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Control Systems

Closed Loop and Open loop


In open loop, output
has no effect on
control action.No
feedback action
Advantage is better
stability and cheaper
In closed loop, the
difference between
output and input is fed
back as an actuating
error signal
Advantage of closed
loop is that use of
feedback makes it
insensitive to external
disturbances and
variations in system
parameters
Laplace Transform
Replaces operations such as integration and
differentiation by algebraic operations in
complex plane
Advantage - it allows users to graphically
predict system performance without solving the
governing diff eqns

Linear time invariant systems
A system is called linear if the principle of
superposition applies
A system is called time invariant if the
coefficients of its governing diff eqns are time
invariant
Transfer Functions
Transfer fn of a linear time invariant diff system
is defined as a ratio of Laplace transform of
output to the that of input under the assumption
that all initial conditions are zero
If highest power of s in the denominator is n the
system is called n
th
order
It's a property of the system and does not
depend on input

Block diagrams
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the
flow of signals and functions performed by each signal
Block diagram pic and formula
Industrial controllers
1) Two position or on-off controllers
2) Proportional controllers
3) Integral controllers
4) Proportional plus integral controllers
5) Proportional plus derivative controllers
6) Proportional plus integral plus derivative
controllers
Two position contollers
Actuating element has only two fixed positions
which are mostly on and off
u(t) = U
1
for e(t)>0
u(t) = U
2
for e(t)<0
Where u(t) is the ouput signal and e(t) is the
acutating error signal
Proportional controllers
Output of controller is proportional to actuating
error signal
u(t) = K
p
e(t)
In laplace transform quantities
U(s)/E(s) = K
p
K
p
is called proportional gain
Integral controllers
Output changes at a rate proportional to the
actuating error signal
du/dt = K
i
e(t)
The transfer function is U(s)/E(s) = K
i
/s
Proportional plus integral controllers
Insert pic
The transfer function is
U(s)/E(s) = K
p
(1 + 1/(T
i
s))
T
i
is called integral time
Proportional plus derivative
controllers
Insert pic
The transfer function is
U(s)/E(s) = K
p
(1 + T
d
s)
T
d
is called derivative time
Proportional plus integral plus
derivative controllers
Insert pic
The transfer function is
U(s)/E(s) = K
p
(1 + T
d
s+ 1/(T
i
s))
T
d
is called derivative time
T
i
is called integral time
Block diagram reduction
The product of transfer functions in the
feedforward direction must remain the same
Product of transfer functions around the loop
must be the same
Signal flow graphs
An alternate approach for graphically
representing control system dynamics
Graphs consist of nodes and branches
For a given system, signal flow graph is not
unique
Mason's gain formula
P = (1/)*
k
P
k

k
where
P
k
= path gain or transmittance of the k
th
forward path
= determinant of graph = 1 (sum of all individual loop gains)
+ (sum of gain products of all combinations of two nontouching
loops) (sum of gain products of all combinations of non
touching loops)+.....

k
= obtained from

by removing the loops that touch path P
k
Transient and steady state response
analysis
c(t) = c
tr
(t) + c
ss
(t)
where
c(t) is time response of system
c
tr
(t) is transient response i.e. Manner in which
system behaves as it goes from initial state to
final state
c
ss
(t) is the response at steady state i.e. As t
approaches infinity
First order system
Input output relationship given by
C(s)/R(s) = 1/(Ts+1)
For 1
st
order systems the response to the
derivative of an input signal can be obtained by
differentiating theresponse of a system to the
original signal
Unit-step response
For unit-step response taking R(s) = 1/s
c(t) = 1 e
-t/T
At t = T, response is 63.2% of total change
Unit-Ramp response
For unit-ramp response taking R(s) = 1/s
2
c(t) = t - T(1 e
-t/T
)
Error signal
e(t) = T(1 e
-t/T
)
e() = T
Unit-Impulse response
For unit-impulse response taking R(s) = 1
c(t) = (1/T)* e
-t/T
Second order system
Transfer function is given by
C(s)/R(s) = K/(Js
2
+ Bs + K)
K/J =
n
2
B/J = 2
n
= 2
where
is called attenuation

n
is undamped natural frequency
is called damping ratio
Second order system contd.
Standard form is
C(s)/R(s) =
n
2
/(s
2
+ 2
n
s +
n
2
)
If 0 < < 1 system is called underdamped and
transient response is oscillatory
If = 0 transient response does not die out
If = 1 system is called critically damped
If > 1 system is overdamped
Underdamped
c(t) = 1 (e
-
n
t
/(1-
2
))*(sin (
d
t + tan
-1
(1-

2
)/ )) for t>=0
If =0 response becomes undamped and
oscillations continue indefinitely
Critically damped
c(t) = 1 e
-
n
t
( 1 +
n
t)

Over damped
c(t) = 1+ (
n
/2(
2
-1))*(e
-s
1
t
/s
1
e
-s
2
t
/s
2
)
Where s
1 =
+ (
2
-1)
s
2 =
- (
2
-1)

Transient response specifactions
Delay time is the time reqd for the response to reach half the
final value the very first time
Rise time is the time reqd for the response to rise from 10% to
90% of its final value
Peak time is the time reqd for the response to reach the first
peak of the over shoot
Maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity
Settling time is the time reqd for the response curve to reac
and stay within a range about the final value of size specified
by absolute percentage of the final value
Transient response specifactions for
second order systems
Rise time = 1/
d
*(tan
-1
(-
d
/) )
Peak time = /
d
Maximum overshoot = e
- / (1-2)
Settling time = 4/
n
(2% criterion)
3/
n
(5% criterion)
Routh's Stability Criterion
Tells us whether or not there arre unstable
roots in a polynomial eqn without actually
solving it
When it is applied to a control system,
information about absolute stability can be
obtained directly from coefficients of
characteristic eqn
Routh's Stability Criterion procedure
1) Write the polynomial in s in the following form
a
0
s
n
+ a
1
s
n-1
+ + a
n-1
s + a
n
= 0
2)If any of the coeffs are zero or negative in the
presence of atleast one positive coeff there is
a root or roots that have +ve real parts and
system is unstable

3) If all are positive, arrange the coeffs in rows
and columns according to the following pattern
sn a0 a2 a4 a6
sn1 a1 a3 a5 a7
sn2 b1 b2 b3 b4
...
...
s2 e1 e2
s1 f1
s0 g0

b1 = (a1a2 a0a3)/a1
b2 = (a1a4 a0a5)/a1
This is continued till all rows are completed.
Rouths Stability criterion states that no of roots
with positive real parts is equal to the no of
changes in sign of the first column of the array.
Special cases
If a 1
st
column term in any row is 0 but remaining
terms are not zero, the zero term is replaced by a
very small positive number and the rest of the array
is evaluated
If the sign of the coeff above is same as that below
it, it indicates that there is a pair of imaginary roots
If the sign of coeff above is opposite to that of sign
below it, it indicates that there is one sign change
If all coeffs in any derived row are 0, it indicates that
there are roots of equal magnitude lying radially
opposite in s-plane
Instrumentation
Definitions
Threshold is the minimum value of input signal below which there
is no output indication
Resolution is the minimum change in input signal for a change in
output
Precision indicates an instrument's ability to reproduce a given
reading
Accuracy indicates a reading deviation from theoretical value
Non-linearity indicates the maximum possible deviation of any
reading from the theoretical linear characteristics of the instrument
Zero drift is the reading shown when there is no input
Sensitivity drift is the change in sensitivity due to temperature
changes
Transducers
Can be used to measure displacement
velocity and acceleration
Active transducers generate electric energy
directly from mechanical energy input
Passive transducers generate electrical
signals other than voltage and current. Here,
mechanical signal is converted into a change
in resistance or inductance or capacitance
Different transducers
Displacement measuring - Hand vibrograph,
LVDT's seismometers, Piezoelectric
transducers, eddycurrent transducers, fibre
optic probe
Velocity Measuring seismic velocity
transducers, electromagnetic transducer
Acceleration measuring inductive
accelerometer, MEMS accelerometer
GAUGE FACTOR G
is often denoted by G and is called gauge
factor and the term is called the piezo-
resistance effect of the material.

(d/ )/(d/ ) RR LL
(d/ )/(d/ ) LL
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DEFINITIONS
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - four-arm, four-terminal resistance-
measuring network, with two terminals for voltage input; the
remaining two for voltage output.
BRIDGE CORNER - the electrical connection of two bridge arms
and either a voltage-input or voltage-output lead. Corners with
voltage-input leads are often designated P (for Power) and those
with signal leads, S (for Signal).


1

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE -Definitions



TERMINALS - bridge corners. Each may be either physically
local or remote to all others.
ADJACENT CORNERS - any two corners separated by a
single bridge arm.
OPPOSITE CORNERS - any two corners separated by two
bridge arms.
BRIDGE ARM - all the resistive electrical components
between two adjacent corners; Includes both the gauge and
lead wires in an active arm, or the bridge-completion resistor
and the lead wires in an inactive arm.
ADJACENT ARMS - any two arms sharing a common corner.
OPPOSITE ARMS - any two arms not sharing a common
corner.
BRANCH - two adjacent arms across the bridge power
supply.

b
L
t
BENDING STRAIN ANALYSIS -CANTILEVER BEAM
EXERCISE
P
From mechanics, the strain
at a point on a simple
cantilever beam is

L
=PL/EI

L
= longitudinal strain,
P= Transverse load,
L= distance between the
load and the gauge,
E = modulus of elasticity.
Section modulus, I = bt
2
/6
where b = beam width and
t= thickness.
L

BENDING STRAIN MEASUREMENT


QUARTER BRIDGE
1

0
E
I
E
b
L
P
L

This single longitudinal


gauge configuration will
respond to bending
loads
Is unaffected by
torsional loads if the
gauge is mounted on the
centreline.
Care must be taken with
how the load is applied,
because transducers
utilizing this configuration
will also respond to any
axial loads that may be
present.
BENDING STRAIN MEASUREMENT QUARTER
BRIDGE

1
WithR asactivegauge
6
1
2
1
1 1 4 1 1
2 2
1 1 2 4 3 1 1
But , gaugefactor
1 1
Hence
4 2 4 2
1 1 1
When F=2
2
1 1
4 2 2
1
PL
Ebt
R R R R R
o
R R R R R R R
i
R
R
F
L
L
R F
o
R R F
i
o
i




b
L
t
P
1

1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
Bending Strain 1/2 Poisson Bridge
1

b
L
t
P
1

1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
BENDING STRAIN 1/2 BRIDGE
1

BENDING STRAIN BRIDGE


In this configuration, two axial gauges are used.
The gauge on the lower surface is located precisely under the gauge
on the top surface and they measure bending strains of equal
magnitudes but of opposite signs.
Any resistance changes in the active gauges resulting from strains
of like sign produced by axial loads will be cancelled because the
two active gauges are in adjacent arms of the Wheatstone bridge.
Likewise, resistance changes of thermal original will be negated
when both gauges and the specimen experience the same changes
in temperature.
And because the strains produced by bending loads are of equal
magnitude but opposite sign, the bridge output is not only linear but
is nominally double that produced by a single active gauge under
the same conditions.
b
L
t
P
2

O
E
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
BENDING STRAIN- FULL BRIDGE
I
E
BENDING STRAIN- FULL BRIDGE
This four-gauge version is the most
popular bending beam configuration.
The linear bridge output is twice that of the
preceding half bridge version.
Note that the two gauges on the top
surface are in opposite arms of the
Wheatstone bridge, as are the two gauges
on the bottom surface.
b
t
P
1

t
1

AXIAL-HALF BRIDGE
1

1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
0
E
I
E
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
O
E
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE DEFINITIONS
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - four-arm, four-terminal resistance-
measuring network, with two terminals for voltage input; the
remaining two for voltage output.
BRIDGE CORNER - the electrical connection of two bridge arms
and either a voltage-input or voltage-output lead. Corners with
voltage-input leads are often designated P (for Power) and those
with signal leads, S (for Signal).


1

b
t
P
3

b
t
1

AXIAL FULL POISSON BRIDGE


2

0
E
I
E

AXIAL FULL POISSON BRIDGE
This full-bridge configuration with a longitudinal gauge
and transverse Poisson gauge on both top and bottom
surfaces is the most popular for axial loads.
The output is not only higher by approximately a factor of
(1+ ) than for the previous two gauge version but, is
also less nonlinear (approximately (1- ) /10 % per each
1000 produced by axial loads).
This version has good temperature compensation
because gauges are present in all adjacent arms of the
bridge.
Note that both gauges on a given surface are in adjacent
arms of the bridge.
b
L
t
BENDING STRAIN ANALYSIS -CANTILEVER BEAM
EXERCISE
P
From mechanics, the strain
at a point on a simple
cantilever beam is

L
=PL/EI

L
= longitudinal strain,
P= Transverse load,
L= distance between the
load and the gauge,
E = modulus of elasticity.
Section modulus, I = bt
2
/6
where b = beam width and
t= thickness.
L

R
T
1
2
3 4
T
T
1

O
E I
E
FULL TORSION BRIDGE
FULL TORSION BRIDGE
Like the full-bridge configuration for bending
loads, this torsional version has a linear output
and good temperature compensation.
All effects of both bending and axial loads are
cancelled in this most popular design for torque
measurement.
However, very accurate gauge orientation and
placement of all four gauges is crucial for
success.
Gauges 3 and 4 are located on the reverse side
and are mirror images of gauges 1 and 2.

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