Reservoir Geology and Modelling of Carboniferous

AES/TG/09-29 Reservoir Geology and Modelling of Carboniferous
Coal-bearing marginal Marine and Fluvial Deposits

of Eastern Kentucky and Implications for
Hydrocarbon Exploration and Development

October 2009 Patrick Were

Summary of the steps taken in Petrel to model & interpret facies from well logs

Title : Reservoir Geology and Modelling of Carboniferous Coal-
bearing marginal Marine and Fluvial Deposits of Eastern
Kentucky and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration and
Development

Author(s) : Patrick Were

Date : October 2009
Professor(s) : Dr. Andrea Moscariello and Prof. Luthi
Supervisor(s) : Dr. Raik Bachmann and Dr. Michiel Dekker
TA Report number : AES/TG/09-29

Postal Address : Section for Petroleum Geosciences
Department of Applied Earth Sciences
Delft University of Technology
P.O. Box 5028
The Netherlands
Telephone : (31) 15 2781328 (secretary)
Telefax : (31) 15 2781189

Copyright 2009 Section for Petroleum Geosciences

All rights reserved.
No parts of this publication may be reproduced,
Stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
In any form or by any means, electronic,
Mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
Without the prior written permission of the
Section for Petroleum Geosciences

i
Table of contents

Abstract (2)

1. General Introduction (3)

1.1 Aims and objectives of the project (4)

2. Regional Geology (7)

2.1. Depositional settings and Facies (12)
2.2. The Mississippian Paleogeography (12)
2.3. The Pennsylvanian Paleogeography (13)

3. Data and Methods (18)

3.1. Data collection and input into Petrel (18)
3.1.1. Conversion of borehole data for Petrel (19)
3.1.2. Utility of coal seams (22)
3.1.3. Making stratigraphic surfaces (25)
3.1.4. Thickness maps and Facies pie-charts (26)

3.2. Facies modelling (35)
3.2.1. Introduction (35)
3.2.2. Procedure (35)

4. Results (37)

4.1. Overall delta stratigraphy & architecture in study area (37)
4.1.1. Introduction (37)
4.1.2. Analysis of cross-sections (37)
4.1.3. Description & Interpretation of stratigraphy (38)
4.1.3.1. The Coastal plain system (39)
4.1.3.2. The Magoffin transgression (39)
4.1.3.3. The Fluvial-Deltaic system (40)

4.2. Detailed description & interpretation in Broad bottom (44)
4.2.1. Stratigraphy & architecture in Broad bottom (44)
4.2.1.1. The Lower coastal plain system (45)
4.2.1.2. The Kendrick transgression (46)

ii
4.2.1.3. The Upper coastal plain system (46)
4.2.1.4. The Magoffin transgression (46)
4.2.1.5. The Fluvial-deltaic system (46)

4.2.2. Description & interpretation of coastal-plain (53)
4.2.2.1. Zone 0 (54)
4.2.2.2. Zone 1 (56)
4.2.2.3. Zone 2 (58)
4.2.2.4. Zone 3 (60)
4.2.2.5. Zone 4 (62)
4.2.2.6. Zone 5 (64)
4.2.2.7. Zone 6 (66)
4.2.2.8. Zone 7 (68)
4.2.2.9. Zone 8 (70)
4.2.2.10. Zone 9 (72)
4.2.2.11. Zone 10 (74)
4.2.2.12. Zone 11 (76)
4.2.2.13. Zone 12 (78)
4.2.2.14. Zone 13 (80)

4.2.3. Description & interpretation of fluvial-delta (82)
4.2.3.1. Zone 14 (82)
4.2.3.2. Zone 15 (85)
4.2.3.3. Zone 16 (87)
4.2.3.4. Zone 17 (89)
4.2.3.5. Zone 18 (91)
4.2.3.6. Zone 19 (93)
4.2.3.7. Zone 20 (95)
4.2.3.8. Zone 21 (97)

5. Discussion (99)

5.1. Evolution of the delta in Broad bottom and
Its implications for Reservoir and Petroleum Geology (99)
5.2. Reservoir characteristics (104)
5.2.1. Flow barriers (104)
5.2.2. Reservoir communication (105)

6. Conclusions (106)
7. Recommendations (109)
8. References (111)
9. Other relevant literatures (116)

iii

10. Appendices (124)
10.1. Stratigraphic surfaces (125)
10.2. Example of raw data from KGS (148)

iv
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1. Location map of the study area (6)
Fig. 2.1. Appalachian basin, structures and cross-section (9)
Fig. 2.2. Tectonic loading and unloading (10)
Fig. 2.3. Elements of Foreland deformation (11)
Fig. 2.4. Paleogeography of basin in the Late Mississippian (14)
Fig. 2.5. Paleogeography of basin in Middle Pennsylvanian (15)
Fig. 2.6. Stratigraphy of Breathitt Group in Perry and Leslie (16)
Fig. 2.7. Stratigraphy of basin in Late Carboniferous period (17)
Fig. 3.1. Counties and quadrangles in study area (19)
Fig. 3.2. Location of wells in study area (21)
Fig. 3.3. Generation of sedimentological logs from well data (24)
Fig. 3.4. Sedimentological logs flattened on horizon (25)
Fig. 3.5. Generation of stratigraphic surfaces in Petrel (26)
Fig. 3.6. A pack of stratigraphic surfaces in Broad bottom 1 (28)
Fig. 3.7. A pack of stratigraphic surfaces in Broad bottom 2 (29)
Fig. 3.8. Sedimentological logs in Broad bottom (30)
Fig. 3.9. Cross-section A-B, in the NE-SW direction (31)
Fig. 3.10. Cross-section C-D, in the NW-SE direction (33)
Fig. 4.1. Stratigraphic framework of Pennsylvanian (41)
Fig. 4.2. Strike-section E-F in study area (42)
Fig. 4.3. Dip-section G-H in study area (43)
Fig. 4.4. Colour of legend to diagrams for correlated facies (47)
Fig. 4.5. Dip-section for correlated facies in the NW-SE (48)
Fig. 4.6. Strike-section for correlated facies in the NE-SW (50)
Fig. 4.7. Thickness map of the Breathitt Group in BRDBTTM (52)
Fig. 4.8. Colour of legend for the facies pie-charts (53)
Fig. 4.9. Composite map of isochore and pie-charts in zone 0 (54)
Fig. 4.19. Composite map of isochore and pie-charts in zone10 (74)

v
Fig. 5.1. Vertical log along well BRDBTTM004 (100)

vi
List of Tables

Table 3.1. Well codes and quadrangles in study area (18)
Table 3.2. Names of Coal seams in study area (23)

vii
Acknowledgement

This project was a grant from SGS to fund an internship position at
Horizon Energy Partners in The Hague, I am indeed grateful for the
technical and financial support that was accorded me for its
implementation.
I would like to thank my external supervisors, Dr. Huw Williams and
Dr. Paul Davies, Reservoir Geology consultants UK, for their guidance
in data acquisition and software instructions. The constructive
comments, criticism and support from my referees, especially those of
Dr. Raik Bachmann and Dr. Michiel Dekker, is greatly appreciated.
Their time and patience with me is very much appreciated. Dr. Andrea
Moscariello, the chief project co-odinator, is greatly thanked for the
energy and time he sacrificed to make the project a success. I would
like to thank all my lecturers and colleagues from the University
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, TU Delft for their support
and co-operation.

1
Reservoir Geology and Modelling of Carboniferous
coal-bearing marginal Marine and Fluvial Deposits of
Eastern Kentucky and implications for Hydrocarbon
Exploration and Development

By

Patrick Were

2
Abstract

A considerable amount of geological information required for subsurface
reservoir characterization of new and old hydrocarbon fields can be attained by
analyzing critically the stratigraphic framework and facies architecture of analog
outcrops and mature fields with a dense network of wells. This project makes use
of the dense network of cored boreholes and outcrops to construct, using Petrel,
a detailed conceptual model that illustrates facies architecture and stratigraphic
framework of the Breathitt Group in the Central Appalachian Basin of Eastern
Kentucky, with the aim of investigating the pattern of depositional environments
and how they influenced the vertical and lateral distribution of facies in this part of
the foreland basin. The model provides excellent guidelines as to the distribution
of depositional energies in analogous subsurface coastal-plain and fluvial-deltaic
reservoir sequences. The study is primarily based on cored borehole data from
12 quadrangles in Eastern Kentucky which was loaded in Petrel to generate
vertical sedimentological logs of the subsurface. Based on extensive coal seams
and marine flooding surfaces the logs were correlated to obtain the strike and dip
stratigraphic sections of the foreland basin. Stratigraphic surfaces and composite
maps of isochors and facies pie-charts were prepared for use in predicting the
lateral and vertical distribution of facies, depositional energies and paleo-
environments in each zone. Basic principles of sequence stratigraphy were also
applied to explain the evolution of the delta system in the basin.
Correlations revealed two broad depositional systems caused by differential
subsidence during alternating periods of active tectonics and quiescence. The
upper system is predominantly composed of immature sediments derived from
the thrust-fronts in the southeast and transported toward the northwest by high
energy braided and meandering streams, whilst the lower system is composed of
mature sediments whose deposition was mainly influenced by waves/storms and
tides from the sea in the northwest that frequently transgressed the subsiding
basin in periods of tectonic quiescence. Further evidence for tectonic influence
on the distribution of facies is revealed by the presence of a series of small
anticlinal and synclinal structures which may affect the dynamics of fluid flow in
the basin. Facies analysis shows that the fluvial system in Broad bottom offers
better reservoirs with good vertical and lateral connectivity than those in the
coastal plain system, which are only connected in the lateral direction.
Nevertheless, the coastal plain system could provide a good source region for
the generation of hydrocarbons, because it has a high content of organic matter
and its great depth of burial in the basin, could offer the kitchen (enough heat
energy) for the generation of hydrocarbons.
Isochores and pie-charts provide a quick method of reserve estimates in both
mature and new hydrocarbon fields. The method yields important petrophyical
parameters which can assist reservoir engineers to plan accurate flow simulation
models required for well spacing, well numbers, well positioning, and enhanced
oil recovery (EOR).

3
1.0. GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Fluvial channel sandstones and particularly fluvial-deltaic deposits are important
targets for petroleum exploration.The clastic coal-bearing marginal-marine and
fluvial-deltaic deposits in the Central Appalachian Foreland Basin in the Eastern
Kentucky Coal Field, USA, have been studied in an area of twelve 7.5-minute
quadrangles to reconstruct a 3D geometry and architecture of a conceptual
facies model based on a sequence stratigraphical framework of the Late
Carboniferous formations belonging to the Breathitt Group. Significant effort has
been focused upon understanding their sequence-stratigraphic framework or
architecture and internal sandstone body geometries in order to facilitate the
construction of appropriate conceptual facies/depositional models. Depositional
facies are a significant control on the distribution of petrophysical properties in
clastic reservoirs, largely influencing the reservoirs capacity to store and produce
hydrocarbons. As facies are one of the key controls on the distribution of
petrophysical properties, facies models can be integrated into the reservoir
modeling workflow by using them as a template for capturing the distribution of
the petrophysical properties needed in fluid flow simulation. Sedimentological
heterogeneities that affect hydrocarbon production occur at a variety of scales
including sub-seismic and less than the typical development well spacing. Lack
of data at these relatively detailed scales and the need for uncertainty analysis
has led to the application of stochastic methods for capturing facies
heterogeneity in reservoir models. However, to be useful and reliable, the use of
stochastic facies modeling algorithms needs to be driven by appropriate
conceptual depositional models, largely derived from studies of outcrop and
subsurface analogues. Analogous systems are also used to provide certain key
parameters such as sandstone body dimensions or shale bed length and to
improve our understanding of modeling approaches and reservoir forecasting.
The Late Carboniferous outcrops of clastic coal-bearing, marginal marine and
fluvial deposits of eastern Kentucky in the United States of America constitute
world famous stratigraphic successions used by many companies as a direct
analogue to understand and solve stratigraphic problems in the subsurface coal
mines and coal-bearing hydrocarbon reservoirs. This project applied a multi-
stage modeling approach using a variety of different algorithms to address facies
modeling at different stages. In order to obtain the required conceptual facies
model the following working procedure was planned: (1) converting raw borehole
data into a compatible form, appropriate for input into Petrel, (2) conversion of
borehole input data into sedimentological logs, (3) correlation of equivalent
stratigraphic marker horizons between well logs based mainly on regionally
extensive coal seams, (4) conversion of correlated horizons into 3D stratigraphic
surfaces and isochores for each zone, (5) preparation of composite thickness
maps and facies pie-charts in each zone, and (6) the final step involved the
manual preparation of the conceptual facies models in each zone based on well
logs and facies pie-charts along cross-sections vertically cut through the
thickness maps, in chosen directions.

4
The results of this working strategy were stratigraphic conceptual facies models
chronologically arranged to enable the prediction of vertical and lateral
distribution of facies and depositional environments in the study area. It was
observed that the Breathitt Group is mainly composed of the following alternating
facies associations: sandstones (Ss), heterolithics (Ht), conglomerates (Cnglmrt),
shales (sh), coals (cl), limestones (ls), and some unknown facies (Unknwn). A
coastal setting, including environments such as a shallow sea, a series of small
deltas, tidal flats and estuaries, a coastal plain, fluvial channels, and alluvial
plains, is envisaged for the deposition of the coal-bearing strata of the central
Appalachian basin in eastern Kentucky.
1.1. Aims and objectives of the project
In order to carry out earth resources exploration and estimation, it is essential
that appropriate outcrop analogues are carefully selected in order to accurately
supplement the sparse subsurface data with outcrop-derived measurements.
Equally important is the role of sequence stratigraphy to provide certain key
parameters such as sandstone body dimensions or shale bed length which can
tremendously help to improve the understanding of modeling approaches and
reservoir forecasting particularly for siliciclastic fluvial-deltaic deposits so as to
optimize hydrocarbon recovery from the subsurface. The criteria suggested for
appropriate analogue selection may include tectonic setting, geological age and
subsidence rates. The Late Carboniferous outcrops of clastic coal-bearing,
marginal marine and fluvial-deltaic deposits in the Central Appalachian Basin of
eastern Kentucky provides an appropriate analogue equipped with world famous
stratigraphic successions used by many companies to understand and solve
stratigraphic problems in subsurface coal mines and coal-bearing hydrocarbon
reservoirs.
Large man-made road cuts including extensive subsurface and coal mine data,
quarry excavations and a large number of cored borehole data make this region
a highly interesting area to characterize and quantify sand body geometries, coal
and shale extents and their overall 3D spatial distribution (architecture). To date
no full integration of this data has been accomplished. It is therefore the aim of
this project to collect and integrate a large diversity of stratigraphical and
sedimentological data so as to reconstruct a 3D geometry and architecture based
on a sequence stratigraphical framework of part of the Breathitt Group located
along the US Highway 80 between the Towns of Hazard and Prestonsburg in
eastern Kentucky (Figure 1.1, location map of study area). This study updates
the geological model of the Breathitt Group in eastern Kentucky (including the
area covered by the quadrangles of Martin, Harold, Broad bottom, Wayland,
McDowell, Pikeville, Kite, Wheelwright, Dorton, Mayking, Jenkins West, and
Jenkins East; Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1), and aims to gain a more detailed
understanding of the facies distribution, stratigraphy and erosional events in this
part of the Appalachian foreland basin. More specifically the aims are to: (1)
Review, undertake, and update core descriptions, facies depositional model,
sand-body architecture and sequence stratigraphy of the Breathitt Group in
eastern Kentucky. (2) Investigate the thickness distribution of the stratigraphic

5
zones in the Breathitt Group. (3) Construct stratigraphic cross-sections using
borehole and outcrop data in the study area which illustrate the distribution of
facies and depositional environments in this part of the Appalachian foreland
basin.
The genetic processes, which led to the deposition of peat or coal formation and
the highly variable carboniferous sediments in this part of the foreland basin, are
not yet well understood. Applying the concepts of sequence stratigraphy to the
facies model, however, gives considerable insights.
With the help of the current geo-modelling computer software techniques (Petrel)
cored borehole data was used to develop deterministic accurate conceptual
facies models for the marginal marine and fluvial sequences and ultimately build
a sequence stratigraphic-based deterministic geological model of the study area.
The detailed facies models extend across the preserved portion of the foreland
basin in the quadrangle of Broad-bottom (9.7 km long, 7.5 km wide and up to 330
m thick), which is comparable in scale to the reservoir systems typically resolved
from 3D seismic data in the subsurface.

6

Fig. 1.1. Location map of the three major Paleozoic basins (Illinois, Michigan and the
Appalachian) in the eastern interior of the USA. The basins are separated by a system of
structural arches and domes including the Cincinnati arch. The study area (inset) is
located in the Appalachian basin in the eastern part of Kentucky, USA.

7
2.0. REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The clastic coal-bearing marginal marine and fluvial deposits of Eastern
Kentucky are part of the Central Appalachian Basin, a typical Foreland Basin that
has subsided episodically under the loads of successive thrust-sheets (Reed et
al., 2005 and Tankard, 1986). It is separated from the Illinois Basin (an
intercratonic basin) in the west and the Michigan Basin in the northwest by a
system of arches and domes (Figures 1.1 and 2.1A). The eastern Kentucky coal
field is bounded in the north by a system of basement faults that belongs to the
Rome Trough, a Precambrian aulocogen, and to the west by the Cincinnati arch
(Figure 2.1B). Unlike the Midcontinent cyclothems of Kansas and Michigan that
were controlled by glacio-eustacy and the Illinois Basin cyclothems that were
intermediate between tectonics and eustatic processes, the Appalachian
cyclothems were predominantly controlled by flexural tectonics (Greb et al., 2004
and Heckel et al., 1998).
The three basins were repeatedly decoupled and yoked together from Cambro-
Ordovician until the Late Carboniferous times, due to episodic upwarping and
downwarping of the arches or forebulge system (Tankard, 1986; Buter et al.,
1991).
The Appalachian Basin and its stratal deposition patterns is mainly a result of
three major successive collisional tectonic phases or allocycles, namely: the
Taconic, the Acadian and the Alleghenian thrust phases (Greb et al., 2002;
Tankard, 1986). The three episodes of tectonism together with preconvergence
deposition gave rise to the current basin geometry including a stratigraphy that
consists of four major unconformity-bounded sequences in the Central
Appalachian Basin. The Carboniferous structures and sedimentation in the
Appalachian and Illinois Basins were intricately linked (Greb et al., 2002).
Episodic thrust sheet loading on the eastern margin of the North American craton
was inferred to have caused lithospheric flexure beneath the loads, with the
consequent downwarp and subsidence of the lithosphere to form a Foreland
basin, the Central Appalachian Basin, close to the orogene and a forebulge (the
Cincinnati Arch) along the cratonward edge of the basin. The static tectonic load
of the orogen and the dynamic loading due the viscous drag force of mantle
corner flow are the primary subsidence mechanisms that control accommodation
and sedimentation patterns in the foreland basin settings (DeCelles and Giles,
1996; Catuneanu, 2004). Tectonic loading alone provides the defining features of
foreland systems, i.e. their partitioning into the flexural provinces: foredeep
(which is the foreland basin), forebulge (which is the peripheral bulge) and the
back-bulge (Figure 2.3). Along the flexural profile the uplift of the forebulge was
virtually synchronous with the subsidence of the foredeep. This is caused by the
rapid lateral displacement of the viscous mantle material as a result of
lithospheric downwarp beneath the orogen and the adjacent foredeep
(Catuneanu, 2004). Several renewals of this process forced the forebulge to
migrate westward into the Illinois Basin (Dorsch et al., 1994; Tankard, 1986).
Basement structures were reactivated by the increased load in the foreland, and
those structures distal to the foreland were reactivated by the forebulge migration

8
(Eble and Grandy, 1990). Cyclothemic sedimentation within the transgressive-
regressive units of the Appalachian foreland basin could possibly have resulted
from laterally changing flexural deformation (Greb et al., 2002; VerStraeten and
Brett, 2000). The Appalachian basin contains a Carboniferous stratigraphical
succession whose depositional systems are attributed to deposition in a Foreland
Basin that fluctuated between underfilled and overfilled conditions with facies that
emphasize the sedimentary response to basin tectonic subsidence and
peripheral upwarping (Einsele, 1992 and Tankard, 1986).
The Appalachian orogenic belts were obducted across an earlier extensional
passive-margin whose configuration and miogeoclinal wedge influenced the
patterns of compressional tectonism and the structural levels (Howell and Pluijm,
1990). The thickest and most extensive part of the foreland basin, as observed
from seismic studies in the southern Appalachians, occurs where overthrusting of
the continental margin is greatest (Tankard, 1986).
The passive-margin history was terminated by the Taconic orogeny during the
Middle Ordovician. Taconic orogene was characterized by magmatic arc
convergence and accretion of exotic terranes (Tankard, 1986). The early
foredeep was about 700-2000 m deep and shale dominated. Transition from
passive to convergent tectonics is marked by the Knox unconformity which was
incised across a migrating forebulge. Tectonic loading of the progressively
thicker crust resulted into shallowing of the foreland basin, emergence of the
overthrust terranes and influx of coarser siliciclastics (Tankard, 1986). The
Taconic orogeny persisted until the Early Silurian, when thick sequences of non-
marine sediments were deposited into the basin (Chesnut, 1980 and Tankard,
1986).
Collision between the eastern North American portion of Laurentia and a
landmass or series of terranes beginning in the late Silurian or Early Devonian
resulted in the formation of the Acadian orogenic belt and subsidence of the
adjacent Appalachian retroarc foreland basin (Haworth et al., 1988; VerStraeten
and Brett, 2000; and Filer, 2003). Based on the stratal record in the foreland
basin a model for the Acadian orogeny was proposed that recognized three to
four tectonically active to quiescent tectophases between the Early Devonian and
the Early Mississippian. It was intense during the Middle to Late Devonian and
best developed in the northern Appalachians. The Acadian orogeny was
characterized by voluminous granitic plutonism although less convergent than
the earlier Taconic orogeny (Tankard, 1986). During this orogenesis the foreland
basin was dominated by basinwide deposition of organic-rich shales or
mudstone, especially in the distal part of the basin and prominent unconformities
were incised along the upwarped margin of the basin. The Acadian orogenic
cycle waned through the Mississippian until it was superseded by the
Pennsylvanian orogenesis, also called the Alleghenian orogeny.
The foreland thrust-belt of the Central Appalachian basin evolved mainly during
the Pennsylvanian-Permian Alleghenian orogeny. Terrigenous sandstones of the
Breathitt Formation in eastern Kentucky reflect derivation from this orogenic
source.

9

Fig. 2.1. The Appalachian foreland basin resulted from Paleozoic thrusting and flexure (A) System of arches and domes which separates
the Appalachian basin from Illinois and Michigan basin. (B) Major structural elements of the Appalachian basin. (C) NW-SE cross
section of the basin between X and X* and the Rectangle in B is the study area (Redrawn from Tankard, 1986)

10

Fig. 2.2. Flexural response to orogenic loading and unloading. Repeated thrusting
(loading) results in foredeep subsidence and forebulge uplift. The reverse occurs during
stages of orogenic quiescence (erosional or extensional unloading) when the foredeep
undergoes uplift as a result of isostatic rebound, compensated by the subsidence of the
forebulge (Redrawn from Catuneanu, 2004).

The crinoid and ammonoid taxa from the Kendrick Shale are indicative of a
Morrowan or early Middle Pennsylvanian age. Progradation of the Pennsylvanian
molasse wedge is thus correlated with the early stages of the Alleghenian
orogenesis (Chesnut, 1996). The Pine Mountain thrust plate, bounded to the
northeast and southwest by tear faults, has formed a ramp upward across the
incompetent Devonian-Mississippian shales and overthrust the Pennsylvanian
section (Figure 2.1B). Alleghenian tectonism resulted in thrust-sheet loading of
thick, unstretched lithosphere towards the centre of the hinge line. Due to the
great flexural rigidity of the lithosphere the foreland basin became shallow and
generally filled its depositional base-level by relatively coarse terrigenous clastics
(Kusznir et al., 1985 and Tankard, 1986).
The responses of the lithosphere to thrust-belt loading were modelled with three
lithospheric types in an attempt to account for the rock record (Figure 2.3):
elastic, uniform viscoelastic and temperature-dependent viscoelastic. It was
suggested that the temperature-dependent viscosity model most satisfactorily
accounts for the stratigraphy (Tankard, 1986; Filer, 2003). The initial response of
the lithosphere to loading is elastic, and results in a downwarped flexural basin
adjacent to the orogene and a forebulge along cratonward edge of the basin
(Figure 2.2 and stage one in Figure 2.3). However, if the thrust load remained
unchanged for long periods, relaxation of the plate-bending stress would result in
deepening of the basin, as well as uplift of the forebulge and its contraction
toward the load (stage two in Figure 2.3). Each new thrust-sheet advance
repeats the entire process. The net result of long histories of thrusting would be
the migration of the forebulge away from the load, its distance reflecting the
effective elastic thickness. Thus thrust-sheet loading on a thick (strong)
lithosphere would produce a wider and shallower basin than on a thin (weak)
lithosphere (Catuneanu, 2004; Tankard, 1986).

11

Fig. 2.3. Elements of foreland deformation in which basin subsidence and peripheral
upwarping are a response to thrust-belt loading. (1) Lithosphere responds elastically to
initial loading. (2) Overthrust load remains in place for a long period of time and the
lithosphere adjusts viscoelastically. The basin deepens while the forebulge undergoes
accentuated upwarping and contracts toward load. (3) At renewed loading lithosphere
again responds elastically forcing the forebulge to migrate ahead of the advancing load
(Redrawn from Tankard, 1986).

12
The vertical movement of basin-margin arches may be relatively small, but
episodic uplift may induce erosion and reworking within the surf zone (arch peaks
or crests, including the immediate surrounding steep areas on the flanks). In
eastern Kentucky the western margin of the Appalachian Basin comprises the
broad Cincinnati arch including a smaller Waverly arch (Figure 2.1B). Foreland
deformation also reactivated the old listric normal faults in a strike-slip sense as
exhibited by the Kentucky River Fault System, which offsets the Waverly arch.
2.1. Depositional settings and facies

Distribution of the Carboniferous depositional systems in eastern Kentucky was
largely controlled by the foreland basin dynamics (Tankard, 1986). The Middle to
Upper Pennsylvanian Breathitt Group (~ 950 m thick) comprises delta plain
facies of siltstone, claystone, sandstone, bituminous coal and rare ironstone and
limestone, deposited in a foreland basin setting (Aitken and Flint (1996). The
Breathitt depositional systems reflect periods of deposition in broad embayments
when the basin was underfilled, and alluvial plain deposition at times when the
basin was overfilled. The foreland basin dynamics is reflected by the regional
persistence of these depositional systems (Tankard, 1986). The first attempt to
study the lateral variation of the depositional environments in the coal-bearing
rocks in the Appalachian Basin was based on Wellers cyclothem model for
characterizing vertical depositional sequences of rock types from the Western
Interior Basin, through Illinois, to the Appalachian Plateau. A steady reduction of
marine strata in an eastward or landward direction and an increase in the number
of coal beds possibly arising by the splitting of a major coal bed was observed
(Ferm and Weisenfluh, 1989; Greb and Weisenfluh, 1996; Greb and Popp,
1999). These coals tend to occur in zones and are prone to lateral splitting
because of foreland tectonic and sedimentation influences (Eble et al., 1999;
Greb et al., 2002; Hower et al., 1989 and Hower et al., 1994).
2.2. The Mississippian paleogeography

During the Mississippian (late Acadian) the Appalachian and Illinois Basins were
widely yoked together and most stratigraphic units were regionally persistent.
There was a widespread deposition of shales, implying a decaying orogene and
an underfilled foreland basin (Tankard, 1986). Episodic uplift along the arch
resulted in shoaling and wave-current reworking of the stratigraphic units and
deposition of siliciclastics (such as the Berea and Carter Caves Sandstones
deposited as elongate sand bars or barrier islands) and bioclastic Slade
limestone containing numerous unconformities in the basin. As a result of
progressive uplift and erosion the western flank of the arch the Slade limestone
was punctuated by merging wedges of unconformities which migrated eastward,
overstepping each other toward the arch axis (Tankard, 1986). Uplift and erosion
along the arch and basement zone is also the main reason for the varied
distribution and thickness of the Slade intervals (Tankard, 1986; Greb et al.,
2002). This was a time of inactive orogene when the basin was relatively starved

13
of terrigenous sediment although the limestones do become argillaceous
basinward (Tankard, 1986).
As a result of rejuvenation of the orogenic source terrane the shallow marine
limestone was eventually covered by a westerly prograding sandy mud sheet
(the Paragon Formation). The arch was at this time relatively deflated and the
two basins (Appalachian and Illinois) yoked together allowing lateral persistence
and minor thickness variation of the paragon shales, mudstones and sandstones.
Deposition of the Carter Caves Sandstones is attributed to tidal channel
processes based on the observation of its mature composition and channeling,
reactivation and emergence-runoff structures. The paleogeography of this
sandstone is thus regarded as an area of shoal-water reworking and dissection
by shallow tidal channels, with emergent barrier sand bodies forming in places
(Tankard, 1986). The positive relief of the arch formed the major shoreline and
effectively dampened the wave and tidal energy. Marine reworking was very rare
within the subsiding foreland basin behind this arch.
The Mississippian was formed late in the Acadian cycle at the time when the
orogenic quiescence and terrigenous sediment starvation coincided with the uplift
of the basin-margin arch system and its migration toward the orogene. This
tectono-stratigraphic history supports a viscoelastic model of the lithosphere
(Figure 2.3).
2.3. The Pennsylvanian paleogeography

A regional unconformity occurs between Mississippian and Pennsylvanian strata
along the basin-margin arch system and marks the termination of the Acadian
deformation (Martino and Sanderson, 1993; Tankard, 1986). During the earliest
Pennsylvanian time widespread erosion took place in association with cratonic
emergence in eastern Kentucky and vicinity causing topography of paleovalleys
with notably large relief. This eroded surface was onlapped by successions of the
Lee and Breathitt Formations during the Early and Middle Pennsylvanian. These
formations are mostly comprised of sandstone, mudstone, and coal lithologies. A
southwest transport direction for riverine systems prevailed in eastern Kentucky
occasionally being transgressed with an interior sea along the basin axis from the
southwest during Early Pennsylvanian (Figure 2.4). Quartz-rich sandstone bodies
of the Lee Formation were deposited by braided rivers flowing in the northeast-
southwest direction (Martino and Sanderson, 1993; Tankard, 1986). Various
facies of the Breathitt Formation have been interpreted as deposits of lower delta
plain, strand plain, back-barrier lagoon, estuarine, fluvial channel, and swampy
environments (Martino and Sanderson, 1993; Tankard, 1986). During the Middle
Pennsylvanian, clastic wedges from the Appalachian Orogen prograded
northwest across the Pocahontas Basin (Figure 2.5).

Generally, the Breathitt depositional systems reflect two main periods of
sedimentation: (1) broad embayments when the basin was underfilled and (2)
alluvial plain deposition at times when the basin was overfilled (Tankard, 1986).

14
Accordingly, Tankard divided the Breathitt Group into three main depositional
systems (Figure 2.6 and 2.7) based on the distribution of facies, coal seams and
the regional persistence of the Kendrick and Magoffin marine zones in the
foreland basin:
The Lower Breathitt coastal plain system
The Magoffin transgression and
The Upper Breathitt fluvial-deltaic system.
The Magoffin transgression is a marine unit of Middle Pennsylvanian age, with a
basal limestone deposition that indicates a rapid transgressive flooding period of
coal swamps and a regressive top indicating the return of rapid clastic influx into
the basin by fluvial streams (Bennington, 1996; Greb and Chenut, Jr., 1992).

N

Fig. 2.4. Paleogeographic map of the Appalachian basin during the Late Mississippian to
Early Pennsylvanian time, when a southwest transport direction for the riverine system
prevailed in eastern Kentucky, occasionally being transgressed with an interior sea along
the basin axis from the southwest (redrawn from Martino and Sanderson, 1993).

15
N

Fig. 2.5. Paleogeographic map of the Appalachian Foreland Basin during the Middle
Pennsylvanian time, when clastic wedges from the Appalachian Orogen prograded NW
across the basin (redrawn from Martino and Sanderson, 1993).

16
Hz9
HZD
HDX
HML
FCR
FCL
WHI
AMB
Hz7
Hz8
STONEY FORK
TRANSGRESSION
FLUVIAL-DELTAIC SYSTEM
MAGOFFIN TRANSGRESSION
COASTAL PLAIN SYSTEM
KENDRICK TRANSGRESSION
COASTAL PLAIN SYSTEM
Bayhead deltas
Bay-fill sedimentation with coals
Subordinate fluvial and tidal deposits
Bayhead deltas
Fluvial channels, subordinate bay-fill and
splay deposits
200 m
150 m
100 m
50 m
0 m

Fig. 2.6. Composite stratigraphic column for the Breathitt Formation in Perry and Leslie
counties (study by Tankard, 1986). Bay-fill deposition dominated coastal plain system. In
contrast, succeeding fluvial-deltaic system is dominated fluvial sandstones. Arrows point
in direction of decreasing grain size. Redrawn from Tankard, 1986.

17

Fig. 2.7. Upper Mississippian and Middle Pennsylvanian stratigraphy of the Appalachian basin in eastern Kentucky. Redrawn from
Tankard, 1986.

18
3.0. DATA AND METHODS
3.1. Data collection and input into Petrel

Cored borehole data from 12 quadrangles in the counties of Knott, Letcher, Pike
and Floyd in Eastern Kentucky (Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1) were obtained from the
Kentucky Geological Survey (KGS) website for Databases and Publications
(www.uky.edu/KGS). The quadrangles are arranged in such a way that data
from N55 (the quadrangle Martin) is furthest way from the thrust front in the
northwest and Q57 (quadrangle Jenkins East) is directly in front of the basal
thrust. Table 3.1 lists the names of the quadrangles and codes used for naming
the boreholes in the study area.

Table 3.1. KGS numbers and codes for the quadrangles in the study area. Abbreviations
are used for borehole codes.

In some quadrangles with a massive number of wells the search was narrowed
to well records longer than 300 ft or to those wells that cover the stratigraphic
interval of interest, i.e. the Four Corners Formation.

19
A multi-stage modeling approach with Petrel was engaged using a variety of
different algorithms to address modeling at different stages. The stages involved
included: (1) converting the raw borehole data into a compatible form,
appropriate for input into Petrel, (2) conversion of the input data into
sedimentological logs, (3) correlation of equivalent surfaces between well logs
based on coal seams, (4) preparation of stratigraphic surfaces and isochores in
3D between different zones, (5) preparation of composite thickness maps and
facies pie-charts for each zone, and (6) manual preparation of conceptual facies
models in each zone based on well logs and facies pie-charts along cross-
sections cut through the thickness maps, in chosen directions.

3.1.1. Conversion of raw borehole data for input into Petrel

For every individual well three types of information (raw data in digital format)
were extracted and stored in different Excel files before importation into Petrel.
This information includes:
The borehole header
The lithological data and codes
The coal seam data.
The data was treated and adapted for input into Petrel to create sedimentological
logs for subsequent geological analysis and interpretations.

M
a
rt
in
H
a
ro
l d
B
ro
a
d
b
o
tt
o
m
W
a
y
l a
n
d
M
c
D
o
w
e
l
l
P
i k
e
v
i l
l
e
K
it
e
W
h
e
e
l
w
ri
g
h
t
D
o
r
t
o
n
M
a
y
k
i
n
g
J
e
n
k
i
n
s
w
e
s
t J
e
n
k
in
s
e
a
s
t
KENTUCKY
Study area
E
a
s
t
e
r
n
K
e
n
t
u
c
k
y
C
o
a
l
F
i
e
l
d
F
P K
L

Fig. 3.1. Location map of the counties and quadrangles in the study area. In the rectangle
F, K, L and P stands for the county names Floyd, Knott, Letcher and Pike, respectively.

The borehole header report from the KGS provided the input data for creating
well header files in Petrel. The well head for each borehole is composed of a
name, the X and Y positions, surface elevation for which the Kelly bushing (KB)
position was used and total depth (TD). To convert the borehole log information

20
into sedimentological logs four basic logs were created in Petrel and combined to
yield the required logs. These preliminary logs include:
Ferm Facies (the litho-log obtained from KGS database)
FaciesCurves (derived from the Ferm Facies logs)
Facies (derived from the Ferm Facies logs)
Coals logs (these are comment logs obtained from the KGS seam reports)
Figure 3.3 is an example of a sedimentological log correlation in Petrel using
data input from four wells in the quadrangle Mayking: MYKNG076, MYKNG061,
MYKNG001 and MYKNG065.
Altogether 286 wells were imported in Petrel for the total study area covering
about 1900 square kilometers of which about 73 square kilometers in the
northwester edge were selected for detailed study.
Figure 3.2 is a map of the total study area created in Petrel to display all
boreholes and locations of the cross-sections made to determine the lateral and
vertical distribution of depositional facies as a result of the paleoflow of fluvial and
marine systems during the Middle and Late Carboniferous. The cross-sections E-
F and G-H trend in the NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE directions, respectively, and
represent the general distribution of facies in this part of the foreland basin.
Cross-sections A-B and C-D (inset Figure 3.2) trend in the NE-SW and NW-SE
directions, respectively and represent in detail the distribution of facies in the
quadrangle Broad-bottom during the Pennsylvanian times. Note the cross-
sections are zigzag lines that do not consider only those wells falling on the
straight lines as depicted in Figure 3.2, but also consider wells within a range of
about 500 metres from the line.
The well logs along each cross-section were correlated using the extensive coal
seams and shale layers as maker horizons, to obtain a chronological stratigraphy
in the study area (see Figure 3.3). Most horizons can be correlated throughout
the entire study area. However, a few are observed to pinch out midfield at some
locations. Altogether, 26 horizons were observed in cross-sections E-F and G-H,
and only 22 in the cross-sections A-B and C-D in the quadrangle Broad-bottom.

21
MRTN HRLD BRDBTTM
WYLND McDWLL PKVLL
KT WHLWRGHT DRTN
MYKNG
JNKNSWST JNKNSEST
A
B
C
D
F
H
G E

Fig. 3.2.The study area composed of 12 quadrangles, represented by rectangular blocks.
Locations of the studied cored wells are indicated by the small circles. Inset in the
quadrangle Broad-bottom, the area selected for detailed study. The lines A-B, C-D, E-F and
G-H are locations for geological cross-sections explained further in the text.

22
3.1.2. Utility of coal seams

During the periods of Langsettian, Lower Pennsylvanian, to Duckmantian and
Middle Pennsylvanian, paleoclimates in Eastern Kentucky were favorable for
peat doming, allowing numerous low-sulfur coals to accumulate in zones and
prone to lateral splitting because of foreland tectonic and sedimentation
influences, Greb et al. (2002).
The thick regionally extensive coal seams have significance in relation to base-
level changes and can be used as genetic stratigraphic sequence boundaries in
nonmarine and marginal basins (Aitken, 1995). They have, therefore, been a
useful guide in correlations within this project. Data for the coal seams has been
used to provide input for well tops in Petrel for correlating the stratigraphic
surfaces between well logs. For wells without coal seams fictious well tops were
interpreted (based on the similarities of log shapes for the lithofacies in the
neighboring sedimentological logs) to facilitate correlations between well logs.
However, Aitken (1995) urged that the use of coal seams as genetic stratigraphic
sequence boundaries is contentious for the following reasons: (1) they are not
single surfaces, (2) they are not necessarily maximum flooding surfaces, and (3)
systematic variations in accommodation space are not properly accounted for.
Hence, coal seams, although readily identifiable and easily correlatable, do not
fulfill the criteria for strict, genetic stratigraphic sequence boundary definition, but
rather represent a genetic sequence boundary zone (Aitken, 1995).
To obtain a clear view of the stratigraphic trends along a given cross-section a
datum horizon was chosen along which other horizons were flattened (Figures
3.3 and 3.4, illustrate the correlated well logs before and after flattening on a
horizon, respectively). The criterion for choosing such a surface is that it should
be relatively thick and regionally extensive. Hence, a coal seam that is
considered to have been processed during the transgressive period of maximum
flooding. Flattening on a horizon makes it practically easy to illustrate the
changes in thickness of all the other zones involved. The Fire Clay Coal seam
(FCL B) was considered suitable for this purpose. It is relatively thick and
regionally extensive in the Appalachian basin. The Fire Clay Coal bed is one of
the major coal-producing bed in the States. It has a Flint Clay parting, the Fire
Clay tonstein with a volcanic fall origin (Chenut, 1979). It provides a time-
correlative datum throughout the basin (Andrew, Jr. et. al., 1994). To facilitate the
description and interpretation of stratigraphic features in the foreland basin some
key stratigraphic surfaces (coal seams) similar to the Fire Clay Coal seam, which
proved to be extensive across the basin have been used for the stratigraphic
nomenclature (Table 3.2). By means of the available coal seams in the study
area the middle Pennsylvanian rocks (the Breathitt Group) have been divided
into three broad units formally ranked as formations and three marine units
formally ranked as members, and are, in descending order, the Four corners
Formation, Magoffin Shale Member, Hyden Formation, Kendrick Shale Member,
Pikeville Formation, and the Betsie Shale Member. The Formations were further
subdivided into smaller units, which together with the Shale Members add up to
21 units (Table 3.2).

23
Table 3.2. Nomenclature scheme used for identifying and correlating key stratigraphic coal
seams (surfaces) within this project. The table shows the units and formation names
identified in the study area

surface unit Formation
BRS B
BRS A
21
PCH B
20
PCH I
19
PCH A
18
HZ7 B
17
HZD A
16
HDX A
15
Four corners
HML B
14 Magoffin Member
HML A
13
FCR A
12
FCL B
11
WHI B
10
WHI A
9
Hyden
AMB B
8 Kendrick Member
AMB A
7
UE3 B
6
UE3 A
5
UE2 A
4
UE1 B
3
LEK B
2
Pikevil le
CLN B
1 Betsie Member

24

Fig. 3.3. Well logs with correlations based on coal seams before flattening on a horizon.
The logs also illustrate the four most important information required for the data input into
Petrel: the FermFacies, the FaciesCurves, the Facies and the Coals, all combined to form a
complete sedimentological log.

25

Fig. 3.4. The same well logs as in Figure 3.3, but now with the corelations based on a
datum layer (FCL B). The pattern of the stratigraphic units in this case can easily be
observed and predicted between wells.

3.1.3. Making stratigraphic surfaces

Having acquired satisfactory stratigraphic cross-sections in the study area, the
next step was to construct stratigraphic surfaces in Petrel for each horizon, using
well tops provided by the upper surfaces of the coal seams. The well top FCL B
for the fire clay coal seam was used as the reference surface upon which the
surfaces immediately below and above were constructed using the calculator
function in Petrel. To create succeeding and preceding surfaces above and
below the FCL B isochore points were calculated and isochore thickness maps
for each zone were made, and then subtracted from the previous surface.
Altogether 25 surfaces were generated in the entire study area and 23 in the

26
quadrangle Broad-bottom. This marked the first step towards making conceptual
geological and facies models in the study area.
At this stage the study was narrowed to an area of about 73 square kilometers in
the northwestern corner of the study area, in the quadrangle Broad-bottom
(Figure 3.2).

HZ8 B
HDX A
FCL B
UE1 B

Fig. 3.5. Stratigraphic surfaces in 3D obtained using well tops (top surfaces of the coal
seams) as input data. The well top FCL B (Fire Clay B coal seam) was used as the
reference surface.

3.1.4. Preparation of composite thickness maps and facies pie-charts

The first step toward facies correlation a composite of thickness maps and
lithofacies pie-charts created in Petrel with the aim of facilitating the estimation of
the percentage of lithofacies, including their lateral and vertical distribution,
connectivity and stacking patterns in each stratigraphic zone. The procedure for
creating pie-charts is explained in detail in the next section. Finally, two special
cross-sections (A-B and C-D) were prepared in Petrel by cutting through the
thickness maps in the quadrangle Broad-bottom (Figures 3.6 and 3.7). Two
further sections (E-F and G-H) were prepared in a similar way to illustrate the
general stratigraphic trends in the total study area Well logs along or in close
proximity (~ 500 m) to the intersection planes were also included in the cross-
sections to facilitate facies correlations and interpretations between wells. The

27
stratigraphic sections thus obtained were used as templates for vertically and
laterally correlating facies in the study area. This was done manually with the
help of the composite maps for zone thickness and facies pie-charts (Figures 4.6
to 4.27) and the preliminary stratigraphic sections correlated in Petrel. Individual
facies available in the area have been assigned different colours (Figure 4.4).
This gave the required conceptual facies models, which can also be used as
geological stratigraphic models, representing the distribution and evolution of
sediments, facies, lithotypes in this part of the Appalachian foreland basin in
eastern Kentucky (see Figures 4.5 and 4.6).

28
Intersection Plane
A
B

Fig. 3.6. Correlated stratigraphic surfaces in the subsurface of Broad-bottom stacked together and cut through vertically by Petrel in
preparation for the NE-SW cross-section A-B.

29
D
C
Intersection plane
N

Fig. 3.7. Correlated stratigraphic surfaces in the subsurface of Broad-bottom stacked together and cut through vertically by Petrel in
preparation for the NW-SE cross-section C-D.

30
PKV007 PKV010 Bb029 011 028 010 012 020 005 004 076 073 072 HRLD033 Bb023 015 024 014 HRLD069
BRS B
BRS A
PCH B
PCH I
PCH A
Hz7 B
HZD A
HDX A
HML B
HML A
FCR A
FCL B
WHI B
WHI A
AMB B
AMB A
Ue3 B
Ue3 A
Ue2 A
Ue1 B
LEK B
CLN B
BLR B

Fig.3.8. Detailed log cross-section linking all wells in the quadrangle Broad bottom and a few others from Pikeville and Harold.

31
SSW
NNE

Fig. 3.9. Detailed cross-section A-B (see Figure 3.1 for location)

32
SSW NNE

Fig. 3.9. continued.

33
NW SE

Fig. 3.10. Detailed cross-section C-D (see Figure 3.1 for location

34
NW SE

Fig. 3.10. continued

35
3.2. Facies modelling
3.2.1. Introduction

To acquire a better knowledge and understanding of the stratigraphic framework
and facies distribution and architecture of the Breathitt Group of formations in
eastern Kentucky, a detailed study was carried out in a single quadrangle (Broad
bottom) northeast of the study area. This part of the field was chosen because it
has a relatively sufficient number of wells (17) evenly distributed and covering
almost the entire stratigraphic intervals of the Breathitt Group, including the Four
Corners Formation, the Magoffin Member, the Hyden Formation, the Kendrick
Member, the Pikeville Formation and the Betsie Member. The Four corners
formation has been eroded in most of the southern parts of the study area, but
still exists in areas further from the thrust-front. In the quadrangle Broad bottom
there exist a few wells that avail data about the Four Corners Formation. In this
study thickness maps and lithofacies pie-charts have been used to construct the
basin stratigraphy.
Thickness variations in a given zone can be due to a variety of stratigraphic and
structural causes including tectonics, subsidence and differential compaction
during and after deposition. Therefore, thickness maps are a valuable guide for
structural and stratigraphic interpretation.
3.2.2. The procedure

The lithological information obtained from the cored wells in the area was used
as input data into Petrel. A zigzag cross-section connecting all existing wells in
the quadrangle Broad-bottom, as well as two from the neighboring quadrangle
Harold, was constructed in Petrel (Figure 3.8). Next the stratigraphic surfaces
were correlated based on the extensive coal seams and marine flooding surfaces
in the area dividing the basin into genetic stratigraphic units. Thickness maps
(Isochores) were generated in Petrel for the zones between successive surfaces.
The isochore maps thus derived are representative of time equivalent
depositional zones or sequences within the Breathitt stratigraphic interval. Pie-
charts were created in each isochore or zone displaying the percentage volume
of each lithofacies along those wells that have log information on the entire
thickness interval of each zone.
The procedure for creating pie-charts in Petrel can be summarized as follows:
Open a new 2D window. Select the polygon for the area Broad bottom and
display the thickness map for any desired stratigraphic interval by selecting it
from the list of isochores in the lower part of the input pane. Insert the wells that
actually have data in this interval. Using the general log correlation cross-section
for the area Broad bottom, those wells that wholly penetrate the selected interval
can be selected. In the upper part of the input pane right click attributes and
select the option insert new attributes. Under new attributes select and click the
option continuous, which then leads one to the attribute operations. Select

36
zone to level 1, facies, %, SSTV, in that order and eventually run the settings.
Under facies choose either a single facies at a time from the list of 14 lithofacies
coded for this project or select all of them at once to save time for several runs.
Petrel will draw a pie-chart for each borehole showing the proportions of each
lithofacies logged along the well bore in that stratigraphic interval. This procedure
is repeated for all zones.
For each stratigraphic zone pie-charts and isochore maps were used to critically
analyse the thickness, and lateral distributions of each facies, including facies
associations and proportions, and grain-size trends, with the aim of deriving
quantitative and qualitative information about the vertical and lateral distribution
of depositional energies and environments in the unit. This information is crucial
at the initial stage of any scheme for geological reservoir modelling. The facies
volumes, obtained from the pie-charts, and their patterns identified in each well
were then used to predict or interpolate the facies vertical and lateral distribution
(and hence the depositional environments) between wells. Thus, pie-charts
provided a statistical database for the quantity of each facies in a given zone.
To facilitate the task of facies description and interpretation process a composite
of contoured isochore map and pie-charts were generated in each zone (see
Figures 4.6 to 4.27). The subsequent architectural and sequence stratigraphical
analysis was based on cross-sections A-B and C-D.
The main elements of these cross-sections include: (1) the vertical stacking
patterns of the sedimentary bodies (lithofacies) along each well that partially or
wholly penetrate the mapped interval of the Breathitt Group in the area of Broad
bottom, (2) the stratal surfaces (in principal these are the coal seams), (3) the
stratigraphic units or zones composed of various facies associations and
bounded above and below by the stratal surfaces. Each lithofacies was given a
specific colour and the bounding surfaces are named according to the
Nomenclature scheme adopted from Chesnut (1996) (Table 3.2). Stratigraphic
correlation sections A-B was oriented parallel to the strike of the basin structures
and axis and section C-D was oriented parallel to the dip direction of the
deposited facies in the basin (Figures 3.2, 3.9, 3.10, 4.4 and 4.5).
A simple lithofacies subdivision scheme was used in the cross-sections,
consisting of only seven different types which, nevertheless, highlight the main
lithological heterogeneity in the formations (Figure 4.4). They include: (1)
Conglomerates (Cngl 12), (2) Sandstones (Ss 10), (3) Heterolithics (Ht 8), (4)
Shale (Sh 6), (5) Coal (Co 2), (6) Limestone (Ls 13), and (8) Unknown (Un 0).
The numbers attached to the facies abbreviation are litho-codes used by the
KGS database centre.

37
4.0. RESULTS
4.1. Overall stratigraphy in the entire study area
4.1.1. Introduction
A reliable geological sequence stratigraphic framework and facies architecture
are necessary in order to investigate coal and other hydrocarbon resources in
any exploration basin and the central Appalachian basin of Eastern Kentucky, in
particular, so as to understand the depositional mechanisms (tectonics, eustatic,
subsidence, paleoclimates, etc) that were involved in controlling the distribution
of the deposited facies in the basin. It is also necessary to develop a usable
stratigraphic framework that accurately reflects the present knowledge of the
coal-bearing strata. Two cross-sections, E-F and G-H, were constructed across
the study area (based on stratigraphic surfaces generated by in Petrel through
the sedimentologic logs that were obtained from 286 cored boreholes in the area
of twelve quadrangles in Eastern Kentucky) in order to examine the stratigraphic
and structural framework of the coal-bearing rocks in the basin (Figures 3.2, 4.1,
4.2, and 4.3). The SSE-NNW cross-section is oriented parallel to the dip direction
of the stratal units, whereas the SSW-NNE cross-section is oriented parallel to
the strike direction (Figure 4.2 and 4.3). Table 3.2 is a modified version of the
nomenclature scheme used by Chesnut (1996) to describe the geological
stratigraphic framework for the coal-bearing rocks of the Central Appalachian
Basin (Figure 4.1).
4.1.2. Analysis of cross-sections (E-F and G-H)

Generally, the two cross-sections reveal a regional characteristic thickness trend
in the stratigraphic strata of the Breathitt Group in the study area. The strata
mainly tend to thin laterally across the basin from the thrust-front in the southeast
toward the basin margin in the northwest (Figure 4.2 and 4.3), demonstrating the
geometry of a typical foreland basin.
The strike cross-section E-F (Figure 4.2) is thicker in the SSW direction (~ 1200
ft) near the basin axis and thinner in the NNE (~ 800 ft), the plunge direction.
Furthermore, the strike-section reveals a significant proportion of a broad domal
(anticlinal) structure in the foreland basin onto which all the mapped strata are
superimposed. The section also shows a series of small folds around the peak
region of the domal structure in the SSW and a broad synclinal structure midfield.
These tectonic distortions however tend to wane out toward the NNE direction.
The trending axes for all these structures are oriented in the NNW-SSE direction.

Similarly, the dip cross-section G-H (Figure 4.2) is thicker in the SSE (~ 1320 ft)
near the thrust-front and thinner in the NNW (~ 740 ft) toward the basin margin.
Unlike the strike-section the small folds are uniformly spread onto the entire flank
of the large domal structure in the field with a tendency to increase the frequency
and amplitude toward the basin margin (forebulge) and waning out in the
direction of the thrust-front. These structures have their axes trending in the

38
NNE-SSW direction. Also to be observed in this section is the degree of stratal
inclination, which decreases down the stratigraphic column. Thus the strata in the
Four Corners Formation are inclined most and those in the Pikeville Formation
least. Both sections show that the major transgressive marine units are relatively
thicker than other strata in the basin. This implies they are zones of major
tectonic subsidence and sea level rise which out balanced the rate of sediment
deposition.
The Breathitt Group is observed to contain many strata that are aerally extensive
across the basin, indicating basin- or larger-scale control over their deposition.
This may be explained by two mechanisms: (1) tectonics was of a basin-scale
and (2) eustatic controls were of great extent. Tectonic mechanisms can be used
to explain the transgressive-regressive cycles observed in the strata, as thrust-
block emplacement caused these foreland basin-scale features.

Pennsylvanian glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere and its consequent glacio-
eustatic control over coastal sedimentation of the Central Appalachian Basin has
been suggested (Chesnut, 1996; Aitken and Flint, 1996). A coastal setting,
including environments such as a shallow sea, a series of small deltas, tidal flats
and estuaries, a coastal plain, fluvial channels and alluvial plains, is envisaged
for the deposition of the coal-bearing rocks of the Central Appalachian Basin
(Chesnut, 1996). Sea-level changes on the order of several tens of metres would
have had drastic effects on Pennsylvanian coastal settings and transgressions,
whether of eustatic or tectonic origin and would have extended inland for several
hundreds of kilometers in such lowland settings (Aitken and Flint, 1996).

Generally the Breathitt Group in the study area is mainly composed of alternating
litho-facies of coals, shales, heterolithics, conglomerates and sandstones. A
detailed explanation of facies and their distribution in the Breathitt fluvial-deltaic
strata in eastern Kentucky will be given in section 4.2 for the quadrangle Broad-
bottom. The following is a brief description and interpretation of the stratigraphy
in the entire study area.
4.1.3. General description and interpretation of the stratigraphy in study
area.
Similar to the results of previous studies (e.g. Tankard, 1986), the stratigraphy of
the Breathitt Group in the study area may be broadly divided into three zones
(FC, H, and Pk) separated by two major marine transgressive zones, Magoffin
and Kendrick (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). The uppermost zone (FC) is a fluvial-deltaic
group of formations known as the Four corners formations. The middle zone (H)
is a coastal plain system of formations known as the Hyden formations. It is
separated from the uppermost and the preceding zones by the Magoffin and
Kendrick transgressive systems, respectively. The lowermost zone (Pk) is also
belongs to the coastal plain system.

39
4.1.3.1. The Coastal Plain System (H and Pk)

The lower coastal plain system (Pk) occupies the stratigraphic interval between
the Kendrick and the Betsie transgression systems. Bay-fill and bayhead delta
facies, and locally incised channels are present but less abundant than in the
Hyden system of formations. Subordinate fluvial sandstones comprise about 10-
20% of this succession and form thin, isolated bodies interspersed in
transgressive deposits composed predominantly of heterolithic lithofacies. Coals
are thick and regionally extensive.

The upper coastal plain depositional system (H) occupies the stratigraphic
interval between the Amburgy (AMB) and the Haddix (HDX) coal zones,
sandwiched between two major transgressive sequences: the Kendrick Shale
member at the bottom and the Magoffin Shale member at the top. The deposited
lithofacies in this interval include sandstones and conglomerates, shales,
heterolithics, and coals. These facies were predominantly deposited in various
environments including Lower Delta Plain, Strand Plain, Back Barrier Lagoon,
Estuarine Channel, and Swamp. Stratigraphic relationships show overall thinning
toward the basin margin, the Cincinnati-Waverly arch complex.
Bay-fill and bayhead delta facies, locally incised by channels are predominant.
The coals are thick and regionally persistent. The preceding major transgressive
interval, the Kendrick Shale, is similar in all aspects to the Magoffin Shale
Member.
4.1.3.2. The Magoffin transgression

Magoffin transgression is a record of marine flooding in the foreland basin as it
subsided beneath the loads of the advancing thrust-sheet complex in the
southeast. In the study area the Magoffin exhibits foreland basin geometry (i.e.
asymmetric prism) and is sandwiched between the stratigraphic surfaces HDX
(at the top) and HML B (at the bottom). It is about 300 ft thick in the southeast (in
the area of the quadrangle Mayking) and about 75 ft in the northeast, in the
quadrangle Broad-bottom (Figure 4.1). It is dominated by heterolithics and shale
facies with minor sandstones in the middle and top zones. It has an overall
upward coarsening trend in grain size. Three major facies tracts can be observed
along well BRDBTTM024 in the Magoffin zone: a basal transgressive interval
with shale and heterolithic facies, a bay-margin progradation interval with
sandstone facies, and an upper marine interval with shale facies. Magoffin
sedimentation terminates with peat swamp accumulation and in some sections
erosion (e.g. along well BRDBTTM015) by fluvial channels and incised valley fills
(e.g. conglomerates along well BRDBTTM004).
Magoffin is a regionally persistent marginal marine interval that demonstrates a
major tectonic control that caused overdeepening of the foreland basin. The rich
invertebrate fauna in this zone records an early Atakon age (Tankard, 1986).
Deposition of the Magoffin during the Atokan was contemporaneous with
overthrusting in the Ouachita orogenic belt, indicating that basin subsidence and

40
transgression resulted from overthrust loading. Furthermore this rapid response
of the lithosphere to overthrust loading implies an initial elastic behaviour
(Tankard, 1986). Similar rock types, paleoenvironmental settings, and fauna
characterize the Kendrick and Magoffin paralic systems (Chesnut, 1996 and
Tankard, 1986)

4.1.3.3. The fluvial-deltaic system (FC)

The Upper fluvial-deltaic system (identified as FC in Figures 4.2 and 4.3) is the
main theme of this thesis and will be described and interpreted in detail in the
next section using thickness maps and cross-sections. The transition from the
transgressive system (Magoffin) to the Breathitt fluvial-deltaic system (the Four
Corners Formations) is very abrupt, as observed from the presence of basal
conglomerates and sandstones bodies in the lower sequences (Figure 4.5 and
4.6). This marks the entry of major rivers into the foreland basin. It is about 660 ft
in the southeast and about 500 ft in the northwest (Figure 4.3). It is characterized
by a framework of multistory channel sandstone bodies that coalesce along strike
to form relatively continuous sandstone units measuring several kilometers in
width (see Figure 4.5a). Channel fill sandstones usually comprise more than 70
% of the entire stratigraphic column. Braided and coarse-grained meandering
stream deposits are very common in this system with subordinate amounts of
paleovalley fills. Subordinate facies include heterolithics (which are possibly
overbank mudstones) and coals, as well as shales which may possibly belong to
the interdistributary bay and crevasse splay lithologies. Overall the fluvial system
consists of progradational lowstand deposits.
The rapid change from the transgressive marine sedimentation in the Magoffin
zone to sand-dominated alluvial plain deposition was probably due the tectonic
reactivation of the source terrane in the southeast by orogenic uplift. Coarse
clastics were shed from the orogene faster than the subsiding foreland basin
could accommodate it, resulting in an overfilled basin (Tankard, 1986). The most
important result for this study is the observation of the positive and negative
structural elements (anticlines and synclines) in the basin, which may have
significantly influenced the drainage pattern in the Four Corners Formation.
The fluvial-deltaic system terminates with an extensive coal unit and a regional
marine deposition, the Stoney Fork Shale Member.

41

Fig. 4.1. A stratigraphic framework of Pennsylvanian rocks in the Central Appalachian Basin, redrawn from Chesnut, 1996.

42

1200
2400
500
1300
M
agoffin
Shale
Mem
ber
Kendrick Shale Member
Betsie Shal e Member
FC
H
Pk
SSW NNE
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
e
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
i
n
f
t
.
a
.
s
.
l
.

Fig. 4.2. Strike section (E-F) of the Breathitt Group in the study area in Eastern Kentucky. It was constructed in Petrel from the
intersection plane through 22 stratal surfaces (see Figure 3.2 for location). FC stands for Four Corners group of Formation; H stands for
Hyden group of Formation, and Pk stands for the Pikeville group of Formations.

43

1440
2760
700
1440
M
a
g
o
ffin
S
h
a
le
M
e
m
b
e
r
K
e
n
d
ric
k
S
h
a
le
M
e
m
b
e
r
B
e
ts
ie
S
h
ale
M
em
b
er
FC
H
Pk
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
e
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
i
n
f
t
.
a
.
s
.
l
.
SSE
NNW

Fig. 4.3. Dip section (G-H) of the Breathitt Group in the study area in Eastern Kentucky. It illustrates the overall foreland basin geometry
(i.e. thickening toward the thrust-front). See further explanation in the text.

44
4.2. Description and Interpretation of the Stratigraphy,
architecture and facies distribution in the quadrangle
Broad bottom
4.2.1. Overall stratigraphy and architecture in Broad bottom

The work reported in this section forms a small part of the total study area
covering about 73 square kilometers, with a stratigraphic control provided by 17
wells, which have been used to define and map 21 units/zones. The result of
facies analysis of each individual zone along the two cross-sections, A-B oriented
in the NE-SW and C-D oriented in the NW-SE directions, gave rise to the general
stratigraphy illustrated in Figures 4.5 and 4.6. These cross-sections demonstrate
that each statal unit is characterized by: (1) a facies association with a vertical
thickness in the order of tens of metres, (2) a lateral extent of several hundreds
of metres to a few kilometres, and (3) a length of several kilometres. The
stratigraphy is mainly dominated by seven lithofacies: sandstones (Ss),
heterolithics (Ht), conglomerates (Cnglmrt), shales (sh), coals (cl), limestones
(ls), and some unknown lithofacies (Unknwn) which in this project has been
interpreted to be sandstone. The conglomerate and most sandstone lithofacies
belong to fluvial-channels and incised valley fills. Other depositional
environments include mouth-bars, estuaries, prodeltas, distributary and
Interdistributary facies deposits. The heterolithic and shale lithofacies mainly
represent sea transgressional facies and depositional facies that flanked the
fluvial channel banks and are therefore composed of a mixed assortment of
accumulated fine-grained sediments. They may therefore occur as channel-lobe
transition or frontal splay deposits. Limestone is most likely to have precipitated
from a marine environment while coals are a result of peat generation in swampy
and marshy environments. Both limestone and coals could be indicators of
maximum marine flooding surfaces.

Broadly the stratigraphy in Broad bottom may be divided into five parts, similar to
those observed in the stratigraphy for the total study area (Figures 4.2 and 4.3).
In a descending order these zones/units may include:
(1) Units 21 to 15 (the fluvial-deltaic system)
(2) Unit 14 (the Magoffin transgressive system)
(3) Units 13 to 7 (the upper coastal plain system)
(4) Unit 6 (the Kendrick transgressive system
(5) Units 5 to 0 (the lower coastal plain system.

Considering all the units together, the overall thickness trend that was observed
in the general stratigraphy (i.e. stratal thinning toward the NW or NE, Figures 4.2
and 4.3) still holds true for the stratigraphy in Broad-bottom. However, this may
not be true for some sections (units 0 through 6) in the lower parts of the
stratigraphy. This may be partly due to the differences in the magnitudes of the
depositional controls (including tectonism, differential subsidence, and eustasy)

45
along the stratigraphic column. The upper parts, for instance, were deposited at
the time of the Atokan orogenic activity, causing a significant inclination to the
deposited stratas in the southeast. The inverse relationship between the
thicknesses of some neighbouring stratigraphic units has also been observed.
Nevertheless the overall stratigraphic thickness map for the Breathitt Group in
Broad-bottom clearly demonstrates the thickness trend (Figure 4.7). Although
less obvious, the general tendency for the units to plunge in the NE and dip in the
NW can still be observed in Broad bottom. However, one of the series of
anticlines and synclines that were observed in the general stratigraphy for the
entire study area is now exaggerated in the dip-section (Figure 4.5). The
synclinal structure (asymmetrical in shape) tends to increase its curvature
(straining power) with depth through the fluvial system until the Magoffin
transgression when its curvature begins to relax with depth, through the Kendrick
transgression until the Betsie transgression when its small anticlinal lobe to the
NW of the axis totally disappears. At the top of the fluvial system the structure
has one anticlinal lobe to the NW of its axis (along wells BRDBTTM023 and 015),
but begins to develop its second and broader lobe on the SE (along wells
BRDBTTM024, 005, and 004) with increasing depth. However, at greater depths,
in unit 2, for instance, when the NW lobe is almost completely attenuated, that on
the SE side of the axis can still be observed, although very much diminished in
shape. The strike section also exhibits a small anticlinal structure (along wells
BRDBTTM029, 011, and 028) which is much less in magnitude than those
observed in the dip-section.
The age of the correlated part of the Breathitt Group has been estimated be
between 306 Ma (top of unit 21) and 315 Ma (top of unit 0), based on the
assumption by Greb et al. (2002) that the individual coal-clastic cycles had
durations of approximately 400 ka. Further, the coal-clastic cycles are assumed
to be eustatically controlled fourth-order sequences, grouped into sequence sets
to form third-order sequences (Aitken and Howell, 1996 ; Miall, 1991).
Generally the following observations were made: (1) Stratal thickness increases
in the SE direction toward the axis of the foreland basin, (2) the intensity of
folding (tectonism) attenuates with depth, (3) the proportion of marine (shales)
and heterolithic lithofacies increases with depth, (4) conglomerates are mostly
observed in the upper coastal plain and the lower fluvial system, deposited at the
base but sometimes in the middle of the stratal units, and (5) the proportion of
sandstone lithofacies decreases with depth.
4.2.1.1. The Lower coastal plain system
Generally, the lower coastal plain system (units 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 and 0) has a very low
proportion of sandstone facies and is predominantly composed of shales and
heterolithics. In some locations, however, e.g. in unit 5 along well BRDBTTM004,
conglomerate facies may be observed. These are likely to be a result of forced
regressions deposited by the oscillating sea-level, at sea level fall. The deposited
sediments of this system, like the rest of the coastal system, are retrogradational
and generally tend to coarsen upwards.

46
4.2.1.2. The Kendrick transgression
The Kendrick transgression (unit 6), like the Magoffin, thickens toward the basin
axis, with the grain-size of its sediments coarsening upwards. It is predominantly
composed of heterolithics and shales, with some minor sandstone facies in the
middle and upper tracts.
4.2.1.3. The Upper coastal plain system
In the upper coastal plain system (units 13 to 6), the pairs of units 14+13, 12+11,
and 10+9 are inversely related in their thickness. The last two units (8 and 7) in
this system, however, exhibit the true foreland basin geometry, i.e. they tend to
thicken toward the thrust-front. This system has an equal proportion of
sandstones and heterolithics plus shales. The strike cross section shows a large
number of sandstone bodies and conglomerates laterally stacked together but
separated by thin shales between units. The proportion of sandstones tends to
increase towards the NE (strike section, Figure 4.6).
4.2.1.4. The Magoffin transgression
Unit 14, the Magoffin transgression, as before shows a thickness pattern typical
of the foreland basin geometry, i.e. thickening in the directions toward the thrust-
front load or basin axis. It shows a tendency for its grain size to coarsen upward.
It is predominantly composed of marine facies (shales) and heterolithics.
4.2.1.5. The Fluvial-deltaic system
In the fluvial-deltaic system (units 21 to 14) the unit pairs 21 and 20, 17and 16,
are inversely related in thickness, while the rest (units 19, 18 and 15) show
constant thickness along the dip-section (Figure 4.5). The system shows an
overall tendency for its grain size to thin upward and its deposits are mostly
composed of sandstone and conglomerates (> 75 %), with the rest being shales
and heterolithics lithofacies.

47

Fig. 4.4. A Colour legend to Figures 4.5 and 4.6

48

Fig. 4.5. (a) A schematic dip-section, illustrating the sequence stratigraphic framework and Depositional System Tracts for the facies in
the upper part of the Breathitt Group (units 11 to 21). Correlations were done in Petrel based on the extensive coal seams and shales
observed in the sedimentological logs. The logs were constructed in Petrel using cored borehole data along the cross-section C-D in
the quadrangle Broad bottom (see Fig.3.2 for location). The numbers and codes at the top are identities for the reference wells and
those on the sides are the names of major coal seams used for correlations and sequence stratigraphic abbreviations for the
depositional processes. See Table 3.2 for nomenclature of the coal seams.

49

Fig. 4.5. (b)Sequence stratigraphic framework and Depositional System Tracts for facies in the lower part of the Breathitt Group (units 2
to 10) along the same cross-section as in (a). The diagram is as well a conceptual facies model showing the lateral and vertical
distribution of facies in the Breathitt group of Formations between the stratigraphic surfaces BRS B and LEK B. LST = Lowstand
System Tract, TST = Transgressive System Tract, HST = Highstand System Tract, and FSST = Falling Stage System Tract. SB =
Sequence Boundary, FS = Flooding Surface. The approximate age of deposition is also indicated on the right. The arrows point in the
direction of fining of the sediment grain-size. See Figure 3.2 and Table 3.2, respectively, for the location of the section and nomenclature
of the coal seams.

50

Fig. 4.6. (a) A schematic strike-section showing the sequence stratigraphic framework and Depositional System Tracts for the facies in
the upper part of the Breathitt Group (units 11 through 21). Correlations were done based on the extensive coal seams and marine
shales observable in the sedimentological logs, constructed from cored borehole data along cross-section A-B in quadrangle Broad
bottom, see Fig.3.2 for location. The numbers at the top are names for the reference wells used in correlation. See Figure 4.5 for the
definition of the sequence stratigraphic abbreviations to the right and Table 3.2 for the names of the coal seams.

51

Fig. 4.6. (b) Lower part of the stratigraphic section A-B (units 1 through 10), for the lower part of the Breathitt Group.

52

Fig. 4.7. Thickness map of the Breathitt Group (21 units) in the quadrangle Broad-bottom.
Thickness is given in ft and indicated by the colour legend and the contours. In the
midfield thickness is influenced by the synclinal structure oriented NE-SW. The map
shows a general progradation of the delta from the SE (thickest part) toward the NW
(thinnest part of the basin).

53
4.2.2. Description and Interpretation of coastal plain facies

The rest of this chapter will try to describe and interpret facies in each
stratigraphic unit/zone mapped in the quadrangle Broad-bottom. The zones are
numerically arranged from bottom to the top (1 to 21). The descriptions and
interpretations attached to these units are based on the general characteristic
features observed in terms of unit thickness, and distribution of facies or
depositional energy as illustrated by the composite maps of isochors and
lithofacies pie-charts. The maps together with the two stratigraphic cross-
sections (Figures 4.5 and 4.6) form the basis for the descriptions and
interpretations. In general five dominating lithofacies associations are observed
in the area of Broad bottom. They include sandstones, heterolithics, shales,
conglomerates, and coals. Other lithologies present however, in minor quantities
include ironstone and limestones. As a rule in geology descriptions and
interpretations of the stratigraphic units are done starting from the bottom (0) to
the top (21) of the stratigraphic units.
Thickness maps for each unit have been drawn equipped with lithofacies pie-
charts at locations of cored boreholes that wholly or almost wholly penetrate the
interval. Such composite maps give a general idea about sediment transport
directions (paleoflow directions) including the distribution of the depositional
energies and facies in each stratigraphic unit. The principles of sequence
stratigraphy, where appropriate, have been applied to interpret the environments
of deposition and facies associations in the zones. Figure 4.8 shows the colour
legend used for the nomenclature of the facies quantified in the pie-charts.

Fig. 4.8. A Colour legend for the pie-charts in Figures 4.9 to 4.30

54
4.2.2.1. Zone 0 (BLR B CLN B)

B
C
D
A

Fig. 4.9. A composite of stratigraphic thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts used for the
description and interpretation of facies and environments of deposition in zone 0, between
surfaces BLR B and CLN B. Note that the map is contoured in ft.

55
Zone description

The unit bounded below and above by the stratigraphic surfaces BLR B and CLN
B, respectively (see Figures 10.1 and 10.2 in the Appendix). The unit shows the
geometry of a foreland basin, i.e. thickest (110 ft.) in the southwest (the direction
of the thrust-front) and thinnest the northwest and northeast, to a minimum of
about 55 ft in some locations. Facies distribution as observed from the pie-charts
in the unit shows a steady decline in depositional energy toward the northeast.
Facies present in a decreasing order of magnitude include shales, heterolithics
and sandstones, sandwiched in thin coals at the bottom and top of the unit.
There is a tendency for the proportion of sandstone and heterolithics to decrease
in the northern direction, while shales increase, see thickness map and the
detailed log correlation section for Broad-bottom and the neighboring areas
(Figures 3.8, 3.9 and 4.9). The logs in the extreme southeast (see wells
PKVLL007 and PKVLL010) outside the southern borders to the quadrangle
Broad bottom show a gradual upward coarsening trend for the sediment grain-
size, while wells in the centre (BRDBTTM010 and BRDBTTM020) show an
abrupt upward coarsening trend of the sediment grain-size (Figures 3.8, 3.9 and
4.9). As observed from the contour pattern in the thickness map, there is a
synclinal structure oriented in the NE-SW direction, parallel to the strike direction
of the stratigraphic unit. The unit generally dips in the northwest and strikes in the
northeast. Also to be observed from the contour pattern is a series of
depressions in the middle region trending in the NE-SW direction. However,
there is not enough borehole data in this unit to enable the construction of cross-
sections that could possibly assist in explaining and interpreting these
depressions in detail, but from the overall stratigraphy observed above, they can
be interpreted as a series of minor anticlines and synclines trending NW-SE.
Zone interpretation

This is possibly a mixed fluvial and marine environment in the lower delta plain.
The decrease in the proportion of sandstone toward the north is an indication of a
system that was continuously losing energy in the northern direction and thereby
progressively precipitating its suspension load of fine sediments (shales)
probably into a large open body of water (a large lake or sea). The sandstones
are most probably mouth-bars characteristic of a lower delta plain environment.
The midfield structure trending in the northeast-southwest direction is most
probably a syncline that controlled the distribution of depositional energy in the
area. The northern half of the zone beyond this structure is predominantly
marine, deposited with shale facies. Alternatively, the southern parts of the unit
were deposited in a wave/storm dominated lower-middle shoreface or delta-front
environment. The reduction in energy in the central and northern parts of the unit
may suggest that these areas were protected from the storms and waves and
therefore indicative of a tidally-influenced deposition environment. Therefore the
northern parts can be interpreted as areas where tidal energies dominated over
storm/wave energies.

56
4.2.2.2. Zone 1 (CLN B LEK B)

A
B
C
D

Fig. 4.10. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone CLN B-LEK
B. A-B and C-D are locations for the NE-SW and NW-SE cross-sections, respectively.

57
Zone description

Overall the unit is relatively thick and slightly inclined to the northwest (~ 175 ft in
the SE, ~ 150 ft in the middle and ~ 160 ft in the NW). Depositional energy is
observed to decline from the northwest to the southwest. Similarly, the proportion
of sandstone decreases, while that of heterolithics, shale, and coals increases in
a SE direction. Like the previous unit, a fold structure can be seen in the middle
regions trending in the NE-SW direction. The zone is divided into three channel-
like lobes filled with thick sediments and spreading out from the centre into the
northwest, southwest and eastern directions, with areas of relatively thin
sediments in between. The eastern lobe is funnel shaped and the most
extensive. Cored borehole logs in the unit show an overall upward-coarsening
trend of sediment grain-size distribution. Thin and discontinuous coals occur
everywhere in the zone with a tendency to increase in the southern direction. The
strike-section (Figure 4.6b, unit 1) shows the zone is thickest with most deposits
of sandstones between wells BRDBTTM011 and 004. The sandstones split into
thin sheet-like layers between shales and heterolithics in the NE and SW
directions.

Zone interpretation

The distribution pattern of depositional energy and sediment grain-size trends
suggest that deposition was predominantly transgressive, with sea waves/storms
giving rise to environments ranging from delta-front to strandplain. The sheet-like
sandstone layers observed in wells BRDBTTM004, 010, 011, 014, and 020 could
be mouthbars and distributary channels deposited in a wave/storm-dominated
basin. Other distributary mouth bars and channels in the zone are represented by
the coarse grained sandstones and conglomerates, as observed in well
BRDBTTM072, in the north. These were deposited either by subaqueous
cohesionless debris flows generated by oversteepening of the mouth bars or as
reworked sandstone deposits in the estuarine during backfilling of the distributary
channels. The presence of more coals and heterolithics in the landward direction
may imply a relatively stable mixed fluvial/marine environment in the south.
Facies associations and distribution in this unit give evidence that the deposition
was done in a transgressive system when the sea level was rapidly rising to
create more accommodation space. In the middle of the strike-section the
coarse sandstones that laterally splits into sheets encapsulated in shales indicate
the boundary (or bay-line) between the fluvial and marine systems, which
migrated landward when the sea level rose. The synclinal structure midfield
played a big role in the distribution of depositional energies in the area.

58
4.2.2.3. Zone 2 (LEK B UE1 B)

A
B
C
D

Fig. 4.11. A composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone LEK B-UE1
B

59
Zone description

The normal thickness trend for deposition in a foreland basin seems to be
reversed in this zone. It is thickest (~ 98 ft) in the north and thinnest (~ 72 ft) in
the south. The zone shows the depositional energy to be greatest in the midfield
and least in the southeast. Accordingly there is more sandstone in the midfield
with its proportion gradually declining in the northwest direction. The south is
predominantly deposited with shales and heterolithics. The narrow diagonal
region mid-field is occupied with a large proportion of sandstones and little shales
and coal in the extreme NE and SW, with the central region being predominantly
heterolithic. The northwest is predominantly occupied with two lithofacies,
heterolithics (~ 75 %) and sandstone (~ 25 %). The middle and southwest
regions are predominantly heterolithic with the proportion of shales increasing
toward the southwest. This description is confirmed and clearly illustrated by the
two cross-sections (Figures 4.5b and 4.6b). Half of the entire zone, from middle
to the southeast was deposited with shales, while the other half was
predominantly occupied with heterolithics and minor traces of sandstone
lithofacies (Figure 4.5a, the dip-section). In the strike-section, more than three-
quarters of the zone toward the southwest direction is covered by heterolithics,
while the remaining third is occupied by shales and minor sandstones.

Zone interpretation

The zone may be subdivided into three regions of different depositional energies:
Facies associations in the northwest show predominance of wave/storm
environment with the deposition of heterolithics and minor mouthbar sandstones.
In the southeast, however, the facies association reveals a low energy
environment of deposition, probably influenced by tides, at the time immediately
following the peak period of sea transgression, when there was maximum
flooding. The more coarse-grained region with mouthbar sandstones midfield
was either formed by the action of wave reworking or by flood events in a still
active distributary system. In this zone again the synclinal structure midfield
influenced the distribution of depositional energies.

60
4.2.2.4. Zone 3 (UE1 B UE2 A)

A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.12. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone UE1 B-UE2 A

61
Zone description

This zone has a broad region of thick sediments across the middle, with a
maximum thickness of about 40 ft. From the middle region the unit gradually
thins northwards to attain a minimum thickness of about 25 ft. However, from the
middle southwards the zone rapidly thins out to attain a minimum thickness of
about 2 ft predominantly composed of coals (~ 75 %) and shales (~ 25 %). Coals
gradually decrease toward the northeast direction to be replaced by shales,
heterolithics and sandstones. The strike-section (Figure 4.6b) shows that the
zone becomes thicker towards the northeast, deposited with a variety of facies
associations, including basal sandstones, heterolithics and shales, with the
overall sediment grain-size tending to thin upward. The zone becomes thinner in
the southwest and is predominantly occupied by coals. The dip-section (Figure
4.5b), however, depicts the zone to be almost horizontally deposited, uniformly
thick and slightly folded in the middle region. The southeast is predominantly
occupied with shales and the northwest with sandstone and heterolithics.

Zone interpretation

The widespread presence of thick coals and shales in the southern portion of the
unit indicates that the interfluves were constantly flooded causing poor drainage
conditions that favored the widespread generation of peat in swamps. The
sandstones and heterolithics observed in the northern portion of the zone are
probably estuarine point bars (channels and tidal flats) deposited during the high
stand system tract. The large coal content in south could also imply a relatively
stable mixed fluvial-marine environment tidally influenced.

62
4.2.2.5. Zone 4 (UE2 A UE3 A)

A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.13. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone UE2 A-UE3 A

63
Zone description

This zone is inversely related in thickness to the preceding zone. The unit has
foreland basin geometry, thickest in the southwest (~ 75 ft) and thinnest in the
north (~ 15 ft). There is also a reversal in the distribution of energy as well. The
southeast is deposited with more sandstones and heterolithics facies than in the
north. Overall the unit is deposited with a large proportion of heterolithics except
in the northwest, where the proportion of shale is higher. Sandstone decreases
gradually and laterally from the southeast and the northwest toward the centre,
while the shales increase in the reverse directions. Coals are thin and
discontinuous, but occur everywhere in the zone. The strike-section (Figure 4.6b)
shows some thin and discontinuous sandstone in the northeast with a tendency
to thin upward. The region from the center toward the southwest is predominantly
occupied with heterolithics and subordinate thin and sheet-like shales (Figure
4.6b). The dip-section, however, shows a deposit of sandstones and heterolithics
in the southeast and sandstones and shales in the northwest (Figure 4.5b). The
central region is slightly folded and predominantly deposited with heterolithics.

Zone interpretation

This zone comprises of sediments deposited during the last phase of the long
marine transgression period when the sea-level or base-level was beginning to
fall. The fluvial system may now be observed as beginning to cut through the
thick heterolithic sediments from the south east. Coals and shales though thin
are observed adjacent to the incising channel overbanks where the system
possibly offers a relatively stable environment.
In terms of sequence stratigraphy, this zone may be at the transition phase from
the highstand system tract to the beginning of the lowstand system tract when
the sea-level begins to fall.

64
4.2.2.6. Zone 5 (UE3 A UE3 B)

A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.14. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone UE3 A-UE3 B

65
Zone description

This zone is diagonally divided into two parts, with the upper part thicker than the
lower half. A structure of regional extent lies between the two portions trending
northeast-southwest. An Incised valley fill is also observed in a distributary
channel flowing through the lower half of the zone from the southeast and
depositing its sediment load into the upper zone across the midfield structure.
The channel fill consists of a huge proportion of conglomerates, sandstones and
coals (well BRDBTTM004). The channel fill is also thicker than the adjacent
areas overbank which are the flood plains for the eroding channel when it spills
its banks. They contain a large proportion of coals and shales than the upper
region. The upper region however contains more sandstone in the north than in
the west.

Zone interpretation

The presence of conglomerates, logged midfield in well BRDBTTM004, is a clear
indication of an eroding channel or distributary stream during the lowstand
system tract, flowing from the southeast incising and depositing its sediment load
into the shallow open body of water in the northwest. This also led to the
formation of a lower delta system in the upper part of the zone. Well logs in this
region are blocky and show a coarsening-upwards trend with a high proportion of
sandstones, heterolithics and subordinate shales, typical of mouth bars in a
marginal marine environment. Overbank facies or Crevasse splay facies
predominantly composed of fine sediment materials (shales and heterolithics) are
observed in the thin flood plains adjacent to the relatively thick fluvial incised
valley fill. The channel flood plains provides a stable swampy environment that is
quite suitable for the peat generation, as supported by the presence of thick
coals logged in wells BDRBTTM005 and 076. The unknown lithology logged in
well BRDBTTM020 could possibly be more-or-less shales and heterolithics with
thick coals since is located at the boundary between the swampy flood plains and
the lower delta plain with mixed fresh and saline waters, a marginal marine-fluvial
environment. In terms of sequence stratigraphy, this zone may be at a lowstand
system tract when the sea-level was falling.

66
4.2.2.7. Zone 6 (UE3 B - AMB A)

A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.15. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone UE3 B-AMB
A

67
Zone description

Generally, the zone is uniformly thick (~ 75 ft) with an equal spread of low energy
in the entire field and consists of a large proportion of shales and heterolithics.
Limestone has been logged in well HRLD033, in the northwest. The zone is
terminated with a sharp contact at the top by the overlying sandstones of the next
stratigraphic unit. Coals in this unit are very thin and hardly noticeable. A good
proportion of sandstone lithofacies were deposited midfield within the synclinal
structure.

Zone interpretation

This is a regional transgressive zone starting with a flooding surface at the
bottom and ending sharply with a sequence boundary at the top. The abundance
of shales indicates precipitation of the suspended fine sediments from a large
body of water. Limestone observed in the north is a clear indication of a
depositional environment in which the water depth remained relatively deep and
clear allowing marine faunas to thrive. Carbonates could then precipitate as the
rate of sediment supply was very low (Figure 4.5b). The sea-level continued to
rise after the precipitation of limestone until the maximum phase of transgression
came to the end, giving rise to a thick deposition of shales at the top of the
sequence. This zone was truncated by an unconformity as supported by the
sharp erosional contact between the topmost shale and the overlying sandstones
and conglomerates that belong to the next sequence. The dip-section shows the
zone to contain two system tracts, the transgressive system tract that starts from
the bottom to the middle, followed by the highstand system tract up to the top,
when it was truncated by the overlying sandstone unit at lowstand (Figures 4.5b
and 4.6b). The unit has been identified as the Kendrich Shale Member. The
synclinal structure in the middle influenced the distribution of the high energy
sediments in this unit.

68
4.2.2.8. Zone 7 (AMB A - AMB B)

A
B
C
D

Fig. 4.16. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone AMB A-AMB
B

69
Zone description

This zone has a broad progradational lobe of thick sediments that tapers off
towards the northwest (Figures 4.5b and 4.16). The lobe is thickest (~ 100 ft) in
the southeast and gradually thins out (~ 15 ft) towards the northwest. The zone
starts abruptly with a sharp base composed of blocky sandstones (Figure 4.5b).
In the midfield region some unidentified lithofacies were logged in the prograding
lobe. Coals only appear in the north and northwest. Some conglomerates have
been logged in the central east of the field as well.

Zone interpretation

The blocky nature of the logged sandstones in the prograding lobe may be an
indication of rapid fluvial deposition by braided streams flowing from the south
east towards the northwest. The broad and thick prograding lobe of sediments
scored the underlying strata of the preceding sequence depositing sandstones
and in some places conglomerates. This could possibly imply that two processes,
i.e. Eustace and Tectonics, took place simultaneously. The oscillating sea-level
was falling at the time when terrain in the southwest was being uplifted by the
tectonics. The appearance of coals in the north indicates a reduction in the
stream energy which allowed the development of a stable swampy environment
required for the growth of thick tropical forests, consequently generating the
coals.

70
4.2.2.9. Zone 8 (AMB B - WHI A)

A
B
C
D

Fig. 4.17. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone AMB B-WHI
A

71
Zone description

The zone has an equal cumulative sediment thickness in the south and north
decreasing towards the central western direction. Logged wells in the centre east
show the presence of conglomerates and more sandstones than in the regions to
the south and north, where fine sediments tend to show a considerable increase.
In general the logs show a blocky character gradually changing into a
coarsening-upwards tendency in the northern direction.

Zone interpretation

The zone seem to have been divided into three regions with the middle region
occupied by a strong erosive stream flowing from the east towards the sea in the
west, as evidenced by the logged incised valley fills (conglomerate lithofacies) in
wells BRDBTTM004, 005 and 076. The regions bounding the incised valley fill to
the north and south with the thickest blocky sediments were possibly occupied by
braided rivers and crevasse splay environments.

72
4.2.2.10. Zone 9 (WHI A WHI B)

A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.18. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone WHI A-WHI B

73
Zone description

The zone is considerably thinner than the previous one although still divided into
three regions. However, there seems to be a reversed flow direction in the middle
region from the west to the east. The lithofacies in the middle strip are now
entirely composed of heterolithics and shales. In the adjacent areas sandstones
show a considerable increase towards the north and south. The coal facies has
also increased in areas close to the middle region.

Zone interpretation

There is transgression from the sea in the west towards land in the east, affecting
only the middle region with the consequent deposition of fine sediments,
including heterolithics and finally shales. The regions to the north and south as
before still have a braided river system.

74
4.2.2.11. Zone 10 (WHI B FCL B)

A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.19. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone WHI B-FCL B

75
Zone description

The former situation in zone WHI A - AMB B is now reversed. The middle region
is now broad and thicker than the adjacent regions to the north and south. Also to
be observed is the uniform, wide spread existence of the coals in the zone,
although on a gradual decrease in the north-western direction. Its content is
relatively higher than in any previous zone. Well logs in the southwest and
northeast show a coarsening upward trend, whereas those in the middle region
show a fining-upwards trend. The sand content increases in all directions away
from the central region of this zone.

Zone interpretation

The presence of thick coals uniformly distributed on top of the entire zone implies
a flooded swampy but relatively stable environment in the region. The different
trends of sediment fining or coarsening in the region imply a system with mixed
environments, including marginal marine or lower deltaic, braided and
meandering river environment. The great lateral extent of coals may also indicate
very low overall rates detrital influx and abandonment of the depositional
landscape.

76
4.2.2.12. Zone 11 (FCL B FCR A)

A
C
B
D

Fig. 4.20. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone FCL B-FCR A

77
Zone description

The middle field of the zone is very thin and deeply eroded/incised to form a
curved valley across the entire region. The adjacent cliffs are thicker and steeper
to the southeast than those to the northwest of the central valley. There seem to
be another eroding stream in the southwest that joins the central stream in the
Far East. The proportion of fine sediments and coals increases with a decrease
in the gradient of the zone. Well logs (e.g. well BRDBTTM005) in the centre of
the eroded valley show a predominance of conglomeratic facies.

Zone interpretation

The two incising streams in the zone are an indication of a remarkable fall in sea-
level. Stream flows seem to be structurally controlled perpendicular to the
gradient. There is a gradual decrease in energy from the southeast to the
northwest and from the central region towards the northeast and southwest as
indicated by the decrease in the amounts of deposited sandstone facies logged
in the wells. In addition to incised valley fills the environment is predominantly
braided stream as indicated by the blocky trends of the well logs and meandering
streams (fining-upwards trend) in the extreme north. The environment could also
be coastal plain with the incising distributaries meandering along the coastline.

78
4.2.2.13. Zone 12 (FCR A HML A)

A
C
B
D

Fig. 4.21. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone FCR A-HML
A

79
Zone description

The zone is inhomogeneous in thickness with the centre being thinner than the
corner regions. Logged wells show the predominance of condensed phases in
the entire field, although conglomerates and sandstone lithofacies have been
logged in some wells. Coals appear discontinuous although locally very thick, as
seen in some wells.

Zone interpretation

This is probably a zone of mixed marine and fluvial systems. The predominance
of condensed phases and thick coals in some locations indicates the zone to be
a transgressive sequence in a relatively low energy and stable setting. The
conglomerates are probably the result of sediment reworking by the strong sea
currents and waves during transgression. The sandstones are deposited by
meandering streams that are being pushed back by the sea currents.

80
4.2.2.14. Zone 13 (HML A HML B)

A
C
B
D

Fig. 4.22. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone HML A-HML
B

81
Zone description

Midfield the zone is predominantly blocky sandstones and conglomerates, with
shales and heterolithics in the adjacent regions to the southeast and north west.
The coals are thin and discontinuous except in one well where an extremely thick
coal has been logged mid-sequence between sandstones (see Figure x).
Conglomerates are logged in wells adjacent to the blocky sandstones midfield. In
the extreme northwest only marine shales and heterolithics have been logged.

Zone interpretation

Here the depositional environment may be predicted to be mostly lower delta
plain grading into marine. Conglomerates logged in well adjacent to the blocky
sandstones midfield could imply incised valley erosion and fills in the lower delta
plain by fluvial streams at falling sea-level. The blocky sandstones logged
seawards can be interpreted as barrier-island deposits (called barrier sandstone)
reproducing most clearly the arrangement of the lower delta and barrier portion of
the Allegheny model as explained by Ferm and Weisenfluh, 1988. Deposits
seaward of these barrier sandstones are open water marine shales.

82
4.2.3. The Fluvial-deltaic system (Four Corners Formation)

The Four Corners Formation in Broad bottom is comprised of eight stratigraphic
units, ranging from the Magoffin transgression (unit 14 in this study) at the bottom
to unit 21 at the top. The descriptions and interpretations that follow are based on
the thickness maps and pie-charts for the stratigraphic units that were prepared
in Petrel to serve this purpose.

4.2.3.1. The Magoffin Member Unit/Zone 14 (HML B HDX A)

Zone description

This zone thickens basinwards from 50 ft in the northwest to about 90 ft in the
southeast (Figures 4.5, 4.6, and 4.23). There is a predominance of two lithofacies
(shales and heterolithics) with sandstones occupying the middle intervals of the
vertical logs in most parts of the zone. Considering the vertical stacking
sequence, the unit begins with shale lithofacies at the bottom, followed by
heterolithics, sandstones, and shales, in that order, and terminating with thin and
discontinuous coals and conglomerates at some locations of erosion surfaces by
fluvial channels. The map shows two high energy zones in the southeast and
northwest, separated by a relatively low energy region in between and oriented
diagonally in the southwest-northeast direction. There two thick lobes of
sediments in the south are inclined in the northwest direction. The cross-sections
constructed in this unit reveal that the top of the Magoffin unit is commonly
incised by thick multistory, multilateral, braided channel complexes (e.g. along
well BRDBTTM004, in the dip section, Figure 4.5 and along wells BRDBTTM028
and 004, in the strike section, Figure 4.6) by the succeeding unit above. Also to
be observed from the logs is the overall gradual grain-size coarsening upward
trends. The coal bed (HDX A) at the top of this unit has been eroded in several
locations by the sandstones of the overlying unit (15). A synclinal structure with a
NE-SW trend axis is observed in the middle of the dip-section. The section also
reveals that the proportion of shales in this unit increases in the NW direction
from the syncline, while SE of the syncline is predominately heterolithic.

Zone interpretation

This zone records a period of marine inundation in the foreland basin as it
subsided beneath the load of an advancing thrust sheet complex in the
southeast. The predominance of the condensed phase and heterolithics in the
middle region is an indication a relatively low energy setting (possibly a tidally-
influenced deposition environment, protected from storms and waves). This
region, however, was probably not stable enough for thick coals to be generated.
The predominance of sandstones further northwest could probably be due to
sediment reworking by the strong sea currents and waves during transgression.
The shales and heterolithics at the bottom of the unit could be interpreted as

83
basin and prodelta facies. The shales are marine deposits due the transgression
at the base of the Magoffin Member. The unit coarsens upward into a distal
mouthbar deposit. The middle sandstones observed in the logs are possibly
mouth bar sands but, could also be the distributary channel facies, popularly
known as Magoffin feeder channels. The two thick tongues of sediments
observed in the south could be delta lobes prograding in the northwest direction.
Considering the distribution of depositional energy in the area, the unknown
facies in wells BRDBTTM072 and 029 are possibly mouthbar sandstones, as
both wells seem to be located in high energy areas.
The deposition of the HDX A coals on top of the marine Magoffin Member is
interpreted as a basinward shift of the delta plain, implying overall progradation
from the base of Magoffin until the top of this coal bed.

84
A
A
D
C

Fig. 4.23. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone HML B-HDX
A

85
4.2.3.2. Zone 15 (HDX A HZD A)

Zone description

A broad area of the field stretching from the southwest, through the southeast to
the northeast is mainly composed of conglomerate and sandstone lithofacies.
The northwest is mainly occupied by heterolithics and the middle region by
shales and split coals. The unit has an erosive base with the sandstones and
conglomerates locally cutting down deep into the underlying coals and Magoffin
Member facies. The unit is shows a foreland basin geometry. It is thickest (~ 50
ft) in the southeast and thinnest in the northwest, furthest from the thrust-front
(Figure 4.24). The unit shows overall grain-size coarsening downward trends.
The strike-section shows the unit to be uniformly thick with heterolithic deposits in
centre, sandstones and conglomerates to the southwest and northeast. However,
the sandstones and conglomerates in the northwest are deposited in a sheet like
layering style (Figure 4.6). The dip-section shows a tight fold structure in the
middle region with shales predominately deposited in the synclinal axis and
sandstones on the anticline flank/limb to the northwest. The conglomerates are
observed to the southeast of the syncline deposited further away from the axis of
the stressed region. The unit thins out on both limbs of the syncline, with the SE
limb being the thinnest.

Zone interpretation

The widespread sandstones and conglomerates (belonging to distributary
channel facies) are erossively based and cut down deeply into the underlying
units. This incising behaviour is thought to be as a result of the widespread
lowering of the base level. The unit shows a mixed marine and fluvial deposition
environments (i.e. wave/storm dominated in the northwest and fluvial in the
southeast).The presence of condensed phases including thick coals and shales
in the middle regions indicates a stable and low energy region protected from the
waves/storm from the north and the strongly incising fluvial currents from the
south. This allowed a significant amount coals to generate. The high proportion
of shales in this region implies it was tidally influenced.

86
A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.24. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone HDX A-HZD
A

87
4.2.3.3. Zone 16 (HZD A HZ7 B)

Zone description

The unit has a similar geometric shape to the preceding unit (15) with the same
thickness (~ 20 ft) in the centre and east but much thicker (~ 80 ft in the SE and ~
50 ft in the NW) in all other directions (Figure 4.25). Deposition energy and
sediment thickness, are distributed in a similar way as in unit 15 with the
exception that the central region has more shales and coals than there is in unit
15. The unit has little conglomerates but more sandstone (blocky logs) than unit
15. The dip-section shows the unit has been eroded in some locations to the SE
of the synclinal structure by the basal conglomerates of the overlying unit 17
(Figure 4.5). The section further shows the tendency for the grain-size, and
therefore depositional energy to increase in both directions away from the
synclinal axis. The strike-section, however, shows a uniform thickness of the unit
(~ 65 ft) with basal conglomerates in the SW and an erosive top in the NE (Figure
4.6). The unit shows overall grain-size thinning upward trends.

Zone interpretation

The blocky nature for the logs in the SW, SE and NE could imply a prograding
fluvial system of braided streams that flowed in the northwest direction and
gradually lost their energy in the central region, just before the flanks of the
synclinal structure. The region around the synclinal structure shows a mixed
marine (tidal) and fluvial environment which allowed the deposition of the
suspended fine sediments and generation of coals. The sandstones deposits in
the NW are estuarine facies interpreted as reworked mouthbar deposits. These
estuarine facies were overlain by shales (here referred to marine or basin facies)

88
A
C
D
B

Fig. 4.25. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone HZD A-HZ7 B

89
4.2.3.4. Zone 17 (HZ7 B PCH A)

Zone description

In the middle of this zone is a thick round body of sediments composed
predominantly of blocky sandstones and some heterolithics sandwiched in coals
above and below the sequence and laterally surrounded by deposits of
condensed phases and heterolithics. Thick coals occur almost everywhere in the
zone deposited on top of the sequence.

Zone interpretation

The middle section of the zone is probably a point of emergence where two
strongly eroding systems (estuarine and fluvial) approached one another from
opposite directions, blending and reworking their sediment loads. This interaction
could possibly only allow deposition of sandstones and heterolithics in the high
energy environment that prevailed at the time and the fine facies laterally
increased further away from the centre where the environment was relatively
calm. At the peak of the transgressive period (possibly a break or end of sea-
level rise) the overall environment became stable allowing the fine sediments still
in suspension to precipitate out of the shallow fresh/saline water mixture. This in
turn gave rise to the creation of huge swamps, hence the generation of thick
coals observed on top of the sequence. The situation in the middle region of this
zone is comparable to what Ferm and Weisenfluh (1988), in their Allegheny
model, described as mouthbar sands between the Upper and Lower Delta plains.

90
A
D
C
B

Fig. 4.26. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone HZ7 B-PCH A

91
4.2.3.5. Zone 18 (PCH A PCH I)

Zone description

The opposite situation as regard to thickness is to be observed here compared to
the previous zone. The previous fluvial and estuarine erosive surfaces to the east
and west of the region have been backfilled by loads of fine sediments and now
appear to be thicker than the midfield area. There are more shaly facies in the
middle than sandstones. There seems to be a weaker fluvial stream flowing
through the middle region from the south towards the north. The proportion of
sandstone and heterolithics are observed to increase or decrease laterally in
opposing directions, whereas the former decreases northwards and the latter
southwards. Like in the previous zone a considerable proportion of coal exists,
thick at the bottom and relatively thin and discontinuous at the top of the
sequence.

Zone interpretation

This seems to have been rejuvenation of the transgressive period (sea-level
continued to rise) but with a change in flow directions for both the fluvial and
estuarine systems. The estuarine flowed in from the north towards the south and
the fluvial from the south towards the north. Both systems are observed to have
laterally and continually lost energy in their flow direction as indicated by the
decreasing amounts of sand and increasing heterolithic components in the
northern direction. The conditions still favoured the generation of coals but were
less stable than in the previous sequence.

92
A
C
B
D

Fig. 4.27. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone PCH A-PCH I

93
4.2.3.6. Zone 19 (PCH I PCH B)

Zone description

The zone is more-or-less homogeneous in thickness (~ 45 40 ft). Well logs in
the south exhibit a blocky trend and are predominantly composed of sandstones.
Borehole core logs for wells located in the northwest show a coarsening-upwards
trend and begin the sequence with thin coals at the bottom and end with
limestones at the top, as seen from the log for well BRDBTTM033. Midfield the
sediments show a coarsening-upwards trend, with coals at the bottom and top of
the sequence. Shales and heterolithics are proportionately higher than
sandstones.

Zone interpretation

This zone can be divided into three depositional environments, i.e. a purely fluvial
environment in the south, a mixed marine/fluvial environment in the middle, and a
purely shallow marine environment in the north. The fluvial environment in the
south is energetically high with braided steams flowing in from the south (as
indicated by the blocky well-log with sandstones only) and prograding northwards
into the deltaic system, midfield. The depositional environment seems to have
been relatively stable midfield and northwards as indicated by the presence of
high proportions of the condensed phase, the thick coals, and the limestones in
well logs. These logs also show a coarsening-upwards trend that is typical of
sediment logs in a lower delta plain. The presence of Ironstone nodules logged in
well BRDBTTM015 implies the logged sandstones midfields are mouth-bar
sandstones. This interpretation is also in agreement with the Allegheny model of
Ferm and Weisenfluh (1988), which explains the situation where the sandstones
are found capped by ironstone or limestone. In such a depositional environment
it is urged that the water depth remained relatively deep and never attained a
sufficiently shallow level to allow plants to take root and peat accumulation to
begin. Instead marine and freshwater faunas can occupy the abandoned
platforms, and in cases where sediment supply is sufficiently low carbonates will
be precipitated (Ferm and Weisenfluh, 1988).

94
A
B
D
C

Fig. 4.28. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone PCH I-PCH B

95
4.2.3.7. Zone 20 (PCH B - BRS A)

Zone description

The depositional process in this unit seems to have been retrogradational, i.e.
the deposited sediments were supplied by sea waves and storms. The zone is
thickest in the northwest (~ 100 ft) and thinnest in the southeast (~ 30 ft). The
high energy sediment facies increase in the northeast direction, while the coals
and shales increase in the reverse direction. Heterolithics and shales were
deposited in equal and relatively significant proportions around the core of the
syncline structure midfield.

Zone interpretation

The high energy sands in the northwest could possibly be a result of reworked
sediments by sea waves and storm currents, forming a highstand system tract.
The environment became relatively calmer toward the southeast, possibly
influenced with tides, allowing the development of peat and precipitation of
shales. The generation of coals also suggests there was some minimal fluvial
influence from the southeast that created a mixed shallow saline/fresh water
environment required for the generation of peat.

96
C
A
B
D

Fig. 4.29. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone PCH B-BRS
A

97
4.2.3.8. Zone 21 (BRS A - BRS B)

Zone description

The zone is predominantly composed of sandstone facies, which gradationally
decreases in the northwest direction after the anticline structure midfield, being
steadily replaced by the shale facies. Well HRLD033, in the extreme northwest
shows a predominance of shale deposits (Figures 4.5 and 4.30). The zone is
thickest (~70 ft) in the southeast and thinnest (~ 40 ft) in the southwest. Well logs
are primarily blocky in shape. Coals are thickest midfield around the anticline and
tend to be thin and discontinuous toward the northern. In the dip-section, the
stratigraphy shows a tight synclinal structure in the middle of this zone, flanked
with relatively broad anticlines in the southeast and northwest directions. Along
this section the unit shows a significant inclination or slope in the NW (Figure
4.5a). The strike cross-section, however, the unit shows a broad and gentle
dome/anticline structure gently dipping toward the NE (Figure 4.6a). Along this
section the zone gradually thickens toward the NE.

Zone interpretation

The syncline and anticline structures midfield influenced the distribution of
depositional energy in the area. The depositional environment to the right of the
syncline is entirely continental with fluvial sandstone deposits by braided streams
that prograded from the southeast. The depositional environment to the left of the
syncline is mixed fluvial and marine. After the peak of the anticline the fluvial
streams seem to have lost the power to transport the high energy sediments on
meeting marine tides and started to precipitate the condensed phases (Figure
4.5a). The existence of coals around the anticline region is an indication of a
reduction in the rate of sedimentation that caused a stable climate suitable for the
development of peat. The lateral decrease in the proportion of the logged
sandstones and increase in the condensed facies after the anticline implies a
continuous attenuation of stream energy in the direction of progradation towards
the sea.

98
B
A
D
C

Fig. 4.30. Composite of thickness map and lithofacies pie-charts for the zone BRS A-BRS
B

99
5.0. DISCUSSION
5.1. Evolution of the delta in the quadrangle Broad bottom and
its Implications for Reservoir geology and Petroleum geology
The mapped stratigraphic interval in Broad bottom clearly illustrates the three
broad divisions of the Upper Breathitt Group in this part of the foreland basin.
The evolution of the delta will be explained using the stratigraphic framework of
the deposited lithofacies logged vertically along well BRDBTTM004 (Fig.5.1),
which almost wholly penetrates the entire thickness of the Breathitt Group.

The lowest division (the Pikeville Formation, units 0 to 5, Figures 4.5b, 4.6b, and
5.1a) was deposited during the lower half of the Westphalian B (~ 315 to ~ 312.6
Ma). It is comprised of 6 predominantly transgressive zones with a maximum
preserved thickness of about 405 ft in the southeast and 395 ft in the northwest,
as calculated between the stratal surfaces BLR B and UE3 B (Figures 5.1a, 10.1
and 10.7). The interval is predominantly marine and maintains a constant
thickness in the area of Broad bottom. Deposition most probably took place
under conditions of an overall sea-level rise, initially yielding a series of cyclic
parasequence deposits of Transgressive System Tracts (TST) predominantly
stacked with transgressive deposits of shallow marine bay-fill (shales and
heterolithics), with minor estuarine sandstones in units 0, 1, and 2. The upper
units of this interval (units 3, 4 and 5) show an increase of fluvial influence in an
environment that was predominantly marine, as seen from the increasing
frequency and thickness of the coal seams and sandstone facies. This indicates
an oscillating sea level that caused alternations in the deposit of fluvial
sandstones by meandering streams from land and marine shales due to sea
tides, forming a series of prograding High System Tracts (HST) and ultimately
depositing, in some localities, conglomerates in the Falling Stage System Tact
(FSST), see Figure 5.1a. The deposits in the lower part of this interval may imply
the basin was underfilled possibly due to thrust loading in the southeast that
caused the basin to deepen faster than the rate of sedimentation. The thick
widespread coals in the upper parts of this interval imply periods of sediment
starvation; with ever-wet paleoclimates (Figure 4.6b, units 3, 4 and 5; and
Figures 4.12, 4.14 and 5.1a).
In terms of reservoir characterization, the predominantly marginal marine
environment of this division acted as host and preserved a large diversity of
organic matter. The dip-section (see Figure 4.5b) shows deposition in the lower
proximal end of this interval to have been tidally influenced, while deposition in
the distal end was dominantly influenced by storms and waves. Consequently the
interval has thin, but laterally continuous reservoir sandstone facies deposited in
the northwest and predominantly non-reservoir facies of shales and thick coals in
the southeast. The great depth of burial of this interval ensured the optimal
temperatures required to convert the fossilized organic matter into liquid
hydrocarbons and coals of high quality. The interval may thus provide a suitable
source rock for the generation of hydrocarbons. The stratas have a very low
gradient and are slightly deflected in the middle to imply a small and therefore

100
negligible tectonic (structural) influence, which possibly happened long after the
deposition and compaction of the interval and has no impact on fluid dynamics in
this interval.

Fig. 5.1. (a) Vertical log (along well BRDBTTM004) illustrating the Sequence Stratigraphic
framework of the Pikeville Formation (the lowermost interval of the Breathitt Group) in the
lower coastal plains of the central areas of Broad bottom. Note the predominance of the
transgressive marine deposits in the lower parts and the alternating marine and fluvial
deposits in the upper parts of the interval. Arrows point in the direction of decreasing
grain size, the numbers to the left of the logs (not in bold) are stratigraphic elevations
above mean sea level. The numbers written in bold are the individual stratal zones. The
sequence stratigraphic abbreviations TST = Transgressive System Tract, HST = Highstand
System Tract, FSST = Falling Stage System Tract, LST = Lowstand System Tract, SB =
Sequence Boundary and FS = Flooding Surface. The abbreviations to the extreme right of
the logs are names of the correlatable extensive coal seams (see Table 3.2). Refer to the
color chart in Figure 4.4 for the identity of the lithofacies in the logs.

101
The middle division (the Hyden Formation, units 6 to 13, see Figures 5.1b, 4.5
and 4.6) was deposited during the second half of Westphalian B (~ 312.6 to ~
309.4 Ma), under oscillating conditions of sea level giving rise to alternating
marine and sandstone deposits. The pronounced sandstones are probably
forced regression sequences with coarse grained sediments deposited during
periods of sea level fall and sandwiched between marine shales, which were
deposited during periods of seal-level rise. The thick laterally interconnected
sands of units 7, 8, 10 and 11 were either deposited as a result of the
transgressing sea waves/storms reworking and incising unconformities from the
forebulge arch in the northwest or by rapidly flowing braided streams prograding
from the thrust fronts in the southeast during lowstand. These sandstones are
relatively thick, laterally extensively and contain in several locations large bodies
of conglomerates (Figures 4.5 and 4.6). They hence qualify to be high quality
reservoirs, although the extensive transgressive deposits of shales between
them may act as barriers to vertical flow of hydrocarbons.

Fig. 5.1. (b) Vertical log (along well BRDBTTM004) through the Upper Coastal plain system,
the Hyden Formation, Note the high frequency of alternating sandstones and marine
facies. The facies in unit 7 was labeled unknown in the drillers log, but has been
interpreted as a sandstone facies in this study (see Figure 4.5b and 4.6b).

102
The uppermost division of the Breathitt Group in Broad bottom (also called the
Four Corners Formation) including units 14 to 21 was deposited during the
Westphalian C, between 306 to about 308.4 Ma (i.e. over a period of 2.4 million
years). The Four Corners Formation has a maximum preserved thickness of
approximately 420 ft in the southeast and 390 ft in the northwest. Tectonics and
subsidence seem to have played a major role in the deposition of this interval.
Initially, the high rate of overthrusting and subsidence in the southeast gave rise
to the transgressive deposits of the Magoffin, which is predominantly marine
(with shale and heterolithics lithofacies) at the base. This was followed by a
period of rapid transport and depositing of high frequency sequences composed
of conglomerates and homogenous immature sediments (due to a rapid drop in
base level) as the sea-level rapidly oscillated giving rise to huge amounts of
forced regressive deposits or incised valley-fills by fluvial braided streams (unit
15 and 16). The sea-level suddenly began to rise contemporaneously with a high
rate of subsidence causing widespread marine inundations and transgressive
deposits of shales and heterolithics (units 17 and 18). Subsequently rapid fluvial
sedimentation, eroded from the growing orogeny in the southeast, overwhelmed
the rate of subsidence causing the basin to overfill with immature sediments
(units 19 to 21, Figures 4.5a, 4.6a and 5.1c). The vertical log along the well
BRDBTTM004 shows alternations of thick fluvial sandstones, conglomerates,
shales and coals. However, as in the middle coastal interval, the shales and
coals may act as barriers to vertical flow. Unlike the middle interval, the
sandstones facies tend to be vertically and laterally stacked forming very
extensive and thick reservoir units in several places (Figure 4.6a). The synclinal
structure is more pronounced in the Four Corners Formation, with the stratal
units stretched thin along the limbs of the syncline. This implies that the tectonics
responsible for the formation of this structure is contemporaneous with the
deposition of the existing lithofacies, and the structure may have influenced the
distribution of the depositional energy in the area. It is clearly evident that the
tectonic energy of depression declined with depth, affecting the stratal units in
the Four Corners Formation most whilst hardly noticeable in the lower Pikeville
Formation (Figure 4.5).
The stratal gradients are also observed to increase vertically upward through the
stratigraphic column of the Breathitt Group, with the stratas of the Four Corners
Formation being the most inclined and those of the Pikeville Formation the least
inclined. All this evidence appears to confirm the revival of tectonic activity in the
area around the period of Westphalian C, the time when the Four Corners
Formation was being deposited. Renewed orogenesis lifted the foreland basin in
the southeast causing rapid erosion and sedimentation of coarse grained
material by fluvial braided streams toward the northwest.
The deposition of coarse grained clastic sediments by braided streams in the
Four Corners Formation implies that the reservoirs formed have increased
permeability to fluid flow. Furthermore, increased inclination of the reservoirs
causes increased free flow of fluids by gravity, which may lead to a significant
reduction in production costs in the early development phase. However, care

103
must be taken to avoid a rapid depletion of the reservoir or early water
breakthrough during production.

Fig. 5.1. (c). Vertical log (Well BRDBTTM004) through the Four Corners Formation in the
quadrangle Broad bottom. Note the alternating nature of marine and fluvial deposits. In
this system marine units include: units 14 (the Magoffin), 17, 18, and the Stone Fork Shale
Member above surface BRS B. Units 15, 16 and 17 contain conglomerates, an indication of
rapid transport of fluvial sediments at a lowered base level and uplift of the mountain
thrusts in the southeast by the tectonics.

104
The Delta evolution in Broad bottom can be summarized as follows: (1) a
stratigraphy divisible into two broad parts; a lower division (including the Hyden
and Pikeville Formation) which is overall retrogradational and was deposited
predominantly by Transgressive Systems Tracts (TST) during the age of
Westphalian B, and the upper part which is progradational/aggradational and
was predominantly deposited by Lowstand System Tracts (LST) during the age
of Westphalian C. (2) differential accommodation is demonstrated by the lateral
increase in thickness of the individual units from the basin margin (distal end)
toward the basin axis (proximal end). This is a strong indication that tectonics,
subsidence and eustasy were all responsible, although in different proportions,
for the creation and destruction of accommodation space in the foreland basin.
(3) The synclinal structure (oriented approximately NE-SW) influenced the
thickness of the deposited stratas in the upper formations of the Breathitt Group.
Stratal thickness changes appear more pronounced across the axis of the
syncline, with the units tending to thin onto the flanks of this structure. This effect
is more pronounced in the fluvial/upper parts of the stratigraphic column, the
Four Corners Formation (Figure 4.5), where the tectonic movements had the
greatest impact during the Atokan orogeny.
(4) Tidal and estuarine facies are widespread in the lower half of the stratigraphy,
while the upper half is mainly dominated by coarse grained fluvial sandstone
facies.
5.2. Reservoir characteristics

The reservoir properties for the various lithofacies have been discussed in terms
of the following aspects: (1) geometry (including thickness and lateral extent); (2)
orientation (within the basin); (3) internal architecture; and (4) lateral and vertical
heterogeneity. However, reservoir quality was not adequately covered, owing to
a general lack of porosity and permeability data.
Results of the facies analysis along the Breathitt Group stratigraphic column in
Broad bottom show there is a considerable decline in reservoir quality with depth.
The lowest division can only be categorized as a source zone, with hardly any
significant reservoir. The middle division can be both a source and a reservoir
zone for hydrocarbons. The reservoirs here are a result of wave reworking and
are separated by thin but extensive shales. The upper division offers reservoirs
of high quality. The thick sandstone bodies are laterally connected and vertically
amalgamated. The reasons for these hard conclusions have already been given
in the preceding section.
5.2.1. Flow barriers
Shales are known to form the most common types of flow barriers in clastic
reservoirs. However, as observed from the general stratigraphy, shale lithofacies
in Broad bottom vary in thickness and lateral extent.
In the coastal plain systems and the transgression members (zones 0 to 14) thick
and thin laterally continuous and discontinuous shales are commonly observed
within or between the stratigraphic units, enclosing the clean sandstone reservoir

105
bodies. These shales may constitute barriers to fluid flow, let alone forming
pressure seals between reservoirs. Discontinuous shales too may cause a
significant increase in the tortuosity of fluid flow paths. The situation is somehow
different in the fluvial system, where mostly thick and thin discontinuous shales
exist. Here the degree of connectivity or stacking between sandstone reservoir
units is so high that vertical and horizontal fluid flow may not be adversely
reduced.
Thick and laterally continuous coals may also form fluid flow barriers, mainly in a
vertical direction. In Broad bottom however, such coals are not commonly
observed between reservoirs. The thick coals in the fluvial system were eroded
by the incising coarse grained debris flow (the conglomerates) enabling perfect
vertical connectivity of sand bodies between succeeding stratigraphic units.
5.2.2. Sand body interconnectness (Reservoir communication)

Reservoir Internal communication, most often referred to as the plumbing system
of the reservoir, is a factor of critical importance in the production of hydrocarbon.
The sandstone units in the fluvial system show a high degree of connectivity both
laterally and vertically. The shales in this system are equally important in terms of
providing the sealing mechanisms for the accumulated hydrocarbons and helping
to keep the reservoir pressure constant during production. The transgressive
marine strata (unit 17), however, divides the fluvial system into two broad
reservoirs: (1) units 18 to 21 form the upper reservoir, whilst (2) units 15 and 16
form the lower reservoir. The lower reservoir is however punctured in several
locations along the strike with conglomerates, as incised valley fills. These are
areas of extremely high permeability and may turn out to be thief zones during
drilling and production. The upper fluvial reservoir is however the best one can
ever find in a foreland basin. The sandstone reservoirs here are thick, and able to
communicate in all directions. They are optimally inclined to enable production by
gravity drainage.
The upper coastal plain (units 7 to 13) has its sandstone bodies well connected
but separated in the vertical direction by laterally extensive shales. In this case a
regional fluid flow is only possible in the horizontal direction along the strata,
being hindered in the vertical direction by the shales. In this system too patches
of conglomerates exist, possibly deposited as forced regressions or slope
channel deposits. The sandstone reservoirs in this section have no vertical
communication but may nevertheless form deepwater reservoirs, which todate
are considered to be important targets for petroleum exploration.
The lower coastal plain is predominantly marine and composed of shales and
heterolithics. A good reservoir can hardly be obtained here, but the system, with
its great depth of burial and abundance of preserved organic matter, may provide
a high quality source for the generation of hydrocarbons.

106
6.0. CONCLUSIONS

Well correlations in the study area revealed the basin geometry to be typical of
foreland basins (i.e. thickest toward the thrust front and thinnest toward the
forebulge in the direction of the sea.

Based on the presence of extensive coal seams and marine transgressions in
Broad-bottom, 22 stratigraphic surfaces (sequences) were recognized and
correlated (using Petrel) in the constituent Pikeville, Hyden and Four Corners
Formations. Thickness maps between these surfaces have been constructed (in
Petrel) equipped with facies pie-charts at locations of boreholes that wholly
penetrate the individual units to facilitate the description and interpretation of the
distribution of depositional environments, facies associations and energies in
each stratigraphic unit. Facies architecture has been interpreted based on the
systematic variations in processes that occurred throughout each zone including
the evolution of depositional environments. This is because better predictions of
earth resources (petroleum reserves, coal resources, groundwater aquifers and
sedimentary mineral deposits) require an improved understanding on the
fundamental controls (accommodation space and the processes inherent to
depositional systems) on the stratigraphic architecture.

The use of composite maps of isochores and pie-charts for facies modeling
allows a better prediction of vertical and lateral geometrical dimensions and
distribution of reservoirs and non-reservoir bodies particularly in mature fields
with lots of data between production wells. The method represents one of the
new industrial contributions to the latest developments in stratigraphy toward
problem solving in reservoirs, using 3D computer graphics to display and analyse
geology. The facies pie-charts are practically reliable in determining locations for
infill wells in areas of unexploited reservoirs or bypassed oil in old fields, so as to
maximize production. In addition the method allows the determination of the
following: (1) direction of paleoflow in the depositional systems and (2) the lateral
distribution of physical energy in the depositional systems, which in turn allows
the various environments of deposition in the area of investigation to be
established.

The Breathitt Group in Eastern Kentucky is progrational, and can be divided into
three broad formation-systems: the Four Corners (fluvial-deltaic), the Hyden
(coastal plain) and the Pikeville (coastal/marginal marine). The three formations
are stratigraphically separated by marine transgression shale members including
the Betsie Shale Member at the base of the Pikeville Formation, the Kendrick
Shale Member, between the Hyden and Pikeville Formations, the Magoffin Shale
Member between the Hyden and Four Corners Formation, and the Stoney Fork
Member on top of the Four Corners Formation.

107
The pie charts clearly demonstrate that the Breathitt Group in the foreland basin
is characterized by two distinct styles of deposition: (1) the gradual decrease in
depositional energy in the coastal plain system toward the basin centre (i.e. in
the landward direction), signifies the predominance of deposition influenced by
sea storms/waves and tides, giving rise to an underfilled basin with transgressive
system tracts and shallow marine bay-fill deposition. This pattern is attributed to
thrust loading, which deepened the basin faster than the rate of sedimentation,
and (2) the broad and homogeneous spread of energy observed in the in the
fluvial system, however, with a slight tendency to decrease toward the distal end
(i.e. towards the sea). Such a wide lateral spread of energy can only be attained
by the high energy fluvial and meandering streams that sourced their sediment
loads directly from the thrust fronts in the southeast. The change from paralic
sedimentation in the Magoffin trough to sand-dominated alluvial plain deposition
was rapid, probably due rejuvenation (arrival) of the source terrane. Coarse
clastics were shed from the orogene faster than the subsiding foreland basin
could accommodate it, resulting in an overfilled basin, Tankard (1986).

Braided and coarse-grained meandering stream deposits with subordinate
amounts of paleovalley fills, bay-fill and splay deposits are mostly common in the
fluvial-deltaic system of the Four Corners Formation. The dip and strike cross-
sections show successions consisting of amalgamated fluvial sandstones,
interpreted to lie within incised valleys (units 15 and 16). Going up the
stratigraphic column the depositional environment becomes more influenced by
tides or marine transgressions with a considerably large proportion of shales and
heterolithics deposited, including a few isolated bodies of sandstones (units 17,
18, and 19). This is again followed by a succession of vertically stacked and
laterally extensive channel sandstones bodies (units 20 and 21). These changes
in deposition are mainly attributed to changes in relative sea level and tectonics.

The tectonic influence on the drainage pattern and distribution of sands in the
fluvial and upper coastal systems (the Four-Corners and Hyden Formations) is
further exhibited by the presence of a series of fold structural elements (small
anticlines and synclines) in the basin, which together with the shales may
influence the mechanisms of flow, sealing/trapping and accumulation of
hydrocarbons in the reservoir sandstone bodies.

Analysis of these series of fold structures in Broad bottom reveals tectonic
movements whose intensity gradually attenuated down the stratigraphic column,
from the top stratas of the Four Corners Formation through the base of the
Pikeville Formation. This observation confirms the remarks by Greb et al. (2002)
that the majority of movements in the Appalachian foreland basin are post-Middle
Pennsylvanian, most probably during the OuachitaAlleghenian Orogeny.

The Fluvial system offers better sandstone reservoirs (laterally and vertically
stacked sandstone bodies) than the coastal plain system, where laterally
extensive shales, sandwiching the sandstones, may act as barriers to fluid flow.

108
The reservoirs in the fluvial system are also optimally inclined to allow free fluid
flow by gravity drainage.

Conglomerates are widely spread in both the upper coastal plain system and in
the lower part of the fluvial system, possibly deposited as forced regressions and
incised channel fills during periods of lowstand. From the petrophysical point of
view these units are highly permeable and may act as thief zones during drilling
and production of hydrocarbons. However, careful facies analysis may provide
guidelines as to the positioning, spacing, and number of wells planned for the
production or to attain enhanced oil recovery (EOR).

Chesnut (1996) and Greb et al. (2002) estimated a duration 400 ka for the
deposition of each coal-clastic cycle, which is analogous to the long-earth
eccentricity cycle. Based on this assumption it can be concluded that the
mapped interval of the Breathitt Group in Broad bottom, ranging from the base of
the Pikeville Formation almost to the top of the fluvial system in the Four Corners
Formation, was deposited in approximately 10 Million years. These coal-clastic
cycles are therefore eustatically controlled fourth-order sequences grouped into
sequence sets to form third-order sequences.

The distribution of the extensive coal seams can be used as indicators of the
paleoclimate in this part of the Central Appalachian Foreland Basin. Generation
of such peats required an ever-wet climate to initiate doming and leaching that
gave rise to the production of good quality coals mined in Eastern Kentucky. The
ever-wet and warm climates dominated the early and Middle Pennsylvanian,
whereas, seasonally drier climates dominated the late Middle and Upper
Pennsylvanian (Eble and Grandy, 1990; Esterle, 1992; Greb et al., 2002).

109
7.0. RECOMMENDATIONS

This thesis tried to establish a facies model including the sequence stratigraphic
framework and facies architecture of the upper part of the Breathitt Group in
Eastern Kentucky (which is part of the Central Appalachian Foreland Basin),
primarily by correlating and interpreting laterally extensive coal seams and shale
lithofacies obtained chiefly from cored borehole data. The study should be able to
serve as a basis for further research on analysis of facies architecture and
sequence stratigraphy in other coal-bearing fluvial and marginal marine analogs
and subsurface reservoir deposits in foreland basins. More detailed work is
required on the distinction of tectonics versus eustatic controls and on regional
variations of the paleoclimate, based on field studies. The use of coal seams as
genetic stratigraphic sequence boundaries also requires further research to be
confirmed correct. Nevertheless, thick laterally extensive coal seams are
considered generally to be a good sensitive indicator of a high accommodation
potential, which occurs during marine transgression at the time of maximum
flooding (Aitken, 1995).
From a hydrocarbon exploration and production point of view, very deep wells
penetrating the entire thickness of the Breathitt Group should only be drilled for
exploration purpose during the appraisal phase and not for production. The
deeper parts of the Breathitt Group, particularly the lower coastal plain (e.g. units
0 to 6), has been observed predominantly to be marine with lithofacies deposited
under the influence of tides, waves and storm actions with little fluvial interaction.
However, since this system is at a great depth and rich in organic matter it should
therefore serve a perfect source region for the generation of hydrocarbons.

The upper coastal plain, however, consists of thick clean laterally connected
sandstone bodies encased in thin continuous shale layers. There is no vertical
communication between the sandbodies due to the sealing action of the shales.
Drilling vertical wells for production purpose from this region can be quite costly,
as production casings have to be perforated in several reservoir sections. The
solution to this problem could be to drill a few vertical wells from which several
side tracking horizontal wells can be drilled through each reservoir unit for
several kilometers in the dip direction.

There are several conglomerates or very coarse grained sediment bodies
observed in the upper coastal plain. These are local sources of highly permeable
zones to fluid flow and may be considered thief zones when directly drilled
through and produced from them. This may lead to a rapid depletion of the
reservoir causing an early water breakthrough and abandonment. A good
analysis of the facies architecture and distribution should serve as a guide for the
reservoir engineers to avoid making perforations in the production casing at the
locations of such bodies. To maintain pressure in the reservoirs by water
flooding, these thief zones should be shut off for the injection to reach the target
reservoirs. When left unsealed, the thief zones will take most of the injected
water, causing it to be rapidly swept out of the reservoir, leading to an early water

110
breakthrough at the production well. This will reduce the driving force needed to
push most of the oil out of the reservoirs. Another disastrous effect of such thief
zones is that they may cause huge losses of drilling mud if left unsealed during
drilling. It is therefore essential that such zones are detected during the
exploration phase and sealed off with a liner or plugged with special cements or
fibrous clogging agents before drilling can resume.

It has been observed that the fluvial-deltaic system consists of two parts: (1) the
reservoir sandstone zones in the lower part of the system (units 15 and 16), next
to the Magoffin transgression which are characteristically similar to those in the
upper coastal plain, and have several very coarse grained sediment bodies
(conglomerates). Here the conglomerates are even more laterally continuous
than they are in the upper coastal plain. They too may be considered thief zones
(excessively permeable) and direct production from their localities should be
avoided, and (2) the upper part of the fluvial system, separated from its lower
counterpart by a marine transgression zone (unit 17), is however
characteristically different. In this part of the system the reservoir facies are both
laterally and vertically connected, forming very thick and laterally extensive
reservoirs which can be effectively produced by vertical or inclined wells.

111
8.0. REFERENCES

Aitken, J.F. (1995) Utility of Coal Seams as Genetic Stratigraphic
Sequence Boundaries in Nonmarine Basins: An Example
from the Gunnedah Basin, Australia: Discussion. AAPG
Bulletin, vol. 79, No. 8, 11791181.
Aitken, J.F. and Flint, S.S. (1996) Variable expressions of interfluvial
sequence boundaries in the Breathitt Group (Pennsylvanian),
eastern Kentucky, USA. From Howell, J.A. and Aitken, J.F.
(eds), High resolution sequence stratigraphy: innovations and
applications, Geological Society Special Publication 104, 193206.
Aitken, J.F., Howell, J.A. (1996) High resolution sequence
stratigraphy: innovations, applications and future prospects.
From Howell, J.A. and Aitken, J.F. (eds), High resolution
sequence stratigraphy: innovations and applications, Geological
Society Special Publications 104, 19.
Andrews, W.M. Jr., Hower, J.C., Hiett, J.K. (1994) Lithologic and
geochemical investigations of the Fire Clay coal bed,
southeastern Kentucky, in the vicinity of sandstone
washouts. International Journal of Coal Geology 26, 95115.
Brennington, J.B. (1996) Stratigraphic and biofacies patterns in the
Middle Pennsylvanian Magoffin Marine Unit in the
Appalachian Basin, U.S.A. International Journal of Coal Geology
31, 169193.
Buter, S.J., de Leeuw, C.S., The, R.D.L., and Verstralen, I.R.M.J. (1991)
Architecture of delta plain deposits in a sequence
stratigraphic framework: the Upper Carboniferous of Eastern
Kentucky. Field studies.
Chesnut, D.R (1996) Geologic framework for the coal-bearing
rocks of the Central Appalachian Basin. International Journal of
Coal Geology 31, 55-66.
Chesnut, D.R. (1980) The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian contact in
Eastern Kentucky. Kentucky Geological Survey.

112
Chesnut, D.R. (1979) Source of the volcanic ash deposit (Flint
Clay) in the Fire Clay Coal of the Appalachian Basin.
Kentucky Geological Survey, 145154.
DeCelles, P.G., and Giles, K.A. (1996) Foreland Basin Systems. Basin
Research 8, 105123.
Dorsch, J., Bambach, R.K., and Driese, S.G. (1994) Basin-rebound
origin for the Tuscarora unconformity in Southwestern
Virginia and its bearing on the nature of the Taconic
Orogeny. American Journal of Science, vol. 294, 237255.
Eble, C.F., and Hower, J.C. (1995) Palynologic, petrographic and
geochemical characteristics of the Manchester coal bed in
Eastern Kentucky. International Journal of Coal Geology 27, 249
278.
Eble, C.F., and Grady, W.C. (1990) Paleoecological interpretation of
a Middle Pennsylvanian coal bed in the central Appalachian
basin, U.S.A. International Journal of Coal Geology 16, 255 286.
Eble, C.F., Hower, J.C., and Andrews Jr., W.M. (1999) Compositional
variations in the Fire Clay Coal Bed of Eastern Kentucky:
Geochemistry, Petrography, Palynology, and Paleoecology.
Kentucky Geological Survey, series 11, Report of Investigations 14.
Einsele, G. (1992) Subsidence, chapter 8, 313320. In:
Sedimentary Basins, Evolution, Facies, and Sediment budget.
2
nd
edition, Springer Verlag 2000, 792 pp.
Ferm, J.C., Weisenfluh, G.A. (1989) Evolution of some depositional
models in Late Carboniferous rocks of the Appalachian coal
fields. International Journal of Coal Geology 12, 259 292.
Filer, J.K. (2003) Stratigraphic evidence for a Late Devonian
possible back-bulge basin in the Appalachian basin, United
States. Basin Research 15, 417429.
Greb, S.F., Eble, C.F and Chesnut Jr., D.R. (2002) Comparison of the
Eastern and Western Kentucky coal fields (Pennsylvanian),
USAwhy are coal distribution patterns and sulfur contents
so different in these coal fields? International Journal of Coal
Geology 50, 89118.

113
Greb, S.F., Eble, C.F., J.C. Hower, J.C. (1999) Depositional history of
the Fire Clay Coal bed (Late Duckmantian), Eastern
Kentucky, USA. International Journal of Coal Geology 40, 225280.
Greb, S.F., Eble, C.F., J.C. Hower, J.C., W.M. Andrews, W.M. (2002)
Multiple-bench architecture and interpretations of original
mire phasesExamples from the Middle Pennsylvanian of
the Central Appalachian Basin, USA. International Journal of
Coal Geology 49, 147 175.
Greb, S.F., Weisenfluh, G.A. (1996) Paleoslumps in coal-bearing
strata of the Breathitt Group (Pennsylvanian), Eastern
Kentucky Coal Field, U.S.A. International Journal of Coal Geology
31, 115 134.
Greb, S.F., Hiett, J.K., Weisenfluh, G.A., Andrews, R.E., and Sergeant,
R.E. (1999) Geology of the Fire Clay Coal in parts the Eastern
Kentucky Coal Field. Kentucky Geological Survey, Series12. Report
of Investigations2.
Greb, S.F., Chesnut Jr., D.R., and Eble, C.F. (2004) Temporal changes
in coal-bearing depositional sequences (Lower to Middle
Pennsylvanian) of the central Appalachian Basin, U.S.A., in
J.C. Pashin and R.A. Gastaldo, eds., Sequence stratigraphy,
paleoclimate, and tectonics of coal-bearing strata: AAPG
Studies in Geology 51, 89120.
Greb, S.F., and Chesnut Jr., D.R. (1992) Transgressive channel
filling in the Breathitt Formation (Upper Carboniferous),
Eastern Kentucky Coal Field, USA. Sedimentary Geology, 75,
209221.
Greb, S.F., and Popp, J.T. (1999) Mining geology of the Pond Creek
seam, Pikeville Formation, Middle Pennsylvanian, in part of
the Eastern Kentucky Coal Field, USA. International Journal of
Coal Geology 41, 2550.

114
Haworth, R.T., Hipkin, R., Jacobi, R.D., Kane, M., Lefort, J.P., Max,
M.D., Miller, H.G., and Wolf, F. (1988) Geophysical framework
and the Appalachian-Caledonide connection. In: A.L. Harris,
and D.J. Fettes (eds), The Caledonian-Appalachian Orogen.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, vol. 38, 320.
Heckel, P.H., Gibling, M.R., King, N.R. (1998) Stratigraphic model
for Glacial-Eustatic Pennsylvanian Cyclothems in Highstand
nearshore detrital regimes. Journal of Geology, vol. 106, 373383.
Hower, J.C., and Pollock, J.D. (1989) Petrology of River Gem coal
bed, Whitley County, Kentucky. International Journal of Coal
Geology 11, 227 245.
Hower, J.C., Hiett, J.K., Wild, G.D., and Eble, C.F. (1994) Coal
Resources, Production, and Quality in the Eastern Kentucky
Coal Field: Perspectives on the Future of Steam Coal
Production. University of Kentucky, Centre for Applied Energy
Research.
Howell, P.D., and van der Pluijm, B.A. (1990) Early history of the
Michigan Basin: Subsidence and Appalachian tectonics.
Geology, vol. 18, 11951198.
Martino, R.L., and Sandrson, D.D. (1991) Fourier and
autocorrelation analysis of estuarine tidal rhythmites, Lower
Breathitt Formation (Pennsylvanian), Eastern Kentucky,
USA. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 63, No. 1, 105119.
Miall, A.D. (1991) Stratigraphic Sequences and their
Chronostratigraphic correlation. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology
vol. 61, No. 4, 497505.
Reed, J.S., Eriksson, K.A., and Kowalewski, M. (2005) Climatic,
depositional and burial controls on diagenesis of
Appalachian Carboniferous sandstones: qualitative and
quantitative methods. Sedimentary Geology, 176, 225246.
Shanley, K.W., and McCabe, P.J. (1994) Perspectives on the
Sequence Stratigraphy of Continental Strata. AAPG Bulletin,
vol. 78, No. 4, 544 568.

115
Tankard, A.J. (1986) Depositional response to Foreland
deformation in the Carboniferous of Eastern Kentucky. The
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, vol. 70, No. 7,
853868.
Ver Straeten, C.A., and Brett, C.E. (2000) Bulge Migration and
Pinnacle Reef Development, Devonian Appalachian
Foreland Basin. Journal of Geology, vol. 108, 339352.

116
9. Other relevant literatures
Amorosi, A., Centineo, M.C., Colalongo, M.L., Pasini, G., Sarti, G., and
Vaiani, S.C. (2003) Facies architecture and Latest Pleistocene-
Holocene Depositional History of the Po Delta (Comacchio
Area), Italy. Journal of Geology, vol. 111, 3956.
Anderson, W.H. (2008) Foundation Problems and Pyrite Oxidation
in the Chattanooga Shale, Estill County, Kentucky. Kentucky
Geological Survey, series 12. Report of Investigations 18.
Bartov, Y., Enzel, Y., Porat, N. and Stein, M. (2007) Evolution of the
Late PleistoceneHolocene Dead Sea Basin from Sequence
Stratigraphy of Fan Deltas and Lake-Level reconstruction.
Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol. 77, 680692.
Carey, D.I., Hounshell, T.D. (2008) Kentucky Terrain: Kentucky
Geological Survey, series 12. Map and Chart Series 187.
Carey, D.I., Hounshell, T.D., and Kiefer, J.D. (2008) Geologic Hazards
in Kentucky: Kentucky Geological Survey, series 12. Map and
Chart Series 185.
Carter, R.M., Fulthorpe, C.S., Naish, T.R. (1998) Sequence concepts
at seismic and outcrop scale: the distinction between physical
and conceptual stratigraphic surfaces. Sedimentary Geology 122,
165179.
Coueffe, R., Tessier, B., Gigot, P., and Beaudoin, B. (2004) Tidal
rhythmites as possible indicators of very rapid subsidence in
a Foreland Basin: An example from the Miocene marine
molasse formation of the Digne Foreland Basin, SE France.
Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol. 74, No. 6, 746759.
Darmadi, Y., Willis, B.J., and Dorobeki, S.L. (2007) Three-
Dimensional seismic architecture of fluvial sequences on the
low-gradient Sunda shelf, offshore Indonesia. Journal of
Sedimentary Research, vol. 77, 225238.
Davies, S.J., and Gibling, M.R. (2003) Architecture of coastal and
alluvial deposits in an extensional basin: the Carboniferous
Joggins Formation of eastern Canada. Sedimentology 50, 515
439.

117
Davis, Jr. R.A., Klay, J., and Jewell, P. (1993) Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy of tidal sand ridges southwest of Florida inner
shelf. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 63, No. 1, 91-104.
Di Celma, C., Ragaini, L., Cantalamessa, G. and Landini, W. (2005)
Basin physiography and tectonic influence on sequence
architecture and stacking pattern: Pleistocene succession of
the Canoa Basin (central Ecuador). Geological Society of America
Bulletin 117, 1226 1241.
Dickinson, W.R., and Gehrels, G.E. (2008) Sediment delivery to the
Cordilleran Foreland Basin: Insights from U-Pb ages of
detrital zircons in Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous strata of the
Colorado plateau. American Journal of Science, vol. 308, 10411082.
DiMichele, W.A., Eble, C.F., Chaney, D.S. (1996) A drowned lycopsid
forest above the Mahoning coal (Conemaugh Group, Upper
Pennsylvanian) in eastern Ohio, U.S.A. International Journal of
Coal Geology 31, 249 276.
DiMichele, W.A., Pfefferkorn, H.W., Gastaldo, R.A. (2001) Response
of Late Carboniferous and Early Permian plant communities
to climate change. Annual Review of Earth Planetary Sciences 29,
461487.
DiMichele, W.A., and Phillips, T.L. (1994) Paleobotanical and
paleoecological constraints on models of peat formation in
the Late Carboniferous of Euramerica. Paleogeography,
Paleoclimatology, Palaeoecology 106, 3990.
Donnelly, L.J. (2006) A review of coal mining induced fault
reactivation in Great Britain. Quarterly Journal of Engineering
Geology and Hydrogeology, vol. 39, 550.
Dott, Jr. R.H. (1988) Perspectives: Something old, something new,
something borrowed, something bluea hindsight and
foresight of sedimentary geology. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, vol. 58, No. 2, 358364.

118
Duke, W.L. (1990) Geostrophic circulation or shallow marine
turbidity currents? The dilemma of paleoflow patterns in
storm-influenced prograding shoreline systems. Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 60, No. 6, 870883.
Esterle, J.S., Ferm, J.C., and Ylu-Liong, T. (1989) A test for the
analogy of tropical domed deposits to dulling up sequences
in coal bedsPreliminary results. Organic Geochemistry, vol. 14,
No. 3, 333342.
Frederiksen, K.S., Clemmensen, L.B., and Lawaetzi, H.S. (1998)
Sequential architecture and cyclicity in Permian desert
deposits, Brodick Beds, Arran, Scotland. Journal of the
Geological Society, London, vol. 155, 677683.
Garcia-Castellanos, D., Fernandez, M. and Torne, M. (1997) Numerical
modeling of Foreland Basin formation: a program relating
thrusting, flexure, sediment geometry and lithosphere
rheology. Computers and Geosciences vol. 23, No. 9, 9931003.
Gardner, T.W. (1983) Paleohydrology and Paleomorphology of
a Carboniferous, meandering, fluvial sandstone. Journal of
Gibling, M.R. (2006) Width and thickness of fluvial channel
bodies and valley fills in the geological record: a literature
compilation and classification. Journal of Sedimentary Research,
vol. 76, 731770.
Greb, S.F., and Weisenfluh, G.A. (2000) Mining Geology of the
Lower Elkhorn Coal: Kentucky Geological Survey, series 12.
Map and Chart Series 4.
Habib, D., and Groth, P.K.H. (1967) Paleoecology of migrating
carboniferous peat environments. Paleogeography,
Paleoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3, 185195.
Helland-Hansen, W. and Martinsen, O.J. (1996) Shoreline trajectories
and sequences: Description of variable depositional-dip
scenarios. Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol. 66, No. 4, 670688.

119
Hower, J.C., Greb, S.F., Cobb, J.C., Williams, D.A. (2000) Discussion
on origin of vanadium in coals: parts of the Western
Kentucky (USA) No. 9 coal rich in vanadium. Journal of the
Geological Society, London, vol. 157, 12571259.
Jogensen, P.J., and Fielding, C.R. (1999) Debris-flow deposits in an
alluvial-plain succession: the Upper Triassic Callide Coal
measures of Queensland, Australia. Journal of Sedimentary
Research, vol. 69, No. 5, 10271040.
Keep, M. (2003) Physical modeling of deformation in the Tasman
Orogenic zone. Tectonophysics 375, 3747.
Kim, W., Paola, C., Voller, V.R., and Swenson, J.B. (2006)
Experimental measurement of the relative importance of
controls on shoreline migration. Journal of Sedimentary Research,
vol. 76, 270 283.
Kovac, M., Barath, I., Harzhauer, M., Hlavaty, I., and Hudackova, N.
(2004) Miocene depositional systems and sequence
stratigraphy of the Vienna Basin. Course Forschungs Institut
Senckenberg 246, 187212.
Kusznir, N., and Karner, G. (1985) Dependence of the flexural
rigidity of the continental lithosphere on the rheology and
temperature. Letters to Nature, vol. 316, 138142.
Laurin, J., Meyers, S.R., Sageman, B.B., and Waltham, D. (2005) Phase-
lagged amplitude modulation of hemipelagic cycles: A
potential tool for recognition and analysis of sea-level
change. Geology 33, No. 7, 569572.
Leckie, D.A. and Krystinik, L.F. (1989) Is there evidence for
geotrophic currents preserved in the sedimentary record of
inner to middleshelf deposits? Journal of sedimentary Petrology,
vol. 59, No. 5, 862870.
Lee, H.J., and Yoon, S.H. (1997) Development of stratigraphy and
sediment distribution in the Northeastern Yellow sea during
Holocene and sea-level rise. Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol.
67, No. 2, 341349.

120
Lee, K., McMechan, G.A., Gani, R., Bhattacharya, J.P., Zeng, X., and
Howell, Jr.C.D. (2007) 3-D architecture and sequence
stratigraphic evolution of a forced regressive toptruncated
mixed-influenced delta, Cretaceous wall creek sandstone,
Wyoming, U.S.A. Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol. 77, 303
323.
Lericolais, G., Berne, S., and Fenies, H. (2001) Seaward pinching out
and internal stratigraphy of the Gironde incised valley on the
shelf (Bay of Biscay). Marine Geology 175, 183197.
Libertin, M. and Bek, J. (2004) Huttonia spicata (Sternberg)
emend. and its spores, the Radnice Basin (Bolsovian),
Carboniferous continental basins of the Czech Republic.
Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 128, 247261.
Martinsen, O.J., Ryseth, A. Helland-Hansen, W., Flesche, H.,
Torkildsen, G. and Idil, S. (1999) Stratigraphic base level and
Fluvial architecture: Ericson Sandstone (Campanian), Rock
Springs Uplift, SW Wyoming, U.S.A. International Association of
Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 46, 235259.
Miller, D.J. (1998) Depositional Environments and Sequence
Stratigraphy of Upper Mississippian Strata in the Central
Appalachian Basin. PhD Dissertation in Geological Sciences, at
Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Miller, D.J., and Eriksson, K.A. (1997) Late Mississippian Prodeltaic
rhythmites in the Appalachian Basin: A hierarchical record
of tidal and climatic periodicities. Journal of Sedimentary
Research, vol. 67, No. 4, 653660.
Noad, J. (2004) The use of field analogues in the correlation and
static reservoir methodology used in the Tern Field, Northern
North Sea, UK. Marine and Petroleum Geology 21 485497.
Olsen, T., Steel, R., Hogseth, K., Skar, T., and Roe, S-L. (1995)
Sequential architecture in a fluvial succession: Sequence
stratigraphy in the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde group, Price
Canyon, Utah. Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol. B65, No. 2,
265280.

121
Petter, A.L., and Muto, T. (2008) Sustained alluvial aggradation and
autogenic detachment of the alluvial river from the shoreline
in response to steady fall of relative sea-level. Journal of
Sedimentary Research, vol. 78, 98111.
Phillips, T.L., (1979) Reproduction of heterosporous arborescent
lycopods in the MississippianPennsylvanian of
Euramerica. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 27, 239289.
Pierce, B.S., Stanton, R.W., and Eble, C.F. (1991) Facies development
in the Lower Freeport coal bed, west-central Pennsylvania,
U.S.A. International Journal of Coal Geology 18, 17 43.
Posamentier, H.W., and Weimer, P. (1993) Siliciclastic Sequence
Stratigraphy and Petroleum GeologyWhere to From Here?
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, vol. 77, No. 5,
731742.
Proust, J.N., Chuvashov, B.I., Vennin, E., and Boisseau, T. (1998)
Carbonate platform drowning in a Foreland setting: The Mid-
Carboniferous platform in Western Urals (Russia). Journal of
Sedimentary Research, vol. 68, No. 6, 11751188.
Raitala, J. (1987) Implications of lithospheric bending and
faulting in lunar mare-terra tectonics. Earth, Moon, and Planets
38, 137147.
Read, W.A. (1997) Syntactic simulation of 1-D Sedimentary
sequences in a coal-bearing succession using a stochastic
Context-free grammardiscussion. Journal of Sedimentary
Research, vol. 67, No. 6, 10971099.
Rodriguez, A.B., Fassell, M.L., and Anderson, J.B. (2001) Variations
in shoreface progradation and ravinement along the Texas
coast, Gulf of Mexico. Sedimentology 48, 837853.
Rodriguez, A.B., and Meyer, C.T. (2006) Sea-level variation during
the Holocene deduced from the morphologic and
stratigraphic evolution of Morgan Peninsula, Alabama,
U.S.A. Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol. 76, 257269.

122
Root, S., and Onasch, C.M. (1999) Structure and tectonic evolution
of the transitional region between the central Appalachian
foreland and interior cratonic basins. Tectonophysics 305, 205
223.
Runkel, A.C., Miller, J.F., McKay, R.M., Palmer, A.R., and Taylor, J.F.
(2007) High-resolution sequence stratigraphy of Lower
Paleozoic sheet sandstones in central North America: The
role of special conditions of cratonic interiors in development
of stratal architecture. Geological Society of America Bulletin 119,
860881.
Sakurai, R., Ito, M., Ueno, Y., Kitajima, K., and Maruyama, S. (2005)
Facies architecture and sequence-stratigraphic features of the
Turban Formation in the Pilbara Craton, northwestern
Australia; Implications for depositional environments of
oxygenic stromatolites during the Late Archean. Precambrian
Research 138, 255273.
Snedden, J.W., and Swift, D.J.P. (1991) Is there evidence for
geotrophic currents preserved in the sedimentary record of
inner- to middle-shelf deposits?Discussion. Journal of
Stevens, C.H., and Stone, P. (2005) Structure and regional
significance of the Late Permian(?) Sierra NevadaDeath
Valley thrust system, east-central California. Earth-Science
Reviews 73, 103113.
Storms, J.E.A., and Hampson, G.J. (2005) Mechanisms for forming
discontinuity surfaces within shorefaceshelf
parasequences: Sea-level, sediment supply, or wave regime?
Journal of Sedimentary Research, vol. 75, No. 1, 6781.
Storms, J.E.A., and Swift, D.J.P. (2003) Shallow-marine sequences as
the building blocks of stratigraphy: insights from numerical
modeling. Basin Research 15, 287303.

123
Thomas, R.G., Smith, D.G., Wood, J.M., Visser, J., Calverley-Range,
E.A. and Koster, E.H. (1987) Inclined heterolithic stratification
Terminology, description, interpretation, and significance.
Sedimentary Geology 53, 123-179.
Trincardi, F., Coerggiari, A. and Roveri, M. (1994) Late quaternary
transgressive erosion and deposition in a modern
epicontinental shelf: the Adriatic semi enclosed Basin. Geo-
Marine Letters 14, 4151.
Trincardi, F., and Field, M.E. (1991) Geometry, lateral variation,
and preservation of downlapping regressive shelf deposits:
Eastern Tyrrhenian Sea margin, Italy. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, vol. 61, No. 5, 775790.
Walker, R.G. (1990) Perspective Facies modeling and sequence
stratigraphy. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 60, No. 5, 777
786.
Weber, N., Chaumillon, E., Tesson, M., and Garlan, T. (2004)
Architecture and morphology of the outer segment of a
mixed tide and wave-dominated incised valley, revealed by
HR seismic reflection profiling: the paleo-Charente River,
France. Marine Geology 207, 1738.
Willett, S.D., and Beaumont, C. (1994) Subduction of Asian
lithospheric mantle beneath Tibet inferred from models of
continental collision. Letters to Nature, vol. 369, 642645.
Wilson, R.C.L. (1998) Sequence stratigraphy: a revolution without
a cause? In: Blundell, D.J. and Scott, A.C. (eds) Lyell: the
past is the key to the present. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 143, 303314.
Zecchin, M., Mellere, D., and Roda, C. (2006) Sequence stratigraphy
and architectural variability in growth fault-bounded basin
fills: a review of Plio-Pleistocene stratal units of the Crotone
Basin, southern Italy. Journal of Geological Society, vol. 163, 471
486.

124

10. APPENDICES

125

Fig. 10.1. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface BLR B and boreholes
that penetrate this surface.

126

Fig. 10.2. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface CLN B and boreholes

127

Fig. 10.3. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface LEK B and boreholes that
penetrate this surface.

128

Fig. 10.4. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface UE1 B and boreholes that

129

Fig. 10.5. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface UE2 A and boreholes that

130

Fig. 10.6. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface UE3 A and boreholes that

131

Fig. 10.7. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface UE3 B and boreholes that

132

Fig. 10.8. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface AMB A and boreholes

133

Fig. 10.9. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface AMB B and boreholes

134

Fig. 10.10. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface WHI A and boreholes

135

Fig. 10.11. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface WHI B and boreholes

136

Fig. 10.12. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface FCL B and boreholes

137

Fig. 10.13. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface FCR A and boreholes

138

Fig. 10.14. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface HML A and boreholes

139

Fig. 10.15. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface HML B and boreholes

140

Fig. 10.16. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface HDX A and boreholes

141

Fig. 10.17. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface HZD A and boreholes

142

Fig. 10.18. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface HZ7 B and boreholes

143

Fig. 10.19. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface PCH A and boreholes

144

Fig. 10.20. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface PCH I and boreholes

145

Fig. 10.21. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface PCH B and boreholes

146

Fig. 10.22. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface BRS A and boreholes

147

Fig. 10.23. (a) A composite of topographic map of surface BRS B and boreholes

148

Table 10.1. Raw data from the KGS, from which input data for creating well headers in Petrel (Table 10.2) was extracted. S.E = surface
elevation, D = total depth of the borehole and Y is its year of drilling.

Hole_ID utm17_83_N utm17_83_E Source County Quadrangle DDH_NUM S.E (ft) D (ft) Y drilled Upper_Bed Lower_Bed
BRDBTTM004 4159258.44 360789.68 USGS Pike Broad Bottom DDH-8 1625 1109.2 1962 Broas Lower Elkhorn
BRDBTTM005 4159575.37 359626.59 DIAMOND COAL Pike Broad Bottom 102 1380 678 1979 Hazard Upper Elkhorn No.2
BRDBTTM010 4157700.4 356869.6 BETH ELKHORN Floyd Broad Bottom BE-73-16 669.76 370 1973 Lower Elkhorn Eagle
BRDBTTM011 4156435.33 357239.64 BETH ELKHORN Pike Broad Bottom BE-73-17 1175.73 701 1973 Hamlin Lower Elkhorn
BRDBTTM012 4157915.4 357474.6 BETH ELKHORN Pike Broad Bottom BE-73-18 1190.05 471 1973 Hamlin Upper Elkhorn No.3
BRDBTTM013 4157830.32 357394.58 BETH ELKHORN Pike Broad Bottom BE-73-18A 1060.05 300 1973 Whitesburg Kendrick Shale
BRDBTTM014 4159310.42 357034.57 BETH ELKHORN Floyd Broad Bottom BE-73-19 700 315 1973 Upper Elkhorn No.1 Clintwood
BRDBTTM015 4161045.42 358214.58 BETH ELKHORN Pike Broad Bottom BE-73-20 1634.26 900 1973 Broas Kendrick Shale
BRDBTTM020 4158635.44 358404.6 BETH ELKHORN Pike Broad Bottom BE-78-3 754.95 501.65 1978 Upper Elkhorn No.3 Clintwood
BRDBTTM023 4161356.38 357885.6 BETH ELKHORN Floyd Broad Bottom BE-83-7 1530 407 1983 Broas Copland
BRDBTTM024 4160113.37 358936.61 BETH ELKHORN Pike Broad Bottom BE-83-6 1520 426 1983 Broas Magoffin Shale
BRDBTTM028 4156470.37 357959.63 BETH ELKHORN Pike Broad Bottom BE-83-2 1535 422 1983 Peach Orchard Fire Clay Rider
BRDBTTM029 4156290.37 357020.63 BETH ELKHORN Floyd Broad Bottom BE-83-1 1220 627 1983 Hamlin Lower Elkhorn
BRDBTTM072 4163797.47 359634.6 UNKNOWN Pike Broad Bottom DH-D-2 1125 750 0 Firecreek Lower Elkhorn
BRDBTTM073 4162952.42 361050.64 UNKNOWN Pike Broad Bottom DH-D-5 1220 645 0 Firecreek Upper Elkhorn No.2
BRDBTTM076 4161635.42 362110.64 UNKNOWN Pike Broad Bottom E-85-2 1350 730.33 1985 Hazard Upper Elkhorn No.2

149
Table 10.2. Well header data for all wells in Broad bottom used for input into Petrel. KB =
Kelly bushing, here used as surface elevation and TD = Total Depth of the borehole.

Well y x KB TD
BRDBTTM004 4159258.44 360789.68 1625.00 1109.2
BRDBTTM005 4159575.37 359626.59 1380.00 678
BRDBTTM010 4157700.40 356869.60 669.76 370
BRDBTTM011 4156435.33 357239.64 1175.73 701
BRDBTTM012 4157915.40 357474.60 1190.05 471
BRDBTTM013 4157830.32 357394.58 1060.05 300
BRDBTTM014 4159310.42 357034.57 700.00 315
BRDBTTM015 4161045.42 358214.58 1634.26 900
BRDBTTM020 4158635.44 358404.60 754.95 501.65
BRDBTTM023 4161356.38 357885.60 1530.00 407
BRDBTTM024 4160113.37 358936.61 1520.00 426
BRDBTTM028 4156470.37 357959.63 1535.00 422
BRDBTTM029 4156290.37 357020.63 1220.00 627
BRDBTTM072 4163797.47 359634.60 1125.00 750
BRDBTTM073 4162952.42 361050.64 1220.00 645
BRDBTTM076 4161635.42 362110.64 1350.00 730.33

150
Table 10.3. Litho-log data for well BRDBTTM004 obtained from KGS used as input data
into Petrel for the creation of FermFacies logs. FaciesCurves and Facies logs are derived
from the FermFacies logs.

Well LithCode Top depth Well LithCode Top depth
BRDBTTM004 543.5 0.00 BRDBTTM004 540 592.20
BRDBTTM004 134 13.10 BRDBTTM004 322 598.60
BRDBTTM004 21 45.90 BRDBTTM004 543.5 604.40
BRDBTTM004 107 47.40 BRDBTTM004 323 623.10
BRDBTTM004 544 48.40 BRDBTTM004 27 625.10
BRDBTTM004 324.3 108.50 BRDBTTM004 133 627.40
BRDBTTM004 27 110.90 BRDBTTM004 21 648.70
BRDBTTM004 123 114.30 BRDBTTM004 124 649.00
BRDBTTM004 323 115.90 BRDBTTM004 21 649.60
BRDBTTM004 543.5 118.40 BRDBTTM004 127 650.80
BRDBTTM004 124 140.30 BRDBTTM004 21 652.60
BRDBTTM004 21 146.30 BRDBTTM004 330 653.30
BRDBTTM004 127 147.00 BRDBTTM004 540 654.30
BRDBTTM004 21 149.90 BRDBTTM004 129 704.70
BRDBTTM004 125 153.30 BRDBTTM004 3 717.00
BRDBTTM004 541 153.60 BRDBTTM004 540 717.00
BRDBTTM004 123 163.10 BRDBTTM004 3 750.00
BRDBTTM004 27 163.80 BRDBTTM004 540 750.00
BRDBTTM004 127 165.50 BRDBTTM004 129 795.00
BRDBTTM004 546 169.00 BRDBTTM004 543 834.00
BRDBTTM004 332 169.50 BRDBTTM004 129 844.40
BRDBTTM004 543.6 171.70 BRDBTTM004 21 876.50
BRDBTTM004 125 181.20 BRDBTTM004 123 877.00
BRDBTTM004 29 190.10 BRDBTTM004 541 878.30
BRDBTTM004 124 192.40 BRDBTTM004 21 882.40
BRDBTTM004 27 228.40 BRDBTTM004 137 886.60
BRDBTTM004 123 234.70 BRDBTTM004 748 888.00
BRDBTTM004 125 236.00 BRDBTTM004 21 894.70
BRDBTTM004 748 254.20 BRDBTTM004 124 895.90
BRDBTTM004 28 257.90 BRDBTTM004 324.3 897.00
BRDBTTM004 137 258.60 BRDBTTM004 543 914.70
BRDBTTM004 540 260.90 BRDBTTM004 123 927.50
BRDBTTM004 21 318.80 BRDBTTM004 27 928.40
BRDBTTM004 307 319.95 BRDBTTM004 124 931.80
BRDBTTM004 21 322.50 BRDBTTM004 21 932.70
BRDBTTM004 749 322.90 BRDBTTM004 124 932.90
BRDBTTM004 324 346.80 BRDBTTM004 124 937.00
BRDBTTM004 748 348.30 BRDBTTM004 540 943.50
BRDBTTM004 326 357.70 BRDBTTM004 124 946.20
BRDBTTM004 323 371.70 BRDBTTM004 21 947.20
BRDBTTM004 129 400.20 BRDBTTM004 124 948.40
BRDBTTM004 329 401.80 BRDBTTM004 546 952.90
BRDBTTM004 137 432.60 BRDBTTM004 124 954.30
BRDBTTM004 323 435.70 BRDBTTM004 540 955.30
BRDBTTM004 540 460.10 BRDBTTM004 124 961.60
BRDBTTM004 324.3 489.40 BRDBTTM004 124 1024.40
BRDBTTM004 748 490.00 BRDBTTM004 540 1033.90
BRDBTTM004 748 490.70 BRDBTTM004 21 1039.90
BRDBTTM004 743 491.10 BRDBTTM004 123 1041.20
BRDBTTM004 323 495.20 BRDBTTM004 323 1042.50
BRDBTTM004 543 501.70 BRDBTTM004 124 1055.30
BRDBTTM004 123 504.90 BRDBTTM004 21 1056.40
BRDBTTM004 21 511.00 BRDBTTM004 124 1057.65
BRDBTTM004 137 511.15 BRDBTTM004 540 1058.80
BRDBTTM004 123 515.30 BRDBTTM004 324.3 1063.60
BRDBTTM004 137 520.10 BRDBTTM004 124 1065.60
BRDBTTM004 21 522.90 BRDBTTM004 21 1071.50
BRDBTTM004 125 523.05 BRDBTTM004 134 1071.65
BRDBTTM004 540 523.20 BRDBTTM004 540 1073.20
BRDBTTM004 322.5 586.30 BRDBTTM004 543 1079.60
BRDBTTM004 21 588.80 BRDBTTM004 322 1082.60
BRDBTTM004 127 591.00 BRDBTTM004 540 1090.10
BRDBTTM004 543 1095.20

151

Table 10.4. Codes used for labeling the various lithologies encountered in the subsurface
while drilling in the quadrangle Broad bottom.

LithCode Lithology
1 SURFACE
3 ZERO TAG
4 LOST CORE
5 OPEN MINE
12 GRY SH W/COAL STKS
18 SDY SH MUDFLOW
20 COAL
21 COMMON BANDED COAL
23 BONEY COAL
24 DULL COAL
27 COAL W/SH LAYERS
28 COAL W/SH STKS
29 COAL W/PYRITE STKS
32 COAL & BONE
33 BONE W/COAL STKS
34 BONE COAL
38 BONE & SH
70 PYRITE
103 SH W/COAL STKS
104 SHALE
107 CLAYSTONE
114 BLK SH
119 BLK SH W/FOS SHLS
123 GRY SH W/COAL STKS
124 DARK GRAY SHALE
125 DRK GRY CHRND SH
127 GRAY FIRECLAY
129 SH & BONE
133 LT GRY GRN SH W/COAL STKS
134 LT GRY GRN SH
137 LT GRY GRN FIRECLAY
302 SH & SS
307 SDY FIRECLAY
312 BLK SH+INTERBED SS
320 GRY SDY SH
322 DRK GRY SH+INTERBED SS
322.5 DRK GRY SH+INTERBED RIP SS
323 GRY SH W/SS STKS
324 SANDY SHALE
324.3 DRK GRY SDY SH W/COAL STKS
325 DRK GRY MASS CHRND SDY SH
326 DRK GRY CHRND SDY SH
327 DARK GRAY SANDY FIRECLAY
328 DRK GRY BURROWED SDY SH
329 DRK GRY SDY SH W/FOS SHLS
330 LT GRY GRN SDY SH
332 LT GRY GRN SH+INTERBED SS
503 SS W/SH STKS
510 GRY SS W/LS
540 SANDSTONE
541 GRY CROSSBED SS
543 GRY SS W/SH STRKS
543.5 GRY RIP SS W/SH STKS
543.6 GRY SS W/FLAT SH STKS
544 GRAY SANDSTONE
546 GRY CHRND SS
547 GRY ROOTED SS
548 GRY BURROWED SS
549 GRY SS W/FOS SHLS
550 XTLIZED SS
640 GRY CO3 CMNTD SS
741 GRY SH+/OR IRNSTN PEB CGL
742 GRY SH PEB CGL
743 GRY IRNSTN PEB CGL
748 GRAY SANDSTONE WITH COAL BANDS
749 GRAY SANDSTONE WITH COAL SPARS

152
Table 10.5. Coal-logs data for wells in Broad bottom obtained from KGS used as input data
into Petrel for the creation of comment logs.

Well Top MD Base MD Seam
BRDBTTM004 45.90 47.40 BRS B
BRDBTTM004 110.90 114.30 BRS A
BRDBTTM004 149.90 153.30 PCH B
BRDBTTM004 228.40 234.70 PCH A
BRDBTTM004 588.80 591.00 FCL B
BRDBTTM004 717.00 717.00 AMB B
BRDBTTM004 750.00 750.00 AMB A
BRDBTTM004 882.40 886.60 UE3 A
BRDBTTM004 928.40 931.80 UE2 A
BRDBTTM004 947.20 948.40 UE1 B
BRDBTTM004 1039.90 1041.20 LEK B
BRDBTTM005 328.50 330.90 FCL B
BRDBTTM005 452.90 452.90 AMB B
BRDBTTM005 507.90 507.90 AMB A
BRDBTTM005 619.70 623.20 UE3 A
BRDBTTM005 664.15 667.55 UE2 A
BRDBTTM010 101.00 102.25 LEK B
BRDBTTM011 94.59 98.44 FCL B
BRDBTTM011 252.44 253.44 AMB B
BRDBTTM011 301.52 301.52 AMB A
BRDBTTM011 397.86 403.34 UE3 A
BRDBTTM011 466.82 466.82 UE1 B
BRDBTTM011 459.42 466.82 UE2 A
BRDBTTM011 538.90 539.98 LEK B
BRDBTTM012 150.59 152.67 FCL B
BRDBTTM012 300.67 301.00 AMB B
BRDBTTM012 349.50 349.50 AMB A
BRDBTTM014 111.58 112.58 LEK B
BRDBTTM015 97.33 98.50 BRS B
BRDBTTM015 147.08 150.35 BRS A
BRDBTTM015 259.94 262.90 PCH B
BRDBTTM015 328.63 335.13 PCH A
BRDBTTM015 656.93 659.51 FCL B
BRDBTTM020 64.20 67.57 UE2 A
BRDBTTM020 75.42 76.62 UE1 B
BRDBTTM020 167.62 168.97 LEK B
BRDBTTM020 424.62 425.52 CLN B
BRDBTTM023 40.70 43.91 BRS A
BRDBTTM023 164.01 167.93 PCH B
BRDBTTM023 217.15 223.73 PCH A
BRDBTTM024 31.00 32.42 BRS B
BRDBTTM024 79.12 82.27 BRS A
BRDBTTM024 196.02 201.23 PCH B
BRDBTTM024 273.02 280.46 PCH A
BRDBTTM028 87.76 93.09 PCH A
BRDBTTM029 145.63 152.73 FCL B
BRDBTTM029 299.98 299.98 AMB B
BRDBTTM029 331.98 331.98 AMB A
BRDBTTM029 454.10 460.25 UE3 A
BRDBTTM029 526.90 526.90 UE1 B
BRDBTTM029 519.59 526.90 UE2 A
BRDBTTM029 596.48 597.65 LEK B
BRDBTTM072 187.40 189.50 FCL B
BRDBTTM072 444.54 446.09 UE3 A
BRDBTTM072 619.20 620.80 LEK B
BRDBTTM073 252.00 254.40 FCL B
BRDBTTM073 512.60 515.05 UE3 A
BRDBTTM074 73.33 77.29 UE3 A
BRDBTTM076 346.90 349.00 FCL B
BRDBTTM076 487.00 487.00 AMB B
BRDBTTM076 543.60 544.70 AMB A
BRDBTTM076 635.00 637.30 UE3 A

Reservoir Geology and Modelling of Carboniferous

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Reservoir Geology and Modelling of Carboniferous

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

AES/TG/09-29 Reservoir Geology and Modelling of Carboniferous

Coal-bearing marginal Marine and Fluvial Deposits

S-ar putea să vă placă și