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Introduction to GIS
(Basics, Data, Analysis)
&
Case Studies
13
th
May 2004
Content
Introduction to GIS
Data concepts
Data input
Analysis
Applications selected examples
What is GIS?
Geographic Information System (GIS) is
defined as an information system that is
used to
input, store, retrieve, manipulate,
analyze and output
geographically referenced data or
geospatial data, in order to support decision
making for planning and management of
land use, natural resources, environment,
transportation, urban facilities, health
services so on.
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What is GIS?
GIS is a set of tools that allow for the
processing of
spatial data into information.
This set of tools is open ended, but
will include data input, data storage,
data manipulation, and a reporting
system.
Other definition of GIS
A GIS is designed for the collection storage, and
analysis of objects and phenomena where geographic
location is an important characteristic or critical to the
analysis.
Computer tool for managing geographic feature
location data and data related to those features.
GIS is a tool for managing data about where
features are (geographic coordinate data) and what
they are like (attribute data), and for providing the
ability to query, manipulate, and analyze those
data.
Data
User/System
Software/Hardware
Combination of spatial
and attribute data allows
users to ask unique
spatial questions.
Users need to understand
both data and software in
order to create unique spatial
questions and maintain
spatial information produced.
Facilitates analysis by
providing a means to both
ask complex spatial questions
and store spatial data.
GIS
Characteristics of GISystem
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Planning & GIS
Interpretation of Real World in GIS Terms
Ex:Locate a New Bus Terminal
Villages
Roads
Land Parcels
Elevation
Real World
Break
Real World
Land Use
Questions to Answer
What is the need
Real World
How far the present users location
Where is the present location
Why the present need is
What will be the future
Where can we have a facility
All the above related to space or location
What will be the size
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Identify the two terminals/cities
Define the centerline based on topography
Identify possible routes
Compare with landuse
Land prices
Land usage restrictions
Land suitability
Integrate current routes
Integrate with rivers and streams
Rough cost evaluation
Identify the best route for detail study
Interpretation of Real World in GIS Terms
Ex:Plan for a New Road
Spatial data can be used to
answer these questions
We need to categorize the real world to
generalize reality so that we can make sense of
it. That is we need to do some sampling
collecting spatial data and we consider these
sample represent the whole study area under
investigation.
Topology
Geographic Information System & Data
Spatial Data Features that have a known location on earth.
Attribute Data The information linked to the geographic
features (spatial data) describing them
Data Layers Are the result of combining spatial and attribute
data. Essentially adding the attribute database
to the spatial location.
Layer Types A layer type refers to the way spatial and
attribute information are connected. There are
two major layer types, vector and raster.
How geographic features are related to one
another, and where they are in relation to one
another.
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Spatial Data
Spatial data in GIS represents features that have a
known location on the earth.
Points: X & Y Locations
Polygon: Connected X
& Y Locations making a
close figure.
Line: Connected X & Y
Locations
Raster: Row and
column matrix represent
geographic space.
Data types
Thedatamodel represents aset of guidelines to convert thereal world
(called entity) to thedigitally and logically represented spatial objects
consisting of theattributes and geometry.
Therearetwo major types of geometric datamodel
a. Vector Model
Vector model uses discretepoints, lines and/or areas corresponding to
discreteobjects with nameor codenumber of attributes.
b. Raster Model
Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specific sequence. An
element of thegrid cell is called apixel which contains asinglevalue
of attributes.
Vector Data Structures
The method of representing geographic features
by the basic graphical elements of points, lines
and polygon is said to be the vector method, or
vector data model
Vector data represent geographic space that is
intuitive and reminiscent of analog maps.
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Rasters
A raster is a tesselation of a surface.
(A tesselation is defined as the process to
cover a surface through the repeated use of
a single shape.)
What is a raster data?
a raster based systemstores data by using a grid of
cells
a unique reference coordinate represents each
pixel either at a corner or in the middle of the cell
each cell or pixel has discrete attributes assigned
to it
raster data resolution is dependent on the pixel or
grid size and may vary fromsub-meter to many
kilometers.
raster data stores different information in layers;
elevation, soil type, geology, forest type, rainfall
rate, etc.
generally, raster data requires less processing than
vector data, but it consumes more computer
storage space.
remote sensors on satellites store data in raster
format
digital terrain models (DTM) and digital elevation
models (DEM)
continuous data (FIELD) suit a raster structure
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Rasters
A raster can use any
reasonable geometric shape,
as long as it can be connected
in such a way as to create a
continuous surface.
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Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models
Raster Model
Advantage:
1. It is a simple data structure.
2. Overlay operations are
easily and efficiently implemented.
3.High spatial variability is efficiently
represented in raster format.
4.The raster format is more or less
required for efficient manipulation
and enhancement of digital images.
Advantage:
1. It provides a more compact data structure
than the raster model.
2. It provides efficiently encoding of
topology and as result more efficiently
implementation of operations that require
topological information, such as network
analysis.
3.The vector model is better suited to
supporting graphics that closely approximate
Hand-drawn maps.
Vector Model
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Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models
Raster Model
Disadvantage:
1.It is less compact therefore data
compression techniques can often
overcome this problem.
2.Topological relationships are more
difficult to represent.
3.The output of graphics is less
aesthetically pleasing because
boundaries tend to have a blocky
appearance rather than the smooth
lines of hand-drawn maps.
Disadvantage:
1.It is a more complex data structure.
2.Overlay operations are more difficult to
Implement.
3.The representation of high spatial
variability is inefficient.
4.Manipulation and enhancement of digital
images cannot be effectively done in vector
domain.
Vector Model
Attribute Data
Attribute data are the information linked to the
geographic features (spatial data) that describe
them. That is, attribute data are the [n]on-graphic
information associated with a point, line, or area
elements in a GIS.
Attributes
Labels affixed to data points, lines, or
polygons.
Used to describe the feature that you want to
map.
Can include text or numeric descriptors: i.e.
nominal, ordinal, or interval/ratio data types.
Must be careful in how the different data
types are integrated and used dangerous to
mix and match.
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Data Layers
Are the result of combining spatial and attribute data.
Essentially adding the attribute database to the spatial
location.
Raster: A row and column matrix (pixels) of X & Y space with
attribute information associated with each pixel is considered a
raster layer type.
Layer Types
A layer type refers to the way spatial and attribute
information are connected. There are two major layer
types, vector and raster.
Vector: Points, lines and polygons (spatial data) associated with
databases of attributes (attribute data) are considered vector
layer types.
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Topology
Topology is the way in which geographical elements
are linked together. Topology is how geographic
features are related to one another and where they
are in relation to one another.
Topology is the critical element that
distinguishes a GIS from a graphics or
automated cartography system. It is essential to
the ability of a GIS to employ spatial relationships.
Topology is what enables a GIS to emulate our human
ability to discern and manipulate geographic
relationships.
B C A D
Parcel B is surrounded by
Parcel A and Parcel C
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Data Projection and registration
Geographic projections and their parameters
(datums, geoids etc) are ways to model the
earths curved surface to a flat plane
Registration is necessary to tie geographic
data to specific points on the Earths surface
to allow accurate mapping and analysis
between different GIS layers
Coordinate system
Geospatial data should be geographically referenced ( called
georeferencedor geocoded) in a common coordinate system. The
reference points are called tic masks or ground control points. One of
the most convenient way of locating points is to use plane orthogonal
coordinates with x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axis.
Latitude, Longitude, Height
the most commonly used coordinate system
the Prime Meridian and the Equator are used to
define latitude and longitude
latitude and longitude are defined as:
degrees, minutes, seconds
360
o
around the earth
each degree is divided into 60 minutes
each minute is divided into 60 seconds
decimal degrees
a degree expressed as a decimal (in degree units)
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Map Projections
all map projections are attempts to portray
the surface of the earth on a flat surface
distortions of shape, distance, direction,
scale, and area result from this process
some projections minimize certain
distortions while maximising others
other projections are attempts to moderately
distort all of the above properties.
Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM)
UTM projection is used to define horizontal,
positions world-wide by dividing the surface of
the Earth into 6
o
zones, each mapped by the
Transverse Mercator projection with a central
meridian in the center of the zone.
UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree
longitudinal strips extending from80 degrees
South latitude to 84 degrees North latitude.
UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones
extending north and south fromthe equator
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Data acquisition
As dataacquisition or datainput of geospatial datain digital format is most
expensiveand procedures aretimeconsuming. In GIS, thedatasources for data
acquisition should becarefully selected considering theapplication and scale.
The following data sources are widely used:
Analog maps
Elevation, soil, landuse, climate, etc.
Aerial photographs
DEM, landuse (Urban)
Satellite image
Landuse(regional), vegetation, temperature, DEM
Ground survey with GPS
Detailed information
Reports and publications
Attributes, statistics
Data source for GIS
Data Output
Users / Systems
Data
Management
Data Analysis
Users need to understand both data and software in order
to create unique spatial questions and maintain the
spatial information produced.
Data Input Refers to the creation of digital spatial data.
Refers to unique issues in the maintenance of
spatial data such as error or level of accuracy;
storing data; retrieving data; and metadata.
Data management is one of the key issues
determining the usability of spatial data.
Is what allows users to answer questions that
may not be explicitly stated in the data.
Refers to the method used to visually display
analysis performed using GIS. Output can be in
the form of jpg to large plotted images.
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Data Input
X & Y Coordinate: Used
when a user has spatial data in X
& Y coordinates.
Digitize: Used when a user
has a paper map that they would
like to convert into a digital file.
Scan: Used when a user has a
paper map that lends itself to
reading spatial features in a
rasterized format.
The creation of digital spatial data.
Database Entry:
Commonly used when a user
has attribute information
related to common spatial
locations, such as the census.
Choice of data acquisition method
Scanning - paper maps
Paper Map>Digital Raster >Vector
Resolution accuracy of data c.f. file size
Initial accuracy; scanner integrity
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Digitising - paper maps
Digitizing Tablet +Mouse +PC
Directly captures vector data of interest
from a paper source
Time consuming, tedious work
Vector data input (map digitizing)
Thedigitizing operation is as follows:
Step 1 : affix amap to adigitizing table
Step 2 : add control points or tics at four corners and input coordinates
Step 3 : digitizemap contents according to themap layers
Step 4 : edit theerrors and clean thedataset
Step 5 : convert fromdigitizer coordinateto map coordinateandstorein a
spatial database
Direct input
Built from attribute data e.g. GPS points
Use software extensions for add to GIS
database
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Aerial Photographs
Satellite Data
Data Management
Data Errors /
Level of
Accuracy
Storing Data
Retrieving Data
Metadata
Refers to unique issues in the maintenance of spatial
data. Data management is one of the key issues
determining the usability of spatial data.
Errors in digitizing
Errors in original data
Errors in data entry
Method of data entry
Scale of data
Upkeep of historical data sets
Warehousing state and city data
How can users access stored data
Using national standards to record
and maintain key information about
data creation, scale, projection, and
attributes.
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Data Analysis
Is what allows users to answer questions that may
not be explicitly stated in the data.
Retrieval
Map Generalization
Map Abstraction
Map Sheet
Manipulations
Buffer Generation
Polygon Overlay &
Dissolve
Measurements
Digital Terrain
Analysis
Network Analysis
What is spatial analysis?
Spatial analysis is done to answer questions about the real
world including the present situation of specific areas and
features, the change in situation, the trends, the evaluation
of capability or possibility using overlay technique and/or
modeling and prediction.
Spatial analysis ranges fromsimple arithmetic and logical
operation to complicated model analysis.
- Query
- Reclassification
- Coverage rebuilding
- Overlay
Query
Query is to retrieve the attribute data without altering the existing
data according to specifications given by the operator.
The conditional statement is represented by the following three
types of operation.
Relational: >, <, =,>=,<=
Arithmetic: +, -, *, /
Boolean (logical): AND, OR, NOT, XOR (exclusive OR)
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Reclassification
Reclassification is
to reassign new
thematic values or
codes to units of
spatial feature
Reclassification is
executed in the
following cases:
Generalization
Ranking
Reselection
Coverage rebuilding
Coverage rebuilding is a
boundary operation to create
new overages, which are
identified and selected by
users
Boundary operations are:
- Clip
- Erase
- Update
- Split
- Append
- Map J oin
Vector overlay
Overlay of vector data results in the creation of new line and area
objects with additional intersections or nodes.
There are three types of vector overlay:
- point in polygon overlay
- line on polygon overlay
- polygon on polygon overlay
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Retrieval
Allows a GIS user to reproduce existing information
from a database by browsing through the data or
windowing the database.
Map Generalization
Removing unnecessary data to save space for data
files.
Buffer Generation
Creates new polygons by expanding or shrinking
existing polygons or by creating polygons from points.
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Polygon Overlay and Dissolve
Used when comparing two or more data layers.
Digital Terrain Analysis
Allows for interpolation from point data (usually
elevations), derivation of slopes and slope aspects,
watershed computations and identification, and
construction of view sheds.
Network Analysis
Are techniques for routing resources along a set of
linked linear features. Optimal path routing predicts
the best route between two or more points based on
distance, time, effort, or another measure. Often used
for emergency response systems.
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Hardware Hardware
Software Software
ESRI product:ArcView, ArcInfo, ArcGIS
IDRSI
MapInfo
LIWIS
GRASS
Intergraph
PAMAP
GRAM++
ERDAS
R2V
Ermapper
ENVI
Thank you for attention