particles increases the efficiency to absorb the
contaminants and is comparatively inexpensive compared to traditional
precipitation and filtration methods.
2) Some water-treatment devices incorporating nanotechnology are already on
the market, with more in development. Low-cost nanostructured separation
membranes methods have been shown to be effective in producing potable
water in a recent study.
1.4.3 Energy
The most advanced nanotechnology projects related to energy are: storage,
conversion, manufacturing improvements by reducing materials and process rates,
energy saving (by better thermal insulation for example), and enhanced renewable
energy sources.
a) Reduction of energy consumption
A reduction of energy consumption can be reached by better insulation systems,
by the use of more efficient lighting or combustion systems, and by use of lighter
and stronger materials in the transportation sector. Currently used light bulbs only
convert approximately 5% of the electrical energy into light. Nanotechnological
approaches like light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or quantum caged atoms (QCAs)
could lead to a strong reduction of energy consumption for illumination.
Increasing the efficiency of energy production
1) Today's best solar cells have layers of several different semiconductors stacked
together to absorb light at different energies but they still only manage to use 40
percent of the Sun's energy. Commercially available solar cells have much lower
efficiencies (15-20%). Nanotechnology could help increase the efficiency of
light conversion by using nanostructures with a continuum of bandgaps.
2) The degree of efficiency of the internal combustion engine is about 30-40% at
the moment. Nanotechnology could improve combustion by designing specific
catalysts with maximized surface area. In 2005, scientists at the University of
Toronto developed a spray-on nanoparticle substance that, when applied to a
surface, instantly transforms it into a solar collector.
3) The use of more environmentally friendly energy systems
An example for an environmentally friendly form of energy is the use of fuel
cells powered by hydrogen, which is ideally produced by renewable energies.
Probably the most prominent nanostructured material in fuel cells is the catalyst
consisting of carbon supported noble metal particles with diameters of 1-5 nm.
Suitable materials for hydrogen storage contain a large number of small nanosized
pores. Therefore many nanostructured materials like nanotubes, zeolites or alanates
are under investigation. Nanotechnology can contribute to the further reduction of
combustion engine pollutants by nanoporous filters, which can clean the exhaust
mechanically, by catalytic converters based on nanoscale noble metal particles or
by catalytic coatings on cylinder walls and catalytic nanoparticles as additive for
fuels.
Fig. 1.6 Friendly energy systems
4) Recycling of batteries
Because of the relatively low energy density of batteries the operating time is
limited and a replacement or recharging is needed. The huge number of spent
batteries and accumulators represent a disposal problem. The use of batteries with
higher energy content or the use of rechargeable batteries or supercapacitors with
higher rate of recharging using nanomaterials could be helpful for the battery
disposal problem(Fig. 1.7).
Fig 1.7 Recycling of batteries
1.4.4 Information and communication
1) Current high-technology production processes are based on traditional top
down strategies, where nanotechnology has already been introduced silently.
The critical length scale of integrated circuits is already at the nanoscale (50
nm and below) regarding the gate length of transistors in CPUs or DRAM
devices.
2) Memory Storage
Electronic memory designs in the past have largely relied on the formation
of transistors. However, researches into crossbar switch based electronics have
offered an alternative using reconfigurable interconnections between vertical and
horizontal wiring arrays to create ultra high density memories. Two leaders in this
area are Nantero which has developed a carbon nanotube based crossbar memory
called Nano-RAM and Hewlett-Packard which has proposed the use of memristor
material as a future replacement of Flash memory.
3) Novel semiconductor devices
An example of such novel devices is based on spintronics.The dependence of
the resistance of a material (due to the spin of the electrons) on an external field is
called magnetoresistance. This effect can be significantly amplified (GMR - Giant
Magneto-Resistance) for nanosized objects, for example when two ferromagnetic
layers are separated by a nonmagnetic layer, which is several nanometers thick
(e.g. Co-Cu-Co). The GMR effect has led to a strong increase in the data storage
density of hard disks and made the gigabyte range possible. The so called
tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) is very similar to GMR and based on the spin
dependent tunneling of electrons through adjacent ferromagnetic layers. Both
GMR and TMR effects can be used to create a non-volatile main memory for
computers, such as the so called magnetic random access memory or MRAM.
In 1999, the ultimate CMOS transistor developed at the Laboratory for
Electronics and Information Technology in Grenoble, France, tested the limits of
the principles of the MOSFET transistor with a diameter of 18 nm (approximately
70 atoms placed side by side). This was almost one tenth the size of the smallest
industrial transistor in 2003 (130 nm in 2003, 90 nm in 2004, 65 nm in 2005 and
45 nm in 2007). It enabled the theoretical integration of seven billion junctions on
a 1 coin. However, the CMOS transistor, which was created in 1999, was not a
simple research experiment to study how CMOS technology functions, but rather a
demonstration of how this technology functions now that we ourselves are getting
ever closer to working on a molecular scale. Today it would be impossible to
master the coordinated assembly of a large number of these transistors on a circuit
and it would also be impossible to create this on an industrial level.
4) Novel optoelectronic devices
In the modern communication technology traditional analog electrical devices
are increasingly replaced by optical or optoelectronic devices due to their
enormous bandwidth and capacity, respectively. Two promising examples are
photonic crystals and quantum dots. Photonic crystals are materials with a periodic
variation in the refractive index with a lattice constant that is half the wavelength
of the light used. They offer a selectable band gap for the propagation of a certain
wavelength, thus they resemble a semiconductor, but for light or photons instead of
electrons. Quantum dots are nanoscaled objects, which can be used, among many
other things, for the construction of lasers. The advantage of a quantum dot laser
over the traditional semiconductor laser is that their emitted wavelength depends
on the diameter of the dot. Quantum dot lasers are cheaper and offer a higher beam
quality than conventional laser diodes.
5) Displays
The production of displays with low energy consumption could be accomplished
using carbon nanotubes (CNT). Carbon nanotubes are electrically conductive and
due to their small diameter of several nanometers, they can be used as field
emitters with extremely high efficiency for field emission displays (FED). The
principle of operation resembles that of the cathode ray tube, but on a much
smaller length scale.
Unlike a conventional flat panel display, which uses a power
to illuminate its pixels, electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper and is
capable of holding text and images indefinitely without drawing electricity, while
allowing the image to be chan
flexible substrates an due to their paper
displays are considered prime examples of the electronic paper category.
Fig. 1.8
6) Quantum computers
Entirely new approaches for computing exploit the laws of quantum mechanics
for novel quantum computers, which enable the use of fast quantum algorithms.
The Quantum computer has quantum bit memory space termed "Qubit" for several
computations at the same time. This facility may improve the performance of the
older systems.
flat panel display, which uses a power-consuming backlight
to illuminate its pixels, electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper and is
capable of holding text and images indefinitely without drawing electricity, while
allowing the image to be changed later. Because they can be produced on thin,
flexible substrates an due to their paper-like appearance (Fig. 1.8), electrophoretic
displays are considered prime examples of the electronic paper category.
Fig. 1.8 Electrophoretic displays
Entirely new approaches for computing exploit the laws of quantum mechanics
for novel quantum computers, which enable the use of fast quantum algorithms.
The Quantum computer has quantum bit memory space termed "Qubit" for several
e same time. This facility may improve the performance of the
consuming backlight
to illuminate its pixels, electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper and is
capable of holding text and images indefinitely without drawing electricity, while
ged later. Because they can be produced on thin,
, electrophoretic
displays are considered prime examples of the electronic paper category.
Entirely new approaches for computing exploit the laws of quantum mechanics
for novel quantum computers, which enable the use of fast quantum algorithms.
The Quantum computer has quantum bit memory space termed "Qubit" for several
e same time. This facility may improve the performance of the
1.4.5 Heavy Industry
1) Aerospace
Lighter and stronger materials will be of immense use to aircraft
manufacturers, leading to increased performance. Spacecraft will also benefit,
where weight is a major factor. Nanotechnology would help to reduce the size of
equipment and thereby decrease fuel-consumption required to get it airborne.
Hang gliders may be able to halve their weight while increasing their
strength and toughness through the use of nanotech materials. Nanotech is
lowering the mass of super capacitors that will increasingly be used to give power
to assistive electrical motors for launching hang gliders off flatland to thermal-
chasing altitudes.
2) Construction
Nanotechnology has the potential to make construction faster, cheaper, safer,
and more varied. Automation of nanotechnology construction can allow for the
creation of structures from advanced homes to massive skyscrapers much more
quickly and at much lower cost.
2) Refineries
Using nanotech applications, refineries producing materials such as steel and
aluminum will be able to remove any impurities in the materials they create.
3) Vehicle manufacturers
Much like aerospace, lighter and stronger materials will be useful for creating
vehicles that are both faster and safer. Combustion engines will also benefit from
parts that are more hard-wearing and more heat-resistant.
1.4.6 Consumer goods
Nanotechnology is already impacting the field of consumer goods, providing
products with novel functions ranging from easy-to-clean to scratch-resistant.
Modern textiles are wrinkle-resistant and stain-repellent; in the mid-term clothes
will become smart, through embedded wearable electronics. Already in use are
different nanoparticle improved products. Especially in the field of cosmetics, such
novel products have a promising potential.
1) Foods
Complex set of engineering and scientific challenges in the food and bio-
processing industry for manufacturing high quality and safe food through efficient
and sustainable means can be solved through nanotechnology. Bacteria
identification and food quality monitoring using biosensors; intelligent, active, and
smart food packaging systems; nanoencapsulation of bioactive food compounds
are few examples of emerging applications of nanotechnology for the food industry
Nanotechnology can be applied in the production, processing, safety and
packaging of food. A nanocomposite coating process could improve food
packaging by placing anti-microbial agents directly on the surface of the coated
film. Nanocomposites could increase or decrease gas permeability of different
fillers as is needed for different products. They can also improve the mechanical
and heat-resistance properties and lower the oxygen transmission rate. Research is
being performed to apply nanotechnology to the detection of chemical and
biological substances for sensanges in foods.
1a) Nano-foods
New consumer products Emerging Nanotechnologies (PEN), based on an
inventory it has drawn up of 609 known or claimed nano-products.
On PEN's list are three foods a brand of canola cooking oil called Canola Active
Oil, a tea called Nanotea and a chocolate diet shake called Nanoceuticals Slim
Shake Chocolate.
According to company information posted on PEN's Web site, the canola oil, by
Shemen Industries of Israel, contains an additive called "nanodrops" designed to
carry vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals through the digestive system.
The shake, according to U.S. manufacturer RBC Life Sciences Inc., uses cocoa
infused "NanoClusters" to enhance the taste and health benefits of cocoa without
the need for extra sugar.
Household
The most prominent application of nanotechnology in the household is self-
cleaning or easy-to-clean surfaces on ceramics or glasses. Nanoceramic particles
have improved the smoothness and heat resistance of common household
equipment such as the flat iron.
Optics
The first sunglasses using protective and anti-reflective ultrathin polymer
coatings are on the market. For optics, nanotechnology also offers scratch resistant
surface coatings based on nanocomposites. Nano-optics could allow for an increase
in precision of pupil repair and other types of laser eye surgery.
Textiles
The use of engineered nanofibers already makes clothes water- and stain-repellent
or wrinkle-free. Textiles with a nanotechnological finish can be washed less
frequently and at lower temperatures. Nanotechnology has been used to integrate
tiny carbon particles membrane and guarantee full
electrostatic charges for the wearer. Many other applications have been dev
by research institutions such as the
University.
Fig. 1.9 Improved and new functionalities of textile by nanotechnology
Cosmetics
One field of application is in sunscreens. The traditional chemical UV protection
approach suffers from its poor long
nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide offer several advantages. Titanium oxide
nanoparticles have a comparable UV protection property as the bulk material, but
lose the cosmetically undesirable whitening as the particle size is decreased.
1.4.7 Agriculture
Applications of nanotechnology have the potential to change the entire
agriculture sector and food industry chain from production to conservation,
processing, packaging, transportation, and even waste treatment. NanoScience
concepts and Nanotechnology appl
tiny carbon particles membrane and guarantee full-surface protection from
electrostatic charges for the wearer. Many other applications have been dev
by research institutions such as the Textiles Nanotechnology Laboratory
oved and new functionalities of textile by nanotechnology
One field of application is in sunscreens. The traditional chemical UV protection
approach suffers from its poor long-term stability. A sunscreen based on mineral
tanium dioxide offer several advantages. Titanium oxide
nanoparticles have a comparable UV protection property as the bulk material, but
lose the cosmetically undesirable whitening as the particle size is decreased.
Applications of nanotechnology have the potential to change the entire
agriculture sector and food industry chain from production to conservation,
processing, packaging, transportation, and even waste treatment. NanoScience
concepts and Nanotechnology applications have the potential to redesign the
surface protection from
electrostatic charges for the wearer. Many other applications have been developed
Textiles Nanotechnology Laboratory at Cornell
oved and new functionalities of textile by nanotechnology
One field of application is in sunscreens. The traditional chemical UV protection
term stability. A sunscreen based on mineral
tanium dioxide offer several advantages. Titanium oxide
nanoparticles have a comparable UV protection property as the bulk material, but
lose the cosmetically undesirable whitening as the particle size is decreased.
Applications of nanotechnology have the potential to change the entire
agriculture sector and food industry chain from production to conservation,
processing, packaging, transportation, and even waste treatment. NanoScience
ications have the potential to redesign the
production cycle, restructure the processing and conservation processes and
redefine the food habits of the people.
Major Challenges related to agriculture like low productivity in cultivable areas,
large uncultivable areas, shrinkage of cultivable lands, wastage of inputs like
water, fertilizers, pesticides, wastage of products and of course Food security for
growing numbers can be addressed through various applications of
nanotechnology.
Nano scale
Popularly, nano is also used as an adjective to describe objects, systems, or
phenomena with characteristics arising from nanometer-scale structure. While
micro has come to mean anything small, nano emphasizes the atomic
granularity that produces the unique phenomena observed in nanoscience. While
there are some exceptional examples, most of the exciting properties of nano
begin to be apparent in systems smaller than 1000 nm, or 1 micrometer, 1 m.
The particles with any dimension smaller than 1 micrometer as
nanoparticles, and those somewhat larger as microparticles. Nanostructured
materials did not first come into existence with the recent emergence of the field of
nanotechnology. Many existing materials are structured on the micro- and
nanometer scales, and many industrial processes that have been used for decades
(e.g. polymer and steel manufacturing) exploit nanoscale phenomena.
Fig. 1.10 Logarithmical length scale showing size of Nanomateria
compared to biological components and definition of nano and micro sizes
Moreover, many materials that seems smooth to the naked eye have an
intricate structure on the scale of nanometers
are not new. Recent advances in
have fueled a boom in the study and industrial use of nano
new vocabulary has emerged from this research, and its important terms and
concepts are defined below.
1.1.1 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are materials that have structural components smaller than 1
micrometer in at least one dimension. While the atomic and molecular building
blocks (~0.2 nm) of matter are considered nanomaterials, examples such as bulk
crystals with lattice spacing of nanometers but macroscopic dimensions overall, are
commonly excluded.
thmical length scale showing size of Nanomateria
compared to biological components and definition of nano and micro sizes
Moreover, many materials that seems smooth to the naked eye have an
scale of nanometers. Thus in many ways nanomaterials
are not new. Recent advances in synthesis and characterization tools, however,
have fueled a boom in the study and industrial use of nano-structured materials. A
new vocabulary has emerged from this research, and its important terms and
omaterials are materials that have structural components smaller than 1
micrometer in at least one dimension. While the atomic and molecular building
blocks (~0.2 nm) of matter are considered nanomaterials, examples such as bulk
ng of nanometers but macroscopic dimensions overall, are
thmical length scale showing size of Nanomaterials
compared to biological components and definition of nano and micro sizes
Moreover, many materials that seems smooth to the naked eye have an
. Thus in many ways nanomaterials
synthesis and characterization tools, however,
structured materials. A
new vocabulary has emerged from this research, and its important terms and
omaterials are materials that have structural components smaller than 1
micrometer in at least one dimension. While the atomic and molecular building
blocks (~0.2 nm) of matter are considered nanomaterials, examples such as bulk
ng of nanometers but macroscopic dimensions overall, are
1.1.2 Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are particles with at least one dimension smaller than 1 micron
and potentially as small as atomic and molecular length scales (~0.2 nm).
Nanoparticles can have amorphous or crystalline form and their surfaces can act as
carriers for liquid droplets or gases. To some degree, nanoparticulate matter should
be considered a distinct state of matter, in addition to the solid, liquid, gaseous, and
plasma states, due to its distinct properties (large surface area and quantum size
effects). Examples of materials in crystalline nanoparticle form are fullerenes and
carbon nanotubes, while traditional crystalline solid forms are graphite and
diamond. Many authors limit the size of nanomaterials to 50 nm or 100 nm the
choice of this upper limit being justified by the fact that some physical properties
of nanoparticles approach those of bulk when their size reaches these values.
However, this size threshold varies with material type and cannot be the basis for
such a classification. A legitimate definition extends this upper size limit to 1
micron, the sub-micron range being classified as nano. Nanoparticulate matter
refers to a collection of nanoparticles, emphasizing their collective behavior.
Nanotechnology can be defined as the design, synthesis, and application of
materials and devices whose size and shape have been engineered at the nanoscale.
It exploits unique chemical, physical, electrical, and mechanical properties that
emerge when matter is structured at the nanoscale.
1.6 Surfaces and dimensional space
Two primary factors cause nanomaterials to behave significantly differently
than bulk materials: surface effects (causing smooth properties scaling due to the
fraction of atoms at the surface) and quantum effects (showing discontinuous
behavior due to quantum confinement effects in materials with delocalized
electrons). These factors affect the chemical reactivity of materials, as well as their
mechanical, optical, electric, and magnetic properties. The fraction of the atoms at
the surface in nanoparticles is increased compared to microparticles or bulk.
Compared to microparticles, nanoparticles have a very large surface area and high
particle number per unit mass. For illustration, one carbon microparticle with a
diameter of 60 m has a mass of 0.3 g and a surface area of 0.01 mm
2
. The same
mass of carbon in nanoparticulate form, with each particle having a diameter of 60
nm, has a surface area of 11.3 mm
2
and consists of 1 billion nanoparticles (Fig.1.
11 a). The ratio of surface area to volume (or mass) for a particle with a diameter
of 60 nm is 1000 times larger than a particle with a diameter of 60 m (Fig. 1.11
b). As the material in nanoparticulate form presents a much larger surface area for
chemical reactions, reactivity is enhanced roughly 1000-fold. While chemical
reactivity generally increases with decreasing particle size, surface coatings and
other modifications can have complicating effects, even reducing reactivity with
decreasing particle size in some instances.
The atoms situated at the surface have less neighbors than bulk atoms, resulting in
lower binding energy per atom with decreasing particle size. A consequence of
reduced binding energy per atom is a melting point reduction with particle radius,
following the Gibbs-Thomson equation. For example, the melting temperature of 3
nm gold nanoparticles is more than 300 degrees lower than the melting
temperature of bulk gold, as shown in Fig. 1.11c.
1.6.1 Generations
Fig 1.12 Schamatic diagram of nanosystem development
Fig. 1.11
Schamatic diagram of nanosystem development Schamatic diagram of nanosystem development
1.7 Evolution of band structures and Fermi surfaces
1.7.1 Electronic band structure of nano crystals and solids:
Materials can be identified with appropriate structure and bonding. To
understand different thermal, electronic, mechanical and magnetic properties it is
necessary to know the electronic structure of solids.
The electronic structure of nano materials would be different from atoms,
molecules or solids. Nanomaterials are intermediate form of solids. They are too
small to be considered as bulk three dimensional solids and too big to be
considered as molecules. When two atoms are brought together there will be a
change in the electronic structure. Addition of each atom would change the
electronic structure till the number of atoms becomes too large.
An alternative view of the electronic band structure of solids is to consider
the electron waves in a periodic crystalline potential. The starting point for this
approach is the DrudeLorentz free electron model for metals. In this model a
metallic solid is considered as consisting of a close packed lattice of positive
cations surrounded by an electron sea or cloud formed from the ionization of the
outer shell (valence) electrons. We can then treat the valence electrons as if they
were a gas inside a container and use classical kinetic gas theory. This works best
for the electropositive metals of Groups I and II as well as aluminium (the so-
called free electron metals) and can explain many of the fundamental properties of
metals such as high electrical and thermal conductivities, optical opacity,
reflectivity, ductility and alloying properties.
However, a more realistic approach is to treat the free electrons in metals
quantum mechanically and consider their wave-like properties. Here the free
valence electrons are assumed to be constrained within a potential well which
essentially stops them from leaving the metal (the particle-in-a-box model). The
box boundary conditions require the wavefunctions to vanish at the edges of the
crystal (or box). The allowed wavefunctions given by the Schrodinger equation
then correspond to certain wavelengths as shown in Fig. 1.13. For a one-
dimensional box of length L, the permitted wavelengths are
E
n
represents solely kinetic energy since the potential energy is assumed to
be zero within the box. Thus there is a parabolic relationship between E
n
and n, and
therefore between E
n
and k since k depends directly on n as described above. The
permitted energy levels on this parabola are discrete (i.e., quantized): however in
principle the size of L for most metal crystals (ranging from microns to millimetres
or even centimetres) means that the separation between levels is very small
compared with the thermal energy k
B
T, and we can regard the energy distribution
as almost continuous (quasi-continuous) so that the levels form a band of allowed
energies as shown in Fig. 1.14.
Fig 1.13 Energy level diagram also showing the form of some of the allowed
wavefunctions for an electron confined to a one-dimensional potential well
Note that as the electron becomes more localized (i.e., L decreases), the energy of
a particular electron state (and more importantly the spacing between energy
states) increases; this has important implications for bonding and also for reduced-
dimensionality or quantum-confined systems which are discussed later.
Fig 1.14 Schematic version of the parabolic relationship between the allowed
electron wave vectors and their energy for electrons confined to a one-
dimensional potential well. Shaped energy regions represent those occupied
with electrons
1.6.1 Electronic conduction
We may now observe that the series of allowed k values in equation
extends up to the edges of the Brillouin zone, at k =/a. Since one of these
endpoints may be mapped onto the other by a reciprocal lattice vector translation,
the total number of allowed k values is precisely N. Recalling that each k state may
be occupied by both a spin up and a spin down electron, the total number of states
available is 2N per energy band. In three dimensions, this result is generalised to
2N states per band, where N is the number of unit cells in the crystal. Now, the
total number of valence electrons in the crystal is z N, where z is the number of
valence electrons per unit cell. This leads to two very different electronic
configurations in a solid. If z is even, then one energy band is completely filled,
with the next band being completely empty.
Fig. 1.15 Electron energy band structure diagram and density of states of
crystalline silicon
The highest filled band is the valence band, and the next, empty band, is the
conduction band. The electrons in the valence band cannot participate in electrical
conduction, because there are no available states for them to move into consistent
with the small increase in energy required by motion in response to an externally
applied voltage: hence this configuration results in an insulator or, if the band gap
is sufficiently small, a semiconductor. Alternatively, if z is odd, then the highest
occupied energy band is only half full. In such a material, there are many vacant
states immediately adjacent in energy to the highest occupied states, therefore
electrical conduction occurs very efficiently and the material is a metal. Fig. 1.16
shows schematic energy diagrams for insulators, metals and semiconductors
respectively. There is one further, special case which gives rise to metallic
behaviour: namely, when the valence band is completely full (z is even), but the
valence and conduction bands overlap in energy, such that there are vacant states
immediately adjacent to the top of the valence band, just as in the case of a half-
filled band. Such a material is called a semi-metal.
Fig.1.16 Electron energy band diagram for insulator, semiconductor and
conductor
1.10 Size and shapes
Dimensionality and size dependent phenomena
Nanoparticles are generally classified based on their dimensionality,
morphology, composition, uniformity, and agglomeration. An important additional
distinction should be made between nanostructured thin films or other fixed
nanometer-scale objects (such as the circuits within computer microprocessors)
and free nanoparticles. The motion of free nanoparticles is not constrained, and
they can easily be released into the environment leading to human exposure that
may pose a serious health risk. In contrast are the many objects containing
nanostructured elements that are firmly attached to a larger object, where the fixed
nanoparticles should pose no health risk when properly handled. An example of
this important distinction is the material asbestos, which is perfectly safe in its
primary state (basically a type of solid rock), but is a significant health hazard
when mined or worked in such a way as to produce the carcinogenic nanometer-
scale fibrous particles that become airborne (aerosol) and are therefore readily
absorbed in the lungs. It is also very important to recognize that not all
nanoparticles are toxic; toxicity depends on at least chemical composition and
shape in addition to simply size and particle ageing. In fact, many types of
nanoparticles seem to be non-toxic, others can be rendered non-toxic, while others
appear to have beneficial health effects. An important lesson we are in the process
of learning from nanoscience is that simple classifications of physical behavior
(and therefore toxicity) are overly limiting and that we must study toxicology of
each material and each morphology, in addition to particle ageing, to obtain
accurate information to inform policy and regulatory processes.
1.10.1 Dimensionality
As shape, or morphology of nanoparticles plays an important role in their
toxicity, it is useful to classify them based on their number of dimensions. This is a
generalization of the concept of aspect ratio.
1D nanomaterials - Materials with one dimension in the nanometer scale are
typically thin films or surface coatings, and include the circuitry of computer chips
and the antireflection and hard coatings on eyeglasses. Thin films have been
developed and used for decades in various fields, such as electronics, chemistry,
and engineering. Thin films can be deposited by various methods and can be
grown controllably to be only one atom thick, a so-called monolayer.
2D nanomaterials - Two-dimensional nanomaterials have two dimensions in the
nanometer scale. These include 2D nanostructured films, with nanostructures
firmly attached to a substrate, or nanopore filters used for small particle separation
and filtration. Free particles with a large aspect ratio, with dimensions in the
nanoscale range, are also considered 2D nanomaterials. Asbestos fibers are an
example of 2D nanoparticles.
3D nanomaterials - Materials that are nanoscaled in all three dimensions are
considered 3D nanomaterials. These include thin films deposited under conditions
that generate atomic-scale porosity, colloids, and free nanoparticles with various
morphologies.
1.10.2. Nanoparticle morphology
Morphological characteristics to be taken into account are: flatness, sphericity, and
aspect ratio. A general classification exists between high- and low-aspect ratio
particles (Fig1.17). High aspect ratio nanoparticles include nanotubes and
nanowires, with various shapes, such as helices, zigzags, belts, or perhaps
nanowires with diameter that varies with length. Small-aspect ratio morphologies
include spherical, oval, cubic, prism, helical, or pillar. Collections of many
particles exist as powders, suspension, or colloids.
1.10.3. Nanoparticle composition
Nanoparticles can be composed of a single constituent material (Fig. 1.17) or be a
composite of several materials. The nanoparticles found in nature are often
agglomerations of materials with various compositions, while pure single-
composition materials can be easily synthesized today by a variety of methods.
1.10.4. Nanoparticle uniformity and agglomeration
Based on their chemistry and electro-magnetic properties, nanoparticles can exist
as dispersed aerosols, as suspensions/colloids, or in an agglomerate state (Fig.
1.17). For example, magnetic nanoparticles tend to cluster, forming an agglomerate
state, unless their surfaces are coated with a non-magnetic material. In an
agglomerate state, nanoparticles may behave as larger particles, depending on the
size of the agglomerate. Hence, it is evident that nanoparticle agglomeration, size
and surface reactivity, along with shape and size, must be taken into account when
deciding considering health and environmental regulation of new materials.
Fig. 1.17 Classification of nanostructured materials from the point of view of
nanostructure dimensions, morphology, composition, uniformity and
agglomeration state.
Nanotechnology is helping to considerably improve, even revolutionize,
many technology and industry
environmental science, medicine, homeland security, food safety, and
transportation, among many others. Most benefits of nanotechnology depend on
the fact that it is possible to tailor the essential structures of m
nanoscale to achieve specific properties, thus greatly extending the well
toolkits of materials science. Using nanotechnology, materials can effectively be
made to be stronger, lighter, more durable, more reactive, more sieve
electrical conductors, among many other traits.
Classification of nanostructured materials from the point of view of
nanostructure dimensions, morphology, composition, uniformity and
Nanotechnology is helping to considerably improve, even revolutionize,
many technology and industry sectors: information technology, energy,
environmental science, medicine, homeland security, food safety, and
transportation, among many others. Most benefits of nanotechnology depend on
the fact that it is possible to tailor the essential structures of m
nanoscale to achieve specific properties, thus greatly extending the well
toolkits of materials science. Using nanotechnology, materials can effectively be
made to be stronger, lighter, more durable, more reactive, more sieve
electrical conductors, among many other traits.
Classification of nanostructured materials from the point of view of
nanostructure dimensions, morphology, composition, uniformity and
Nanotechnology is helping to considerably improve, even revolutionize,
sectors: information technology, energy,
environmental science, medicine, homeland security, food safety, and
transportation, among many others. Most benefits of nanotechnology depend on
the fact that it is possible to tailor the essential structures of materials at the
nanoscale to achieve specific properties, thus greatly extending the well-used
toolkits of materials science. Using nanotechnology, materials can effectively be
made to be stronger, lighter, more durable, more reactive, more sieve-like, or better