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DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL
&
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
BIOLOGY 111 LAB
Section I
Anatomical Position
The standard body position that serves as
the anatomical reference point to describe
the body parts and position accurately to
another medical professional.
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ANATOMICAL POSITION
the subject stands erect
facing the observer, with
legs together and feet
slightly apart, arms at the
sides with palms facing
the front, and with the
thumbs away from the
body
Directional Terms
Directional terms describe the locations of
structures in relation to other structures or
locations in the body.
These terms often have a counterpart with
converse or opposite meaning.
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Directional Terms
Superior
Towards the head or
upper part of a
structure or the body;
above (this term is
mainly used in the
torso region)
Inferior
Away from the head
or toward the lower
part of a structure or
the body; below (this
term is mainly used in
the torso region)
Directional Terms
Anterior (ventral)
Towards the front of the
body, organ, or section of
the body
This term is only
used interchangeably in
humans
Posterior (dorsal)
Towards the back of the
body, organ, or section of
the body
This term is only
used interchangeably in
humans
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Directional Terms
Medial
Towards the
middle of the body,
organ, or section of
the body
Lateral
Towards the side
of the body, organ,
or section of the
body
Directional Terms
Lateral
Ipsilateral
On the same
side of the body
gallbladder and
ascending colon
Contralateral
Opposite sides
of the midline
ascending and
descending
colon
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Directional Terms
Proximal
Closest to the point
of attachment
the wrist is proximal to
the fingers
Distal
Away from the point
of attachment
the fingers are distal to
the wrist
Directional Terms
Deep (internal)
Towards the internal
portion of the body
organs are deep to the
skin
Superficial (external)
Away from the
internal portion of the
body
skin is superficial to the
organs
Skin
Organ
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Activity
Use 3 directional terms to describe the location of the
following
(Remember that directional terms are always relative to
something. Be sure to state that the structure is
superior to the or proximal to the )
The right small finger
The left shoulder blade
The nose
The right ear
The liver
The left knee
Planes
Medical professionals often refer to
sections of the body in terms of anatomical
planes (flat surfaces)
These planes are imaginary lines vertical
or horizontal drawn through an upright
body
The terms are used to describe a specific
body part
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Types of Planes
1) Sagittal plane
This vertical (up and
down) plane divides
the body, organ, or
section of the body
into right and left
sections
Has 2 sub-types
a) Midsagittal
b) Parasagittal
Median or Midsagittal plane
This vertical (up and
down) plane divides the
body, organ, or section
of the body into equal
right and left halves
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Parasagittal plane
This vertical (up and
down) plane divides
the body, organ, or
section of the body
into unequal right
and left parts
2) Frontal or Coronal
plane
This vertical (up and
down) plane divides
the body, organ, or
section of the body
into anterior and
posterior portions
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3) Transverse
(cross sectional
or Horizontal)
plane
This plane divides
the body, organ, or
section of the body
into superior and
inferior portions
Planes and Sections of the Brain
Horizontal
Plane
Frontal Plane
Midsagittal
Plane
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Body Cavities
The spaces of the body containing the
internal organs (viscera).
The two main cavities are;
i) Ventral Cavity (subdivided into the
thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)
ii) Dorsal Cavity (subdivided into the cranial
and vertebral or spinal cavities)
The ventral cavity is the larger cavity
towards the front of the body.
The ventral Body Cavity
Subdivided into
a) thoracic cavity which is superior
(above) to the diaphragm.
b) abdominopelvic cavity which is
inferior (below) to the diaphragm.
These two sub-cavities are separated
by the diaphragm, a dome-
shaped muscle of respiration
Each of these major subdivisions
of the ventral cavity can be further
subdivided.
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Thoracic Body Cavities
Divided into 4
subcavities located
above the diaphragm;
2 Pleural cavities
- One containing the
right lung and the other
the left lung.
1 Superior mediastinum;
- space between the
two pleural cavities that
contains organs.
1 Pericardial cavity;
- contains the heart.
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Divided into 2 subcavities
located below the
diaphragm;
Abdominal cavity
this space contains the
abdominal organs
(stomach, intestine,
spleen, liver, etc.
Pelvic cavity
space that contains the
urinary bladder, some
reproductive organs,
and the rectum.
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Dorsal Body Cavity
is subdivided into;
i) cranial cavity
- contains the brain
and its associated
membranes.
ii) vertebral or
spinal cavity
- contains the spinal
cord and its
associated
membranes.
Abdominopelvic regions
Right hypochondriac region
This region is located laterally to
the Epigastric region (remember
your anatomical right)
Right lumbar region
This region is located laterally to
the umbilical region (remember
your anatomical right)
Right iliac or inguinal region
Is located laterally to the
hypogastric region
(remember your anatomical
right)
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Abdominopelvic regions
Epigastric region
This region is located superior
to the umbilical region
Umbilical
This region is the centermost
region
Hypogastric (pubic) region
Is located inferiorly to the
umbilical region
Abdominopelvic regions
Left hypochondriac region
This region is located laterally to
the epigastric region (remember
your anatomical left)
Left lumber
This region is located laterally to
the umbilical region (remember
your anatomical left)
Left iliac or inguinal region
Is located laterally to the
hypogastric region
(remember your anatomical
left)
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Quadrants
RUQ
right upper quadrant
RLQ
right lower quadrant
LUQ
left upper quadrant
LLQ
left lower quadrant
Activity
Get a torso model
Please use only wooden pointers with the
models NOT PENS!
Name the regions and quadrants where the
following organs are found.
The liver
The gall bladder
The stomach
The right kidney
The spleen
The large intestine
The urinary bladder
Vermiform appendix
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Membranes
Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that
line body cavities, and cover internal organs
within the cavities.
2 types;
a) Parietal membranes.
b) Visceral membranes
Parietal membrane
this serous
membrane lines the
cavity walls or can
line the outside wall
of an organ
Visceral membrane
this serous
membrane covers the
organs in the cavity
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Membranes of the Heart
Parietal pericardium
lines the pericardial
cavity (pericardial
sac)
Visceral pericardium
or epicardium
the parietal
pericardium reflects
back and covers the
heart
Membranes of the Lungs
Parietal pleura
this serous
membrane
lines the walls
of the thoracic
cavity
Parietal pleura
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Membranes
Visceral pleura
this serous
membrane
covers the lungs
Visceral pleura
Membranes of the
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Parietal
peritoneum
is associated with
the walls of the
abdominopelvic
cavity
Parietal peritoneum
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Visceral
peritoneum
covers most of
the organs within
the
abdominopelvic
cavity
Visceral peritoneum
Microscope
In biology, it is imperative that the student be
proficient in the use of the microscope
All biology students should be able to focus on a
smear in less than three minutes with any
microscope
Initially, you must learn the parts of the
microscope, the function of each part, and finally
the care and the maintenance of the microscope
Ideally, at the conclusion of this exercise, you
should be well on your way to success in the use
of the microscope
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Microscope
Ocular (eyepiece)
usually a 10 power
(lOX) lens containing
a pointer which can
be used to designate
a particular location in
the field of view
Microscope
Body tube
a tube, quite long in
some microscopes,
which forms the main
body of the microscope;
the ocular is at the top
of the body tube, and a
nosepiece or containing
several objectives is at
the bottom of the tube
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Microscope
Coarse adjustment
a knob which raises
and lowers the body
tube to bring the
specimen on the slide
into focus
Microscope
Fine adjustment
a knob to be used
for fine adjustment
(focusing) after
using the coarse
adjustment
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Microscope
Nosepiece
a turret that holds
the objectives and
allows them to pivot
into position as
needed
Microscope
Objectives
there are usually four objective
lenses, but some nosepieces
have fewer; they are a 4X
scanning lens, a 10X low
power, a 40X-45X high power,
and a 100X oil immersion
On many microscopes, the
objectives are identified by color
bands: green for low power,
yellow for high power, and red
for oil immersion
What would be the total
magnification when using any
of these objectives?
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Microscope
Spring clips or
Mechanical slide
holder
these hold the
glass slide in
position on the
stage
Microscope
Stage
a platform on
which the slide is
placed
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Microscope
Diaphragm
regulates the size of
the light opening in
the stage, thus
regulating the amount
of light passing
through the specimen
proper control of the
amount of light is
nearly as important as
proper focusing for
viewing the specimen
Microscope
Illuminator
a sub-stage light or
mirror is enclosed in the
base of some
microscopes
If the light source is not
sufficient, the full
capabilities of a
microscope cannot be
realized. Turn this light
off when not in use; the
switch usually lies
behind the light
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Microscope
Arm
the main supportive
structure of the
microscope, and the
only part except the
base by which the
instrument should be
carried
Microscope
Base
the supportive bottom
of the instrument that
holds the light
source
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Microscope
Condenser
a lens system locked into the
light opening of the stage of
many microscopes (not present
on all)
the condenser focuses or
concentrates the light from the
illuminator on the specimen
the condenser can be adjusted
to a higher or lower position by
a substage adjustment knob
but for most purposes, the
condenser should be fully
raised
if a pattern appears in the field
of view, you lower the
condenser until the pattern
disappears
ACTIVITY-MICROSCOPE
Get out a microscope
Learn the various parts
Ocular
Objectives
4x, 10x, 40x
Stage
Course adjustment
Fine adjustment
Diaphragm
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TISSUES
Tissues are a group of cells that have
a similar structure, and are specialized
for a specific function.
The four main types of tissues are;
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve
4 MainTypes of Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Simple
Stratified
Pseudostratified
Connective Tissue
Loose
Dense
Cartilage
Bone
Blood
Muscle Tissue
Cardiac
Smooth
Skeletal
Nervous Tissue
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1-EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
i) Cellularity
composed almost entirely of cells
ii) Special contacts
form continuous sheets held together by tight
junctions and desmosomes
iii) Polarity
apical and basal surfaces
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
iv) Supported by connective tissue
reticular and basal laminae
v) Avascular but innervated
contains no blood vessels but supplied
by nerve fibers
vi) Regenerative
rapidly replaces lost cells by cell division
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Epithelial Tissue
Classified by presence of
layers and shapes
Classification by layers
Simple
One layer
Stratified
Many layers
Pseudostratified
Single layer
Appears multilayered
Types of Epithelial Tissue
1) Simple squamous
Location
blood vessels, lining the
heart (visceral pericardium),
air sacs of the lung, kidney
(Bowmans capsule)
Function
Diffusion and filtration,
secretion of lubricating
substances in the serosae
Special features
flat single layered cells,
square to octagonal shape,
central nucleus
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Epithelial Tissue
2) Simple cuboidal
Location
kidney tubules, ovary,
ducts and secretory
portions of small glands
Function
secretion and
absorption
Special features
single layered, cube
shaped, central nucleus
Epithelial Tissue
3) Simple columnar
Location
gastrointestinal (GI)
tract, gallbladder, and
excretory ducts of some
glands
Function
secretion mucus and
absorption nutrients
Special features
column shaped, goblet
cells, microvilli
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Epithelial Tissue
4) Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar
Location
upper respiratory tract
(trachea, nasal cavity,
etc.) and male urethra
Function
secretion of mucus and
movement by cilary
action
Special features
cilia and scattered
nuclei
Epithelial Tissue
5) Stratified squamous
Keratinized and non-
keratinized
Location
skin, vagina, mouth,
esophagus
Function
Protection
Special features
layers of cells and
dark basement
membrane
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Epithelial Tissue
6) Transitional
Location
urinary tract (urethra,
ureter, urinary
bladder)
Function
Stretching and
distension
Special features
dome shaped cells
with centralized
nuclei
2- CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Structural Elements of Connective Tissue
Cells
fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, and
hematopoietic stem cells
Matrix
Ground substance
unstructured material that fills the space
between cells
Fibers
collagen, elastic, or reticular
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Cells
Fibroblasts
collagen and elastin
Chondroblasts
cartilage
Osteoblasts
bone
Hematopoietic stem cells
blood
White blood cells, plasma cells,
macrophages, and mast cells
Fibers
Collagen
tough; provides
high tensile
strength
Elastic
long, thin fibers
that allow for
stretch
Reticular
branched
collagenous fibers
that form delicate
networks
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Types of Connective Tissue
i) Loose Connective Tissue
a) Areolar
Location
surrounds capillaries and
distributed under epithelial
Function
wraps and cushions organs
Special features
scattered fibers
Loose Connective Tissue
b) Reticular
Location
spleen, bone
marrow, and lymph
nodes
Function
frame work (stroma)
of various organs
Special features
reticular fibers and
blood cells
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Loose Connective Tissue
c) Adipose
Location
around the heart and
kidney, under the skin,
posterior portion of the
eye
Function
energy storage, thermal
regulation, support and
protects organs
Special features
Cells with large fat
(triglycerides) vacuoles
that push the nuclei to
the periphery
ii) Dense Connective Tissue
a) Dense regular
Location
tendons (attach
muscle to bone)
and ligaments
(attach bone to
bone)
Function
strong attachment
Special features
collagen fibers in
waves
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b) Dense irregular
Location
dermis of the
skin
Function
strength and
withstands
tension
Special features
collagen fibers in
waves
Dense Connective Tissue
iii) Elastic Connective Tissue
Elastic connective
Location
elastic artery walls
and lung
Function
elasticity
Special features
scattered elastic
fibers
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iv) Cartilage
a) Hyaline cartilage
Location
trachea, ends of long
bones, tip of the nose
Function
supports, cushioning,
and resists stress
Special features
a vast number of
chondrocytes in
lacuna, collagen
Cartilage
b) Elastic Cartilage
Location
external ear (pinna)
and epiglottis
Function
shape and structure
Special features
vast number of
elastic fibers
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Cartilage
c) Fibrocartilage
Location
intervertebral disc,
pubic symphysis,
discs of knee joint
Function
strength and
absorbs shock
Special features
thick collagen
fibers
v) BONE
Bone
Location
skeletal system
(bones)
Function
protection,
support, blood
production
Special features
osteons
(haversion
systems)
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Vi) BLOOD
Blood
Location
blood vessels and
heart
Function
protection, regulation,
transportation
Special features
red blood cells (RBC),
white blood cells
(WBC), plasma
WBC
RBC
Plasma
3-MUSCLE TISSUES
a) Skeletal Muscle
Location
skeletal system
(gross muscles)
attached to bone
Function
voluntary movement
and generate heat
Special features
striations and
cylindrical fibers
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Muscle Tissue
b) Cardiac Muscle
Location
heart wall
Function
Pumps blood
through involuntary
movement.
Special features
striations,
intercalated disc,
centralized nuclei,
and branches
Muscle Tissue
c) Smooth Muscle
Location
Hallow organs, blood
vessels, and
gastrointestinal tract
Function
involuntary
propulsion
(movement) of
substances
Special features
non-striated fibers
with centralized
nuclei
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4-NERVOUS TISSUE
Neuron
Location
central and
peripheral nervous
system
Function
action potential and
nerve impulse
Special features
dendrites, axon, cell
body (soma)
THE SKIN
Epidermis
the outermost layer of the skin
It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the
body's surface and is made up of stratified
squamous epithelium
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The Skin
Epidermis
Stratum corneum
(Horny layer)
keratin
25-30 cell layers
thick
top layer of dead
cells (dry skin and
dandruff)
provides a durable
overcoat for
protection
Epidermis
Stratum lucidum
(Clear layer)
visible in the palms
of our hands and
soles of our feet
(thick skin layers)
The Skin
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The Skin
Epidermis
Stratum granulosum
(Granular layer)
Contain Dying cells
keratohyline
granules which form
keratin
contain lamellated
granules which
contain a
waterproofing
glycolipid
The Skin
Epidermis
Stratum spinosum
(Prickly layer)
contain
keratinocytes and
Langerhans cells
among the
keratinocytes are
melanin granules
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The Skin
Epidermis
Stratum basale
(Basal layer) or
stratum
germinativum
continually
dividing cells
(mitosis)
The Skin
Dermis (composed of two sub-layers)
One layer of skin beneath the epidermis that
consists of connective tissue and cushions the
body from stress and strain
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The Skin
Dermis
Papillary region (layer)
contains dermal papillae
Ridges which form the bases for forming our
fingerprints
Accessory Structures
Meissners corpuscles
in dermal papillae
touch receptors
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Accessory Structures
Free nerve endings
in dermal papillae
pain receptors
The Skin
Dermis
Reticular region (layer)
Stretch-recoil properties
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Accessory Structures
Hair shaft
part of the hair that is above the skin
Hair root
part of the hair buried in the follicle under
the skin
Accessory Structures
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Hair bulb
this area is expanded resembling a bulb
a knot of sensory nerve endings
Accessory Structures
Papilla of hair
At the base of the follicle is a large
structure that is called the papilla
Accessory Structures
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Hair follicle
Is part of the skin that grows hair by
packing old cells together
Accessory Structures
Arrector pili muscle
a bundle of smooth muscle cells
produces goose bumps (raiser of hair)
Accessory Structures
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Accessory Structures
Sebaceous (oil) glands
secrete an oily substance called sebum
Accessory Structures
Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
two types eccrine and apocrine
eccrine the most abundant
eccrine secretes a hypotonic filtrate (sweat) of the
blood
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The Skin
Hypodermis or Superficial fascia (not part of the skin,
but shares some of the skins protective properties)
anchors skin to the underlying structures (mostly muscles)
subcutaneous tissue mostly composed of adipose cells
Accessory Structures
Pacinian corpuscles
deep pressure receptor