Chapter 3: Electron-Specimen Interactions

Electron Scattering
Signals from Elastic Scattering
Signals from Inelastic Scattering
Interaction Volume
Influence of Beam Energy on Interaction Volume
Influence of Atomic Number on Interaction Volume
Influence of Specimen Surface Tilt on Interaction Volume
X-Rays
Continuum X-Ray Production
Inner-Shell Ionization
X-Ray Absorption
X-Ray Fluorescence
Cathodoluminescence
The versatility of scanning electron microscopy and of x-ray
microanalysis is derived in large measure from the rich variety of
interactions that the beam electrons undergo in a specimen. These
interactions can reveal information on the specimens composition,
topography, crystallography, electrical potential, local magnetic
field, and other properties.
1. Elastic scattering events
affect the trajectories of the
beam electrons inside the
specimen without changing
the kinetic energy of the
electron.
2. Elastic scattering is
responsible for the
phenomenon of electron
backscattering that forms
an important imaging signal
in SEM.
3. Inelastic scattering events
result in a transfer of energy
from the beam electrons to
the atoms of the specimen.
4. This event leads to the
generation of secondary
electrons; Auger electrons;
characteristic x-ray and
bremsstrahlung (continuum)
x-ray; electron-hole pairs in
semiconductor and
insulators.
Elastic and Inelastic Scattering
Five Major Inelastic Scattering Events
1. Phonon Excitation: Much of the energy deposited
into the specimen by the incident electron beam is
transferred to the solid by the excitation of lattice
oscillations (phonons), that is, heat. If the specimen
is a good thermal conductor, the specimen and the
specimen holder will serve as an effective heat sink,
and significant heating will not occur. For
nonconductors, heating can be more significant. In
some cases, beam-induced heating is sufficient to
cause phase transformations or recrystallization in
specimens.
2. Plasmon Excitation: For metallic species such as
aluminum or copper, the outermost atomic
electrons are so loosely bound that in a solid
these electrons are not localized to a specific atom
but rather form free-electron gas or sea, which
permeates the ion core. The incident electrons can
excite waves in this free-electron sea. Because of
the regularity of the atomic arrangement, the
plasmon energy tends to have a specific value; in
aluminum, the excitation of a plasmon involves a
transfer of about 15 eV from the incident electrons
to the free electron gas of the solid.
3. Secondary Electron Excitation: The interaction of
the incident electron beam with the solid can lead
to the ejection of loosely bound electrons in the
conduction band. These ejected electrons are
referred to as secondary electrons, and most have
a kinetic energy of <50 eV. The resulting secondary
electron distribution is peaked at 3 to 5 eV, with the
distribution decreasing sharply as the energy
increases above 5 eV. The emission of secondary
electrons is extremely sensitive to surface
topography. Secondary electrons in the analytical
electron microscope enable generation of scanning
images.
4. Bremsstrahlung or Continuum X-Ray Generation:
An incident electron beam can undergo deceleration in
the Coulombic field of the specimen atoms. The
energy lost from the beam electron in this deceleration
is converted into an x-ray photon known as a
bremsstrahlung x-ray. Deceleration is a continuous
process, with most electrons losing their energy
through several interactions. The most energetic
continuum x-ray possible has the energy of the
incident electron. In this case, the electron has lost all
its energy in one scattering event. Consequently, the
bremsstrahlung x-rays form a continuous spectrum
from zero energy up to the incident-beam energy. The
continuum x-ray spectrum must be considered in
quantitative x-ray microanalysis. Because only the
characteristic x-ray intensity above the continuum is
important, the continuum must be removed to obtain
only the characteristic intensities. As such, the
continuum x-ray serves no useful purpose in
microanalysis.
5. Inner-Shell Ionization: A sufficiently energetic
electron can interact with an atom and cause the
ejection of a tightly bound inner-shell electron,
leaving the atom in an ionized and highly energetic
state (See next page). During subsequent de-
excitation, an electron transition occurs in which an
electron from an outer shell drops inward to fill the
inner shell vacancy. The electron transition
involves a change in energy. The energy released
will be in the form of a characteristic x-ray or an
ejected outer-shell electron termed an Auger
electron. Because the electron structure of each
atom is unique, the spectrum of possible
characteristic x-rays and Auger electrons is also
unique. The name assigned to a given
characteristic x-ray, for example, K!, depends on
the electron shells involved in the transition.
The principal quantum
number n is assigned
integral values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
that refer to the quantum
shell to which the electron
belongs.
Quantum shells are
assigned a letter:
n=1 is designated K
n=2 is L
n=3 is M
n=4 is N
Interaction Volume:
The combined effect of elastic
and inelastic scattering is to
limit the penetration of the
beam into the solid. The
resulting region over which
the incident electrons interact
with the solid, depositing
energy and producing those
forms of secondary radiation
is known as the interaction
volume.
An understanding of the size
and shape of the interaction
volume as a function of
specimen and beam
parameters is vital for proper
interpretation of features of
SEM images and the spatial
resolution of x-ray
microanalysis.
Etching plastic can
directly reveal the
interaction volume for
the low atomic number
materials but can not for
intermediate- and high-
atomic number materials
such as metals.
Monte Carlo electron-
trajectory simulation
provides an indirect
method to visualize the
interaction volume for
metals.
A large number of
trajectories, typically
10,000 to 100,000, must
be calculated to achieve
statistical significance.
Influence of Beam Energy on Interaction Volume
As the beam
energy is
increased, the
electrons can
penetrate to
greater depths.
The shape of the
interaction
volume does not
change
significantly with
beam energy.
The influence of Atomic Number on Interaction Volume
In specimens of high atomic
number, the electrons
undergo more elastic
scattering per unit distance
and the average scattering
angle is greater, as
compared to low-atomic-
number materials. The
electron trajectories in high-
atomic-number materials
thus tend to deviate out of
the initial direction of travel
more quickly and reduce
the penetration into the
solid.
The shape of the interaction
volume also changes
significantly as a function
of atomic number.
Influence of Specimen Surface Tilt on Interaction Volume
As the angle of tilt
of a specimen
surface increases
(i.e., the angle of
the beam relative
to the surface
decreases), the
interaction volume
becomes smaller
and asymmetric.
Interaction Volumes of Materials with Different Density
CdS Composition
The CdS wires were found to be composed of only
Cadmium and Sulfur. The Si peak is from the
substrate beneath the wires. This spectrum was
taken from the red spot.
SiO
2
Composition
The SiO
2
wires were found to be pure, the Au peak
represents the nanoparticle in the center of the
nanoflower. This is a spectrum of the red spot.