Theoretical principles to improve power factor

Improving the power factor of an installation requires a bank of capacitors which

acts as a source of reactive energy. This arrangement is said to provide reactive
energy compensation.
An inductive load having a low power factor requires the generators and
transmission/distribution systems to pass reactive current (lagging the system
voltage by 90 degrees) with associated power losses and exaggerated voltage
drops, as noted in sub-clause 1.3. If a bank of shunt capacitors is added to the load,
its (capacitive) reactive current will take the same path through the power system
as that of the load reactive current. Since, as pointed out in sub-clause 1.3, this
capacitive current Ic (which leads the system voltage by 90 degrees) is in direct
phase opposition to the load reactive current (IL). The two components flowing
through the same path will cancel each other, such that if the capacitor bank is
sufficiently large and Ic = IL, there will be no reactive current flow in the system
upstream of the capacitors.
This is indicated in Figure L8 (a) and (b) which show the flow of the reactive
components of current only.
In this figure:
R represents the active-power elements of the load
L represents the (inductive) reactive-power elements of the load
C represents the (capacitive) reactive-power elements of the power-factor
correction equipment (i.e. capacitors).

a) Reactive current components only flow pattern

b) When IC = IL, all reactive power is supplied from the capacitor bank







c) With load current added to case (b)







Fig. L8: Showing the essential features of power-factor correction

It will be seen from diagram (b) of Figure L9, that the capacitor bank C appears to
be supplying all the reactive current of the load. For this reason, capacitors are
sometimes referred to as generators of leading vars.
In diagram (c) of Figure L9, the active-power current component has been added,
and shows that the (fully-compensated) load appears to the power system as having
a power factor of 1.
In general, it is not economical to fully compensate an installation.
Figure L9 uses the power diagram (see Fig. L2) to illustrate the principle of
compensation by reducing a large reactive power Q to a smaller value Q by means
of a bank of capacitors having a reactive power Qc.
In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent power S is seen reduced to S.
Qc can be calculated by the following formula deduced from figure L9:
Qc=P.(tan()-tan('))



Fig. L9: Diagram showing the principle of compensation: Qc = P (tan - tan )


Example:
A motor consumes 100 kW at a power factor of 0.75 (i.e. tan = 0.88). To
improve the power factor to 0.93 (i.e. tan = 0.4), the reactive power of the
capacitor bank must be : Qc = 100 (0.88 - 0.4) = 48 kvar
The selected level of compensation and the calculation of rating for the capacitor
bank depend on the particular installation. The factors requiring attention are
explained in a general way in clause 5, and in clauses 6 and 7 for transformers and
motors.
Note: Before starting a compensation project, a number of precautions should be
observed. In particular, oversizing of motors should be avoided, as well as the no-
load running of motors. In this latter condition, the reactive energy consumed by a
motor results in a very low power factor ( 0.17); this is because the kW taken by
the motor (when it is unloaded) are very small


Maintenance of low voltage switchgear
IEC60364-6 requires initial and periodic verifications of electrical installations.
The electrical switchboard and all its equipment continue to age whether they
operate or not. This aging process is due mainly to environmental influences and
operating conditions. To ensure that Low voltage switchgear and especially circuit
breakers retains the operating and safety characteristics specified in the catalogue
for the whole of its service life, it is recommended that:
The device is installed in optimum environmental and operating conditions
Routine inspections and regular maintenance are carried out by qualified
personnel.
A switchboard and the switchgear age, whether they are in operation or not.
Ageing is due primarily to the influence of the environment and the operating
conditions.
Influence of the environment
A device placed in a given environment is subjected to its effects. The main
environmental factors that accelerate device ageing are:
- temperature
- vibration
- relative humidity
- salt environment
- dust
- corrosive atmospheres.
- percent load
- current harmonic
Preventive maintenance
Preventive maintenance consists in carrying out, at predetermined intervals or
according to prescribed criteria, checks intended to reduce the probability of a
failure or deterioration in the operation of a system.
There are two types of preventive maintenance:
Periodic maintenance
For each type of product, maintenance recommendations are laid out by the
technical department. These verification procedures, intended to maintain systems
or their subassemblies in correct operating condition over the targeted service life,
must be carried out according to the time intervals stipulated in this document.
Conditional maintenance
To a certain extent, conditional-maintenance operations are a means to reduce (but
not eliminate) the recommended periodic-maintenance operations (thus limited to
the strict minimum) that require an annual shutdown of the installation.
These operations are launched when programmed alarms indicate that a predefined
threshold has been reached. (Number of operation > durability, aging indicators)
Electronic trip units in power circuit breaker can propose such functions.
Conditional maintenance is the means to optimise installation maintenance.
Maintenance level
There are three recommended maintenance levels.
The table below indicates maintenance operations and their intervals according to
the level:
Level Maintenance interval Maintenance operations
Level II 1 year Visual inspection and functional testing, replacement of faulty accessories
Level III 2 years As for level II plus servicing operation and subassembly tests
Level IV 5 years As for level III plus diagnostics and repairs (by manufacturer)
The intervals stated are for normal environmental and operating conditions.
Provided all the environmental conditions are more favourable, maintenance
intervals can be longer (for example, Level III maintenance can be carried out
every 3 years).
If just one of the conditions is more severe, maintenance must be carried out more
frequently
Functions linked specifically to safety require particular intervals.
Note:
It is advisable to test that the remote safety stop commands and the earth leakage
protection (Vigi module) work at regular intervals (every 6 months).
Example of maintenance recommendation for Power Circuit Breaker (>630A)
The case
The case is an essential element in the circuit breaker.
First of all, it ensures a number of safety functions:
- functional insulation between the phases themselves and between the phases and
the exposed conductive parts in order to resist transient overvoltages caused by the
distribution system
- a barrier avoiding direct user contact with live parts
- protection against the effects of electrical arcs and overpressures caused by short-
circuits.
Secondly, it serves to support the entire pole operating mechanism as well as the
mechanical and electrical accessories of the circuit breaker.
On the case, there should be:
- no traces of grime (grease), excessive dust or condensation which all reduce
insulation
- no signs of burns or cracks which would reduce the mechanical solidity of the
case and thus its capacity to withstand short-circuits.
Preventive maintenance for cases consists of a visual inspection of its condition
and cleaning with a dry cloth or a vacuum cleaner. All cleaning products with
solvents are strictly forbidden. It is advised to measure the insulation every five
years and following trips due to a short-circuit. The product must be replaced if
there are signs of burns or cracks.
Arc chutes (for Air Circuit breaker)
During a short-circuit, the arc chute serves to extinguish the arc and to absorb the
high level of energy along the entire path of the short-circuit. It also contributes to
arc extinction under rated current conditions. An arc chute that is not in good
condition may not be capable of fully clearing the short-circuit and ultimately
result in the destruction of the circuit breaker. The arc chutes for air circuit breaker
must be regularly checked. The fins of the arc chutes may be blackened but must
not be significantly damaged. What is more, the filters must not be blocked to
avoid internal overpressures. It is advised to use a vacuum cleaner rather than a
cloth to remove dust from the outside of the arc chutes.
Main contacts (for Air Circuit breaker)
The contacts make and break the current under normal conditions (rated current for
the installation)and under exceptional conditions (overloads and short-circuits).
The contacts are eroded by the many opening and closing cycles and can be
particularly deteriorated by short-circuit currents.
Worn contacts may result in abnormal temperature rise and accelerate device
ageing.
It is imperative to remove the arc chutes and visually check contact wear at least
once a year and following each short-circuit.
The contact-wear indicators constitute an absolute minimum value that must not be
overrun.
Device and chassis mechanisms
Mechanical operation of the circuit breaker may be hindered by dust, knocks,
aggressive atmospheres, no greasing or excessive greasing. Operating safety is
ensured by dusting and general cleaning, proper greasing and regular opening and
closing of the circuit breaker.
Operating cycles
The imperative need to ensure continuity of service in an installation generally
means that power circuit breakers are rarely operated. If, on the one hand, an
excessive number of operating cycles accelerates device ageing, it is also true that
a lack of operation over a long period can result in mechanical malfunctions.
Regular operation is required to maintain the normal performance level of each
part involved in the opening and closing cycles.
In installations where power circuit breakers are used in source changeover
systems, it is advised to periodically operate the circuit breaker for the alternate
source.

Electronic trip unit
If an electric fault occurs in the installation, the electronic trip unit detects the fault
and orders the circuit breaker to open and thus protect life and property. Electronic
components and circuit boards are sensitive to the environment (ambient
temperature, humid and corrosive atmospheres) and to severe operating conditions
(magnetic fields, vibrations, etc.). To ensure correct operation, it is necessary to
periodically check:
- the chain of action resulting in a trip
- the response time as a function of the level of the fault current.
Depending on the operating and environment conditions, it is advised to estimate
their service life and to replace them if necessary to avoid any risk of non-
operation when they are needed.
Preventive replacement of electronic trip unit each 10 years is recommended.
Auxiliary circuits
Control auxiliaries
MX and XF shunt releases are respectively used to remotely open and close the
circuit breaker using an electrical order or by a supervisor via a communication
network.
The MN undervoltage release is used to break the power circuit if the distribution
system voltage drops or fails in order to protect life (emergency off) or property.
Preventive maintenance consists in periodically checking operation at minimum
values. Depending on the operating and environment conditions, it is advised to
estimate their service life and to replace them if necessary to avoid any risk of non-
operation when they are needed.
Auxiliary wiring
Auxiliary wiring is used to transmit orders to the various control devices and to
transmit statuscondition information. Incorrect connections or damaged insulation
may result in either nonoperation of the circuit breaker or nuisance tripping.
Auxiliary wiring must be regularly checked and replaced as needed, particularly if
there are vibrations, high ambient temperatures or corrosive atmospheres.
Indication contacts
The contacts indicating the status of the circuit-breaker (ON / OFF), of the chassis
(CE, CD, CT), a trip due to an electrical fault (SDE) or that the circuit breaker is
ready to close (PF) provide the operator with the status information required to
react correspondingly. Any incorrect indications may result in erroneous device
operation that could endanger life and property. Contact failure (wear, loose
connections) may result from vibrations, corrosion or abnormal temperature rise
and preventive maintenance must ensure that contacts correctly conduct or isolate
according to their positions.
Gear motor
The gear motor (MCH) automatically recharges the operating-mechanism springs
as soon as the circuit breaker is closed. The gear motor makes it possible to
instantaneously reclose the device following an opening. This function may be
indispensable for safety reasons. The charging lever serves simply as a backup
means if the auxiliary voltage fails. Given the mechanical forces exerted to charge
the mechanism, the gear motor wears quickly. Periodic checks on gear-motor
operation and the charging time are required to ensure the device closing function.
LV switchgear functions - Electrical protection
Electrical protection assures:
Protection of circuit elements against the thermal and mechanical stresses of
short-circuit currents
Protection of persons in the event of insulation failure
Protection of appliances and apparatus being supplied (e.g. motors, etc.)
The aim is to avoid or to limit the destructive or dangerous consequences of
excessive (short-circuit) currents, or those due to overloading and insulation
failure, and to separate the defective circuit from the rest of the installation.
A distinction is made between the protection of:
The elements of the installation (cables, wires, switchgear)
Persons and animals
Equipment and appliances supplied from the installation
The protection of circuits
- Against overload; a condition of excessive current being drawn from a healthy
(unfaulted) installation
- Against short-circuit currents due to complete failure of insulation between
conductors of different phases or (in TN systems) between a phase and neutral (or
PE) conductor
Protection in these cases is provided either by fuses or circuit-breaker, in the
distribution board at the origin of the final circuit (i.e. the circuit to which the load
is connected). Certain derogations to this rule are authorized in some national
standards, as noted in chapter H1 sub-clause 1.4.
The protection of persons
According to IEC61364 41, Automatic disconnection in case of fault is a
protective measure permitted for safety
- Circuit breaker or fuses can be used as protective devices that "automatically
interrupt the supply to the line conductor of a circuit or equipment in the event of a
fault of negligible impedance between the line conductor and an
exposedconductive-part or a protective conductor in the circuit or equipment
within the disconnection time required " (IEC 60364-411)
- Against insulation failures. According to the system of earthing for the
installation (TN, TT or IT) the protection will be provided by fuses or circuit-
breakers, residual current devices, and/or permanent monitoring of the insulation
resistance of the installation to earth
The protection of electric motors
- Against overheating, due, for example, to long term overloading, stalled rotor,
single-phasing, etc. Thermal relays, specially designed to match the particular
characteristics of motors are used.
Such relays may, if required, also protect the motor-circuit cable against overload.
Short-circuit protection is provided either by type aM fuses or by a circuit-breaker
from which the thermal (overload) protective element has been removed, or
otherwise made inoperative.

LV switchgear functions - Switchgear control
Switchgear-control functions allow system operating personnel to modify a loaded
system at any moment, according to requirements,and include:
Functional control (routine switching, etc.)
Emergency switching
Maintenance operations on the power system
In broad terms control signifies any facility for safely modifying a load-carrying
power system at all levels of an installation. The operation of switchgear is an
important part of power-system control.
Functional control
This control relates to all switching operations in normal service conditions for
energizing or de-energizing a part of a system or installation, or an individual piece
of equipment, item of plant, etc.
Switchgear intended for such duty must be installed at least:
At the origin of any installation
At the final load circuit or circuits (one switch may control several loads)
Marking (of the circuits being controlled) must be clear and unambiguous.
In order to provide the maximum flexibility and continuity of operation,
particularly where the switching device also constitutes the protection (e.g. a
circuit-breaker or switch-fuse) it is preferable to include a switch at each level of
distribution, i.e. on each outgoing way of all distribution and subdistribution
boards.
The manuvre may be:
Either manual (by means of an operating lever on the switch) or
Electric, by push-button on the switch or at a remote location (load-shedding
and reconnection, for example)
These switches operate instantaneously (i.e. with no deliberate delay), and those
that provide protection are invariably omni-polar
[1]
.
The main circuit-breaker for the entire installation, as well as any circuit-breakers
used for change-over (from one source to another) must be omni-polar units.
Emergency switching - emergency stop
An emergency switching is intended to de-energize a live circuit which is, or could
become, dangerous (electric shock or fire.
An emergency stop is intended to halt a movement which has become dangerous.
In the two cases:
The emergency control device or its means of operation (local or at remote
location(s)) such as a large red mushroom-headed emergency-stop
pushbutton must be recognizable and readily accessible, in proximity to any
position at which danger could arise or be seen
A single action must result in a complete switching-off of all live conductors
[2]

[3]

A break glass emergency switching initiation device is authorized, but in
unmanned installations the re-energizing of the circuit can only be achieved
by means of a key held by an authorized person
It should be noted that in certain cases, an emergency system of braking, may
require that the auxiliary supply to the braking-system circuits be maintained until
final stoppage of the machinery
Switching-off for mechanical maintenance work
This operation assures the stopping of a machine and its impossibility to be
inadvertently restarted while mechanical maintenance work is being carried out on
the driven machinery. The shutdown is generally carried out at the functional
switching device, with the use of a suitable safety lock and warning notice at the
switch mechanism.



Connection and choice for protective earthing
conductor
Protective (PE) conductors provide the bonding connection between all exposed
and extraneous conductive parts of an installation, to create the main equipotential
bonding system. These conductors conduct fault current due to insulation failure
(between a phase conductor and an exposed conductive part) to the earthed neutral
of the source. PE conductors are connected to the main earthing terminal of the
installation.
The main earthing terminal is connected to the earthing electrode (see Chapter E)
by the earthing conductor (grounding electrode conductor in the USA).
PE conductors must be:
Insulated and coloured yellow and green (stripes)
Protected against mechanical and chemical damage
In IT and TN-earthed schemes it is strongly recommended that PE conductors
should be installed in close proximity (i.e. in the same conduits, on the same cable
tray, etc.) as the live cables of the related circuit. This arrangement ensures the
minimum possible inductive reactance in the earth-fault current carrying circuits.
It should be noted that this arrangement is originally provided by bus-trunking.
Connection
PE conductors must:
Not include any means of breaking the continuity of the circuit (such as a
switch, removable links, etc.)
Connect exposed conductive parts individually to the main PE conductor,
i.e. in parallel, not in series, as shown in Figure G54
Have an individual terminal on common earthing bars in distribution boards.

TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be installed in close proximity to the live
conductors of the corresponding circuit, since high values of earth-fault current are
not needed to operate the RCD-type of protection used in TT installations.
IT and TN schemes
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously noted, must be installed as close as
possible to the corresponding live conductors of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic
material must be interposed between them. A PEN conductor must always be
connected directly to the earth terminal of an appliance, with a looped connection
from the earth terminal to the neutral terminal of the appliance (see Fig. G55).
TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor are one and the same, referred
to as a PEN conductor)
The protective function of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all rules governing
PE conductors apply strictly to PEN conductors
TN-C to TN-S transition
The PE conductor for the installation is connected to the PEN terminal or bar
(seeFig. G56) generally at the origin of the installation. Downstream of the point of
separation, no PE conductor can be connected to the neutral conductor

Fig. G55: Direct connection of the PEN conductor to the earth terminal of an
appliance


Types of materials
1) In TN and IT schemes, fault clearance is generally achieved by overcurrent
devices (fuses or circuit-breakers) so that the impedance of the fault-current loop
must be sufficiently low to assure positive protective device operation. The surest
means of achieving a low loop impedance is to use a supplementary core in the
same cable as the circuit conductors (or taking the same route as the circuit
conductors). This solution minimizes the inductive reactance and therefore the
impedance of the loop.
(2) The PEN conductor is a neutral conductor that is also used as a protective earth
conductor. This means that a current may be flowing through it at any time (in the
absence of an earth fault). For this reason an insulated conductor is recommended
for PEN operation.
(3) The manufacturer provides the necessary values of R and X components of the
impedances (phase/PE, phase/PEN) to include in the calculation of the earth-fault
loop impedance.
(4) Possible, but not recomended, since the impedance of the earth-fault loop
cannot be known at the design stage. Measurements on the completed installation
are the only practical means of assuring adequate protection for persons.
(5) It must allow the connection of other PE conductors. Note: these elements must
carry an indivual green/yellow striped visual indication, 15 to 100 mm long (or the
letters PE at less than 15 cm from each extremity).
(6) These elements must be demountable only if other means have been provided
to ensure uninterrupted continuity of protection.
(7) With the agreement of the appropriate water authorities.
(8) In the prefabricated pre-wired trunking and similar elements, the metallic
housing may be used as a PEN conductor, in parallel with the corresponding bar,
or other PE conductor in the housing.
(9) Forbidden in some countries only. Universally allowed to be used for
supplementary equipotential conductors.