100%(4)100% au considerat acest document util (4 voturi)
1K vizualizări14 pagini
This document discusses different systems for classifying soils. It provides an overview of several major soil classification systems used worldwide, including the USDA Soil Taxonomy system which categorizes soils into 12 major soil orders. The summary briefly describes two of these soil orders: Entisols, which are young soils with little development; and Histosols, which are wet soils high in organic matter often referred to as peats.
This document discusses different systems for classifying soils. It provides an overview of several major soil classification systems used worldwide, including the USDA Soil Taxonomy system which categorizes soils into 12 major soil orders. The summary briefly describes two of these soil orders: Entisols, which are young soils with little development; and Histosols, which are wet soils high in organic matter often referred to as peats.
This document discusses different systems for classifying soils. It provides an overview of several major soil classification systems used worldwide, including the USDA Soil Taxonomy system which categorizes soils into 12 major soil orders. The summary briefly describes two of these soil orders: Entisols, which are young soils with little development; and Histosols, which are wet soils high in organic matter often referred to as peats.
Soil Classification Soil classification entails the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing features and criteria that dictate choices in use. As is the case with climate, the major soils of the world can be categorised into major groups to produce world soil maps. Soil Classification Systems Soil classification systems provide scientists and resource managers with generalized information about the properties of various types of soil. Various soil classification systems are in use worldwide. Even in the same country, there may be different classification systems. One reason for this is the fact that different groups of people have different motives for classifying soils. or instance, geotechnical engineers usually classify soils according to their engineering properties as they relate to use for foundation support or building material. On the other hand, agricultural scientists classify soils based on their properties and suitability for agriculture. Criteria for Classifying Soils Soils are classified in different ways depending on the purpose for which the classification is being done. !he criteria used in classifying soils may vary, even within the same country. One reason for this is the fact that different occupational groups have different motives for classifying soils. or instance, agriculturalists classify soils on the basis of their properties and suitability for agriculture. On the other hand, geotechnical engineers usually classify soils according to their engineering properties as they relate to use for foundation support or building material. Systems of classifying soils can be broadly divided into two, namely indigenous and scientific systems. !he indigenous systems "also referred to as Vernacular systems# are developed by the land users. $ost indigenous soil classification systems are based on physical or perceptual dimensions of soil "Ettema, %&&'#. (hysical dimension classification systems classify soils on the basis of the readily observable features li)e soil colour and te*ture that can be detected by sight, feel, or smell. !he criteria of the perceptual dimension are not as concrete and readily recognized and include suitability classes for different crops, degree of land degradation or non+agricultural classes based upon the use of soil for house building or pottery ",reuning+ $adsen et al. -.%.#. or a long time, indigenous soil classification systems have been ignored by soil scientists. /n recent years, however, some social scientists are showing interests in these systems. Ethnopedology is the study of these indigenous systems of soil classification. /n contrast to indigenous systems of soil classification, three different criteria are commonly used by scientists to classify soils. !hese are Genetic Classification, Morphological classification and Applied Classification. Genetic Classification places considerable emphasis on the mode of formation of the soils or the genesis of the soil. Emphasis is on soil+ forming factors. Morphological Classification is based on the use of diagnostic horizons and gives specific properties of the soil that may be measured in the laboratory. Essentially, soils are categorised on the basis of 0uantifiable characteristics. Applied Classification1 2ere, soils are classified based on their land+use capability. Several e*amples e*ist based on the particular use the soil is to be put. As noted already, for instance, geotechnical engineers usually classify soils according to their engineering properties as they relate to use for foundation support or building material. On the other hand, farmers often classify soils to determine their potential for the cultivation of crops. 3hile an applied soil classification system may be useful for particular land users who developed the system, it may not be useful for other land users. or instance, a classification made for the purpose of engineering may not be useful for agricultural purposes. !he desire by different occupational groups to develop classification systems for their purpose has resulted in the emergence of so many classification systems worldwide. or instance, the Unified Soil Classification System "4S5S# is used in engineering and geology disciplines to describe the te*ture and grain size of a soil. !he !he AASH! Soil Classification System was developed by the American Association of State 2ighway and !ransportation Officials, and is used as a guide for the classification of soils and soil+aggregate mi*tures for highway construction purposes. / want to stress that while we have discussed scietific soil classification systems under three broad headings "i.e. genetic, morphological and applied#, some researchers also classify all the systems only based on the first two criteria "genetic, morphological#. /t is also important to mention that some systems of soil classification have elements of both genetic and morphological criteria. !hese are called comprehensive soil classification systems. inally, / want you to bear in mind that soil classification systems are not static. As )nowledge is gained, old systems and class names are changed for new ones, as with plant and animal classification systems. /n view of the differences in soil classification systems, it is important to include descriptions of classified soils when reporting so that correlation to other systems is possible. $any countries have their own systems or use those of other countries. One system that has been e*tensively used in the mapping and classification of soils in 6hana is the "nterim Ghana Soil Classification System #hich #as developed in the late %&7.s "see ,rammer, %&8-#. One of the most useful classification systems is the US$A Soil a%onomy first published by the 4nited States 9epartment of Agriculture:s Soil Survey Staff in %&;7. !he system has undergone a number of changes since that time, and the -nd edition was published in %&&&. !his classification system provides a comprehensive categorization of soil types based on several parameters "most importantly their properties !he Canadian System of Soil Classification is another widely used system. !he &ood and Agriculture !rganization of the United 'ations (&A!) also designed a supra+national classification system, which provides important generalized information about soils pedogenesis. !he system, also )nown as the *orld Soil Classification system, was first published in %&;', and it was modified by many countries to fit their specific needs. /n %&&<, this system was replaced by the *orld +eference ,ase for Soil +esources (*+,). Soils of the *orld- based on US$A !he 4S9A Soil !a*onomy, which is one of the most comprehensive soil classification systems, places soils of the world in one of %- categories )nown as soil orders. !hese are1 Entisols, /nceptisols, 2istosols, O*isols, 4ltisols, Vertisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, $ollisols, Aridisols, Andisols and 6elisols. =et me now ta)e you through the main features of these soil types. Entisols are young soils that do not show any profile development other than the A horizon. !he soils are unaltered from their parent material, which is usually unconsolidated roc) or sediment. !hey are found on steep, roc)y slopes where erosion tends to cause delayed soil development. !hey also occur in desert and tundra regions where weathering is very low. Some entisols are also found on fresh deposits from rivers, glaciers and sand dunes. As the materials are not highly weathered, it may be difficult for plants to obtain nutrients from some of these soils. 2owever, entisols of large river valleys and associated shore deposits are good for the cultivation of crops. "nceptisols are more developed than entisols, but still lac) most of the features of older soils. !hese young soils contain enough moisture to support plants for at least three months of the year. !hey are often found on fairly steep slopes and on resistant parent materials. !hey are also common in the tundra region where weathering is very slow. Some inceptisols are also found on floodplains where significant sedimentation is no longer occurring. !he ecological setting of various inceptisols partly determines their agriculture potential. or instance, those developed on floodplains can support the cultivation of some crops, while those found in mountainous areas are often used for forestry, watershed and recreation. Histosols are wet soils that contain high levels of organic matter. !hey are often referred to as peats. !hey tend to develop on wetlands where poor drainage inhibits the decomposition of organic materials, allowing them to accumulate over time. Although they can be found in any region on wet, vegetated sites, they commonly occur within coniferous forests. !hey are common in Scandinavia, 5anada and the 3est Siberian (lain. 4sually, these soils are acidic and are low in nutrients. 2istosols are generally not very productive because of their restricted drainage and low fertility. /f carefully managed, histosols can be used for fruit production. !%isols are e*tremely weathered soils that occur in the tropical moist climate zones and under the tropical rain forest. !hey are commonly found in the tropical areas of Africa and South America. As a result of high concentration of o*ides of iron and aluminium, O*isols are normally red or yellowish in colour. !hey have high moisture levels, but the nutrient content is always low. /n fact, most nutrients in O*isol ecosystems are contained in the standing vegetation and decomposing plant material. As they are heavily leached, o*ysols tend to show little evidence of soil horizons, e*cept that the surface is dar)er due to the presence of organic matter. Although they are not very fertile, O*isols are 0uite productive with inputs of lime and fertilizers. Ultisols are highly leached, acid forest soils found primarily in humid temperate and tropical areas of the world. According to $ac9onald "-..>#, these soils commonly occur in climatic regions characterised by abundant moisture in one season and dry conditions in another season. !hey have relatively low fertility. !he subsurface horizon contains clay accumulations and is characterised by strong yellowish or reddish colours, due to the presence of iron o*ides. As a result of the high acidity and relatively low 0uantities of nutrients, 4ltisols are poorly suited for continuous agriculture without the use of fertilizer and lime. 3ith these inputs, however, these soils can be very productive. .ertisols are soils with high content of clay. !hey often develop under savannah vegetation in the tropical and subtropical climates. !hese soils are commonly found in eastern Australia, the 9eccan (lateau of /ndia, Ethiopia and 5had. 9uring the dry season, the soil shrin)s and deep wide crac)s occur. /t swells or e*pands in the wet season. !hus, vertisols shrin) and swell depending on water content. !his shrin) and swell action generally prevents the formation of distinct, well+developed horizons in these soils. As vertisols are very stic)y when wet and very hard when dry, they can only be wor)ed within a limited range of soil moisture content that is naturally difficult to attain. 5onse0uently, rainfed farming is very difficult on these soils. 3hen irrigation is available, the soils can support the cultivation of rice. Alfisols are moderately leached soils primarily found in temperate humid and subhumid regions of the world. !hey develop under forests and mi*ed forest+ grassland. !hey are rich in plant nutrients and have a subsurface horizon in which clays have accumulated. !he combination of very favourable climate and high native fertility enables Alfisols to be very productive soils for both agricultural and silvicultural use. Spodosols often have a light+coloured E horizon. !he , horizon contains an accumulation of illuviated humus, iron and aluminium. Spodosols often occur under coniferous forest in cool, moist climates. !hese soils are acidic and low in nutrients. 6iven that they are naturally infertile, Spodosols re0uire additions of lime in order to be productive agriculturally. Mollisols tend to develop on loess, limestone and wind+blown sand. !hey are commonly found under grassland vegetation. !hey have a thic), dar) surface horizon. Vertical crac)s usually form in the soil due to cycles of wetting and drying out. !hese soils have high amounts of nutrient content and calcium. $ollisols are among some of the best agricultural soils in the world and are therefore widely used for crop production. Aridisols are dry soils with distinct horizons. As the name implies, they are found in the semi arid and arid regions "deserts# where water content in the soil is too low to support much plant growth. 3ater deficiency is one of the distinguishing characteristic of Aridisols. ,ecause there is no lu*uriant vegetation on the desert where they are formed, aridisols have very low concentration of organic matter. =eaching is limited in Aridisols, and they usually contain high amounts of calcium and salts layers. ,ecause they do not contain enough water, these soils are not good for agricultural production unless irrigation water is available. Andisols are young soils formed on fresh deposits of volcanic ash. !hey are mostly found in central Ecuador, 5olombia and $e*ico. Andisols are very fertile, and support intensive cropping. Andisol areas are often used for the cultivation of fruits, tea, maize, coffee and tobacco. Gelisols are soils of e*tremely cold climates that contain permafrost within - meters of the surface. !hey are limited to the high+latitude (olar ?egions and localized areas at high mountain elevations. 6elisols are commonly found in Alas)a, Siberia and 5anada. =ow temperatures cause decomposition of organic materials to proceed very slowly. As a result, organic matter accumulates in the upper layer. !his gives the surface soil a blac) or dar) brown colour. 6elisols are not very fertile. Soils of Ghana Soils in the orest !one o" Ghana !he main soil groups in the forest zone of 6hana are the forest o*ysols, forest ochrosols. &orest !%ysols !he forest o*ysols are the main soil group found under the rain forest in the South/*estern part of Ghana. !hough these soils generally develop in areas with annual rainfall amounts of %<.. mm and above, they have also been identified in some areas with annual rainfall amounts of around %8.. mm on certain parent materials ",rammer, %&8-#. !he soils are formed over a wide range of highly weathered parent materials, notably granite, ar0#aian, and ,irrimian roc0s. O*ysols have matured profiles, and their colour ranges from brown to orange. !he topsoil colour depends on the parent material type. O*ysols that formed on granite and lower ,irrimian roc)s have greyish brown colour in the topsoil, while those that formed on upper ,irrimian roc)s have dar) brown colour in the topsoil. !he te*ture of these soils also largely depends on the parent material. 2owever, most O*ysols are loamy and well drained. !he heavy precipitation in the forest zone promotes rapid decomposition. 2ence, organic matter content of O*ysols is lower than those of orest Ochrosols. Again, the high amount of rainfall in the rain forest zone causes a high degree of leaching and this leads to e*treme reductions in the amounts of magnesium, calcium and other nutrients that the soils may contain. !heese soils are also strongly acid because of the high degree of leaching. /n fact, topsoil p2 values are generally lower than 7... ,ased on subsoil colour, these soils are further divided into @ellow and ?ed orest O*ysols.
,ecause they are strongly acid, orest O*ysols are only good for the cultivation of acid tolerant tree crops, such as coconut, coffee, oil palm and rubber. !hey are not good for the production of cocoa, which does not grow well in acid soils. &orest !chrosols orest Ochrosols are the main soils found under the moist semi/deciduous forest. !hey are also found in portions of the forest+savannah transition agro+ ecological zones. !hese zones stretch from 3est to East along the middle parts of 6hana. /n many ways, the characteristics of the orest Ochrosols are similar to those of orest O*ysols. or instance, both soil groups developed over the same )inds of e*tremely weathered parent materials + granites, ,irrimian roc0s and sandstone. Again, li)e the orest O*ysols, Ochrosols have matured soil profiles. !he degrees of leaching and nutrient levels are important factors that differentiate orest Ochrosols from O*ysols. As rainfall amounts in regions with orest Ochrosols are not as high as those with orest O*ysols, orest Ochrosols are not as highly leached as orest O*ysols. 5onse0uently, orest Ochrosols tend to contain higher 0uantities of nutrients, and are also relatively less acid "Asiamah et al., -...#. orest Ochrosols can also be further divided into red or yellow ochrosols. 6iven that orest Ochrosols are relatively less acid, they are suitable for the cultivation of a wide range of crops. !he common tree crops that can be cultivated on these soils include1 cocoa, oil palm, rubber and citrus. orest Ochrosols can also support food crops, such as cassava, plantain, yams and maize. 3hile orest Ochrosols and orest O*ysols are the main soil groups in the forest zone, there are some soils whose features are intermediate between these two soil groups. !hese are called !chrosol/!%ysol intergrades. !he term intergrade means Aintermediate in gradeB. !he Ochrosol+O*ysol /ntergrades occupy the areas between the orest Ochrosols and orest O*ysols. /n appearance, it is difficult to distinguish them from either of the two main soil groups. !hey contain more nutrients than the orest O*ysols, but have lower nutrient content than orest Ochrosols. As they are not as acid as the orest O*ysols, they can, to some e*tent, support the cultivation of cocoa. Another soil group in the forest zone of 6hana is the +ubrisol/!chrosol intergrades, which are found in very few areas within the orest Ochrosol region. !hese soils are not so leached and therefore contain more nutrients than the orest Ochrosols. /n fact, as far as crop production is concerned, the rubrisol+ochrosol intergrades are among the best soils in 6hana. Soils under the "nterior *ooded Sa1anna of Ghana Sa1anna !chrosols
!hese soils are similar to the orest Ochrosols e*cept that they are found in the sa1anna areas #ith semi/arid climatic conditions. !he soils developed over granites, sandstone and shale. !hey are well drained, porous and loamy soils. !he soils are moderately deep, but the solum is relatively thinner than the orest Ochrosols. !he topsoils have greyish brown colour. !he main difference between these soils and the orest Ochrosols is that the Savanna Ochrosols have less nutrient levels and are also less acid than their forest counterparts. !he Savanna Ochrosols can be divided into ?ed and @ellow Savanna Ochrosols. Although nutrients levels of Savanna Ochrosols are not as high as they are in the orest Ochrosols, the Savanna Ochrosols are 0uite good for crop production. !his is due to the fact that these soils are less acid. /n fact, the bul) of 6hana:s food crops are grown on these soils. !he most common crops that are cultivated on these soils are1 maize, millet, cowpea, groundnuts, yams, and cassava. !he major factors that militate against crop production on these soils are low nutrient and moisture levels. Ground#ater 2aterites !he 6roundwater =aterites are the most e*tensive soil group in the interior wooded savanna zone of 6hana. !hey cover about ;7C of this zone. !he soils developed over Voltaian shales and granites. 6roundwater =aterites developed over granites have relatively deeper solum than those developed over shale ",rammer, %&8-#. ,elow the surface of groundwater laterites is a Acemented layerB of ironstone, referred to as iron pan. !his hard layer, which is the main characteristics of the 6roundwater =aterites, ma)es it difficult for water to pass through the soil. 5onse0uently, the surface soil becomes waterlogged in the rainy season, but dries out in the dry season. !he colour of the soil ranges from pale brown to pale grey. !he te*ture varies depending on parent material. =aterites developed over Voltarian shales are usually silty or sandy loam. !hose developed over granite are normally coarse sandy+loam. 6roundwater =aterites are generally poor in nutrients and in organic matter. !he agricultural potential of 6roundwater =aterites is significantly limited by the abundance of iron pan "hard layer of ironstone#. !he soils also have less nutrient and moisture levels. !he e*treme waterlogging that occurs in the rainy season also affects the availability of o*ygen to roots of plants. 9espite these limitations, some crops are cultivated on these soils. !hese include millet, maize, groundnuts and cowpea. /n addition, wetland rice is grown on the low flat terrains which are inundated in the rainy season. Soils in the South/East Coastal Sa1anna 3one of Ghana ropical ,lac0 Clays (Earths) !he !ropical ,lac) 5lays "also )nown as the A)use soils# are mostly found in the coastal savanna zone. !hese soils are developed over basic gneiss in the Accra+2o+Deta plains. !hey are al)aline and contain high amounts of calcium and magnesium. !ropical ,lac) 5lays are generally heavy and stic)y during the rainy season. 2owever, in the dry season, they become hard and develop wide crac)s. 6iven that !ropical ,lac) 5lays are very heavy and stic)y when wet and very hard when dry, they can only be ploughed within a limited range of soil moisture content that is naturally difficult to attain. 5onse0uently, a greater proportion of these soils are not often cultivated. 5ommercial crop production on these soils occurs on irrigated lands "e.g Asutuare and Dpong irrigation projects#. Sugar cane and ?ice are the main crops on these irrigated fields. ropical Grey Earths !hese soils are also commonly found in the coastal savanna zone of 6hana. !hey actually occupy the rest of the gneiss areas lying to the east of the blac) clays. !hey usually develop on lower slopes where they are locally influenced by drainage. !he soils consist of a thin layer of grey sand overlying clay pan "very hard clay#. !o some e*tent, the tropical grey earths are similar to the tropical blac) soils. !he main difference is that the grey soils are slightly acid. !he presence of hardpan near the surface of the soil seriously affects water infiltration and the development of roots. Again, the topsoils are very low in nutrients and the subsoils which are relatively richer in nutrients are not accessible to plant roots. 5onse0uently, these soils are mostly used as open grazing fields. Sodium .leisols !hese are al)aline soils commonly found in areas around salty coastal lagoons and cree)s of the lower end of the Volta ?iver. Specifically, they stretch eastward from the Songaw lagoon to the !ogo border along the coast of 6hana. !hese soils are blac) or dar) grey in colour. !hey are clayey soils which become stic)y in the rainy season, but lose a significant proportion of their moisture in the dry season. !he Sodium Vleisols are not very suitable for crop production. Sugarcane is, however, cultivated on Sodium Vleisols around the =ower Volta ,asin.
Soil Erosion Soil erosion involves the removal of soil particles from the environment. Soil erosion occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice. /t can also be caused by down+slope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity. 3ater and wind are the two most important agents of soil erosion in many countries, including 6hana. *ater Erosion 3ater erosion is the removal of soil particles by water. !here are a number of processes by which soil particles are removed by water. !hese are rainsplash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion and gully erosion. +ainsplash erosion "or splash or raindrop erosion# is the detachment of small soil particles by the direct impact of raindrops. !he particles removed by splash erosion are usually transported only a few centimetres away. 5onse0uently, the effects of this process are only felt at the place where the soils are removed. 6enerally, splash erosion is only effective when the rain falls with a high intensity. !his type of erosion is therefore mainly common in the tropics where rain can fall with such a high intensity. Sheet erosion- !his is the removal of soil particles by water flowing overland as a sheet instead of in definite channels. !his erosion occurs uniformly over the land surface and may not be noticed until most of the topsoil has been lost. +ill erosion1 !his refers to the removal of soil particles by means of runoff in small channels "rills#. /n other words, rill erosion occurs when surface runoff concentrates forming small channels "rills# on the land surface. Gully erosion1 !his is the removal of soil particles by means of runoff in gullies "larger channels. /n many parts of the world, rill and gully erosions are the dominant forms of soil erosion. &actors that Affect the Magnitude of Soil Erosion by *ater Soil erosion by water is naturally influenced by climate, vegetation, topography, and the properties of the soil itself. +ainfall "ntensity and +unoff- !he most important climatic factors that control soil erosion by water are rainfall intensity and fre0uency. /n general, places with high+intensity precipitation and more fre0uent rainfall tend to have more erosion. As noted already, soil erosion by raindrop "splash# is only significant during high+intensity thunderstorms. A higher volume of runoff "water that moves on the surface# also produces more severe soil erosion than a lower amount of runoff. !he volume of surface runoff depends upon the amount of rainfall and the rate at which it is absorbed by the soil. ?unoff tends to be higher whenever there is e*cess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the soil or trapped on the surface. A reduction in infiltration, as a result of soil compaction, can result in a higher amount of runoff, thereby increasing the rate and magnitude of erosion. Soil 4roperties- Some physical properties of soil also affect its resistance to erosion. !he magnitude of soil erosion tends to be higher in soils #ith poor structure. Soils with faster infiltration rates have a greater ability to resist erosion. /f water infiltration is high, less runoff is generated and this reduces the amount of surface erosion. Again, organic matter protects the soil by absorbing the impact of rain drops. 2ence, soils that contain relatively higher amount of organic matter are able to resist erosion. (ast erosion also strongly affects a soil:s erodibility. E*posed subsoils ", horizon# on previously eroded sites are generally more susceptible to erosion than surface soils. !his is because such subsoils have poor soil structure and lower organic matter. Again, the lower nutrient levels that characterise such subsoils contribute to poorer plant growth. 5onse0uently, these soils are not well protected by vegetative cover. .egetation- Soil erosion tends to be higher when the soil has very little or no vegetative cover. (lant andEor residue cover can protect the soil against rainsplash erosion. /n addition, vegetation tends to reduce the speed of surface runoff flows and allows e*cess surface water to infiltrate. /t needs to be stressed that the effectiveness of vegetation to chec) erosion depends on the type and amount of the cover they provide. Vegetation andEor residue that totally cover the soil and protect it from the direct impact of raindrops are the most efficient in controlling erosion "e.g. forests, permanent grasses#. !he effectiveness of any vegetation to control erosion also depends on how much protection is available at various periods during the year. (lants that provide protective cover for a longer period of the year, especially in the rainy season, can reduce erosion much more than can those which leave the soil bare for a longer period of time. /n other words, for a vegetative cover to chec) erosion effectively, it must cover the soil throughout the rainy season. Slope Gradient and 2ength1 6enerally, the steeper the slope of a land surface the greater the speed of surface runoff. As the carrying power of surface runoff increases with its speed, steep slopes usually erode more easily than gentle slopes. !he magnitude of soil erosion by water also increases as the slope length increases. !his is because higher slope lengths cause greater accumulation of runoff. *ind Erosion !he removal of soil material by wind is referred to as wind erosion. One process by which wind causes soil erosion is by deflation. !his occurs when wind causes small particles to be lifted and moved to another place. As these suspended particles are moved, they may erode the surfaces of solid objects by a process called abrasion. &actors that "nfluence the Magnitude of Soil Erosion by *ind !he major factors that determine the rate and magnitude of soil erosion by wind are1 climate "wind speed and moisture level#F soil propertiesF soil surface roughnessF unsheltered distance and vegetative cover. *ind speed and moisture le1el- 3ind speed and soil moisture level are the most important components of climate that control the magnitude of soil erosion by wind. !he speed and duration of the wind are directly related to the magnitude of soil erosion. !hus, soil erosion by wind is higher in places with high wind speed. Surface soil particles with very low moisture levels are more easily transported by wind. Soil properties- Soil:s ability to resist erosion by wind also depends on its te*ture. Very fine particles can be suspended by the wind and then transported to very far places. !his does not mean that coarse particles are not prone to erosion by wind. /n fact, coarse particles can also be blown along the surface, although these larger particles are usually deposited 0uite closer to where they have been removed. As coarse materials are blown along the surface, the abrasion that results can reduce soil particle size and further increase the soil susceptibility to erosion. +oughness of soil surface1 ?ough soil surfaces tend to offer resistance to soil erosion. 5onversely, very smooth soil surfaces offer very little resistance to the wind. Stated differently, surfaces that are not rough tend to promote soil erosion. Unsheltered distance1 Soil erosion by wind also tends to be more severe at areas with no windbrea)s "trees, shrubs, residue, etc#. !his is because the lac) of windbrea)s allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for greater distances, thereby increasing soil erosion. .egetati1e co1er- As e*plained already under water erosion, wind erosion also commonly occurs in places with no or little vegetative cover. 3hile completely bare soil is the most susceptible, vegetation that produces very low levels of residue may also not ade0uately protect the soils against erosion. Human &actors that Cause Soil Erosion /t is clear from the above discussion that soil erosion is naturally caused by1 climatic factors, notably high rainfall intensity and strong windsF poor vegetation coverF steep slopesF and poor soil structure. 3hile these natural factors can cause soil loss, accelerated soil erosion is always a result of human activities. !hese human+induced causes of soil erosion are discussed below1 $eforestation is one of the major causes of soil erosion in many parts of the world, including 6hana. /n a natural forest, the mineral soil is protected by a litter layer and an organic layer. !hese two layers absorb the impact of rain drops. Vegetation cover in the forest also physically reduces the speed and volume of surface runoff, thereby protecting the soil against erosion. !rees in the forest can also chec) erosion by wind. !he loss of forest cover e*poses the topsoil to erosion by wind or water. !he most common human activities that usually lead to the destruction of forestEvegetation cover and associated soil erosion are1 uncontrolled logging, mining acti1ities5 farming acti1ities and bush fires. 4ncontrolled logging and fuel wood production directly reduce vegetation cover, thereby creating a pre+condition for soil erosion. $ining activities of both large+scale companies and small+scale local miners also cause severe destruction of forests. !his e*poses the topsoil to erosion by wind or water. arming activities also lead to destruction of forest cover and for that matter soil erosion. A farming practice that causes soil erosion in many developing countries is Shifting 5ultivation. Shifting 5ultivation, which usually incorporates the Aslash and burnB method, leads to the destruction of natural vegetation. ,ush fires have also long been identified as part of disturbances on the landscape "!urner, -..%#. As hinted already, most peasant farmers deliberately set fire to the natural vegetation "e.g forest# through the Aslash and burnB farming method. /n 6hana, hunters also use fires for directing the game in the hunting process. 5harcoal production is another cause of bush fires. !hese fires also destroy vegetation cover and therefore promote soil erosion. !1er/grazing by animals can also reduce ground cover, causing the topsoil to be more susceptible to erosion. /t is important to stress that most of the above mentioned human factors that directly lead to vegetative cover loss and soil erosion are triggered by a number of underlying factors, notably rapid population growth and poverty which force people to e*ploit the environment for their needs "!eye, -..7#. 5ultivation along steep slopes also causes soil erosion. !his is because ploughing parallel to slopes tends to increase the speed and volume of surface runoff along the slopes. ?oad construction also causes increased soil erosion as it leads to the removal of ground cover. Effects of Soil Erosion !he effects of accelerated soil erosion by water and or wind can be categorised into two groups. !hose impacts that are seen at the place where the soil is detached are referred to as on/site affects. On the other hand, off/ site effects are seen at the place where the eroded soils are deposited. !n/site effects of soil erosion1 One of the most serious on+site effects of soil erosion is the reduction in soil 0uality. Erosion usually causes the loss of the productive topsoil. /n addition to the loss of the nutrient+rich upper layers of the soil, erosion also causes reduction in the water+holding capacity of soil. !his is because the finest soil constituents which have high water+holding capacity are usually removed from the surface by water and or wind. 6iven that crops particularly rely on the upper horizons of the soil, the loss of nutrient+rich topsoil and reduction in water+holding capacity of eroded soils can both affect the agriculture productivity of soils. /n fact, the damaging on+ site effects of erosion, in terms of decreased agricultural yields, are well )nown in many developing countries, including 6hana. Again, in the developing world, soil erosion by water creates deep gullies on some untarred roads. $any roads in the rural areas of 6hana are almost not motorable in the rainy season due to the adverse effects of erosion. !ff/site effects of soil erosion1 !he most serious off+site effect of soil erosion is the movement of sediment into watercourses. !his often causes the silting+up of dams and disruption of the ecosystems of la)es. /n some cases, siltation also alters the habitat of a0uatic organisms. ish can be affected as increased sediment usually affects their feeding and clogs gill tissues. !he accumulation of sediments also smothers eggs of fish. Soil erosion also seriously affects the recovery of underwater grass beds as the sediment reduces the amount of light reaching plants. Sediment may also fill gutters and water channels, thereby causing flooding. !he constant dredging of channels may be costly. $oreover, agricultural chemicals that often move with eroded sediment are usually deposited into downstream watercourses. !hus, soil erosion is one of the major causes of water pollution and for that matter degradation of water 0uality. !he cost of removing such pollutants from drin)ing water can be considerable. /n developing countries li)e 6hana where people drin) directly from streams, this )ind of pollution may affect the heath of many poor people who directly drin) from streams. Eroded soil may also have a decreased capacity to absorb water. /n such cases, increased runoff may lead to downstream flooding and local damage to property. Controlling Soil Erosion As soil erosion is more serious on steeper slopes and surfaces that have little or no vegetation cover, any technical measure that increases vegetation cover andEor reduces slope steepness will help control erosion. !he following are some of the specific soil erosion control measures1 Controlling deforestation and promoting tree planting1 Since soil erosion is more severe on land surfaces with little vegetation, the problem can be chec)ed by controlling the loss of vegetation cover. !his can be done by1 regulating mining and logging activitiesF avoiding overgrazing and controlling the incidence of bush fires. /ncreasing vegetative cover through afforestation "establishing forest on land that is not a forest by planting trees or their seeds# and reaforestation "restoc)ing of e*isting forests and woodlands which have been depleted# programmes can also help reduce the rate of soil erosion. /n recent years, many countries including 6hana are embar)ing on these programmes with the aim of solving various environmental problems li)e deforestation, desertification and soil erosion. Contour ploughing6farming is the farming practice of ploughing across a slope follo#ing its contour lines. /n this type of ploughing, the ruts made by the plough usually run perpendicular rather than parallel to the slopes. !his generally results in furrows that curve around the land. !he rows produced can slow surface runoff to prevent the soil from being washed away. Additionally, these rows allow water to percolate into the soil. 5ontour ploughing is a common farming practice in the 4nited States, 5anada and Australia. erracing involves the cutting of gigantic steps along the slopes. ,y definition, a terrace is a giant step or levelled section of a hillside, designed to reduce rapid surface runoff. Although a terrace is designed primarily to reduce the speed of surface runoff and prevent erosion, it also facilitates the storage of available water. !his farming techni0ue is commonly used for crops re0uiring a lot of water "e.g rice#. =evel terraces are common in Southeast Asia. ,uffer strip is an area of land maintained in permanent vegetation to prevent soil erosion on land that is being used for agriculture. /n some places, buffer strips are also used to conserve water 0uality. ,uffer strips trap sediment and enhance filtration of nutrients by slowing down surface runoff. /n addition, the root systems in these buffers hold soil particles together. 3indbrea) is basically a type of buffer strip made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs planted to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion by wind. !he trees are usually planted at right angles to the prevailing winds. Crop rotation is a system of growing different )inds of crops in recurrent se0uence on the same land. Specific crop rotation methods, especially those that leave significant mass of crop stubble "plant residue left after harvest# on the surface of the soil can reduce erosion. A high amount of such plant residue on the soil usually controls erosion from water by reducing overland flow velocity and thus the ability of the water to detach and transport sediment. or instance, wheat stubble tends to leave a significant mass of plant residue after harvest. ?otation that includes wheat and crops such as permanent pasture )eep soil erosion to a minimum.
Mulching- /n agriculture, mulch is litter or any protective cover placed over the soil, to protect the soil against erosion and water loss. A wide variety of materials are used for mulching. !hese include dead leaves, sawdust, hay, straw, shells, shredded newspaper, wool etc. $ulching controls soil erosion by reducing raindrop impact and the ability of surface water to detach and transport sediment.