Gender-Sensitive Language

www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/gender.html
What this handout is about
This handout will explain some of the current thinking on gender issues and writing and
will provide suggestions to help you appropriately express gender relationships as you
write.
What is "gender-sensitive language" and why should I
use it?
English speakers and writers have traditionally been taught to use masculine nouns and
pronouns in situations where the gender of their subject(s) is unclear or variable, or when
a group to which they are referring contains members of both sexes. or example, the !"
#eclaration of $ndependence states that % . . . all men are created e&ual . . .% and most of
us were taught in elementary school to understand the word %men% in that context
includes both male and female 'mericans. $n recent decades, however, as women have
become increasingly involved in the public sphere of 'merican life, writers have
reconsidered the way they express gender identities and relationships. (ecause most
English language readers no longer understand the word %man% to be synonymous with
%people,% writers today must think more carefully about the ways they express gender in
order to convey their ideas clearly and accurately to their readers.
)oreover, these issues are important for people concerned about issues of social
ine&uality. There is a relationship between our language use and our social reality. $f we
%erase% women from language, that makes it easier to maintain gender ine&uality. 's
*rofessor "herryl +leinman (,---./) has argued,
0)1ale2based generics are another indicator3and, more importantly, a reinforcer3of a
system in which %man% in the abstract and men in the flesh are privileged over women.
4ords matter, and our language choices have conse&uences. $f we believe that women
and men deserve social e&uality, then we should think seriously about how to reflect that
belief in our language use.
$f you5re reading this handout, you5re probably already aware that tackling gender
sensitivity in your writing is no small task, especially since there isn5t yet (and there may
never be) a set of concrete guidelines on which to base your decisions. ortunately, there
are a number of different strategies the gender2savvy writer can use to express gender
relationships with precision. This handout will provide you with an overview of some of
those strategies so that you can %mix and match% as necessary when you write.
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Pronouns
' pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun. The English language provides pronoun
options for references to masculine nouns (for example, %he% can substitute for %Tom%),
feminine nouns (%she% can replace %6ucy%), and neutral7non2human nouns (%it% stands in
for %a tree%), but no choice for sex2neutral third2person singular nouns (%the writer,% %a
student,% or %someone%). 'lthough most of us learned in elementary school that
masculine pronouns (he, his, him) should be used as the %default% in situations where the
referent (that is, the person or thing to which you5re referring) could be either male or
female, that usage is generally considered unacceptable now. "o what should you do
when you5re faced with one of those gender2neutral or gender2ambiguous situations8
4ell, you5ve got a few options . . .
1. Use "they"
This option is currently much debated by grammar experts, but most agree that it works
well in at least several kinds of situations. $n order to use %they% to express accurately
gender relationships, you5ll need to understand that %they% is traditionally used only to
refer to a plural noun. or example,
Sojourner Truth and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were famous "first-wave" American
feminists. They were also both involved in the Abolitionist movement.
$n speech, though, we early twenty2first century 'mericans commonly use %they% to refer
to a singular referent. 'ccording to many grammar experts, that usage is incorrect, but
here5s an example of how it sounds in our everyday speech.
If a student wants to learn more about gender inequality, they should take Intro to
Women's tudies.
9ote that in this example, %a student% is singular, but it is replaced in the second sentence
by %they,% a plural pronoun. $n speech, we often don5t notice such substitutions of the
plural for the singular, but in writing, some will find such substitutions awkward or
incorrect. "ome people argue that %they% should become the default gender2neutral
pronoun for English writing, but since that usage can still sound awkward to many
readers, its best to use %they% only in plural situations. Thus, one other option the gender2
savvy writer may choose to employ is to make her7his sentence plural. :ere5s one way
that can work.
A student's beliefs about feminism may be based on what he has heard in the !o!ular
media.
can become
tudents' beliefs about feminism may be based on what they have heard in the !o!ular
media.
2. Use she or he or she/he.
'nother, simpler option the gender2savvy writer can use to deal with situations in which
the gender of the referent is unknown or variable is to write out both pronoun options as
%she or he% or %she7he%. or example,
"ach student who ma#ors in Women's tudies ma#or must take a course in $eminist
%heory. She or he may also get course credit for com!leting an internshi! at a local
organi&ation that benefits women.
;<
"ach student who ma#ors in Women's tudies ma#or must take a course in $eminist
%heory. She/he may also get course credit for com!leting an internshi! at a local
organi&ation that benefits women.
. !lternate genders and "ronouns
=ou may also choose to alternate gendered pronouns. This option will work only in
certain situations, though3usually hypothetical situations in which the referent is e&ually
likely to be a male or a female. or example, both male and female students use the
4riting >enter5s services, so the author of our staff manual chose to alternate between
masculine and feminine pronouns when writing the following tutoring guidelines.
<espond as a reader, explaining what and how you were7are thinking as you read
her texts so that she can discover where a reader might struggle with her writing.
'sk him to outline the draft to reveal the organi?ation of the paper.
'sk her to describe her purpose and audience and show how she has taken them
into account in her writing.
Explain a recurring pattern and let him locate repeated instances of it.
;f course, this author could also have included both pronouns in each sentence by
writing %her7his% or %her7him,% but in this case, alternating %he% and %she% conveys the
same sense of gender variability and is likely a little easier on the reader, who won5t have
to pause to process several different options every time a gendered pronoun is needed in
the sentence. This example also provides a useful demonstration of how gender2savvy
writers can take advantage of the many different options available by choosing the one
that best suits the uni&ue re&uirements of each piece of writing they produce.
#. $li%inate the "ronoun altogether
inally, you can also simply eliminate the pronoun. or example,
Allan Johnson is a contem!orary feminist theorist. %his writer and professor gave a
s!eech at '() in the fall of *++,.
9ote how the sentence used %this writer and professor% rather than %he.%
-any !eo!le acce!t the negative stereoty!e that if a !erson is a feminist, she must hate
men.
could become
-any !eo!le acce!t the negative stereoty!e that feminist beliefs are based on hatred of
men.
9ote how the second version of the sentence talks about the beliefs. (y avoiding using
the pronoun %she,% it leaves open the possibility that men may be feminists.
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Gendered nouns
6ike gendered pronouns, gendered nouns can also provide a stumbling block for the
gender2savvy writer. The best way to avoid implications these words can carry is simply
to be aware of how we tend to use them in speech and writing. (ecause gendered nouns
are so commonly used and accepted by English writers and speakers, we often don5t
notice them or the implications they bring with them. ;nce you5ve recogni?ed that a
gender distinction is being made by such a word, though, conversion of the gendered
noun into a gender2savvy one is usually very simple.
%)an% and words ending in %2man% are the most commonly used gendered nouns, so
avoiding the confusion they bring can be as simple as watching out for these words and
replacing them with words that convey your meaning more effectively. or example, if
the founders of 'merica had been gender2savvy writers, they might have written % . . . all
people are created e&ual% instead of % . . . all men are created e&ual . . ..%
'nother common gendered expression, particularly in informal speech and writing, is
%you guys.% This expression is used to refer to groups of men, groups of women, and
groups that include both men and women. 'lthough most people mean to be inclusive
when they use %you guys,% this phrase wouldn5t make sense if it didn5t subsume women
under the category %guys.% To see why %you guys% is gendered male, consider that %a
guy% (singular) is definitely a man, not a woman, and that most men would not feel
included in the expression %you gals% or %you girls.%
'nother example of gendered language is the way the words %)r.,% %)iss,% and %)rs.%
are used. %)r.% can refer to any man, regardless of whether he is single or married3but
women are defined by their relationship to men (by whether they are married or not). '
way around this is to use %)s.% (which doesn5t indicate marital status) to refer to women.
"ometimes we modify nouns that refer to jobs or positions to denote the sex of the person
holding that position. This often done if the sex of the person holding the position goes
against conventional expectations. To get a sense of these expectations, think about what
sex you would instinctively assume the subject of each of these sentences to be.
%he doctor walked into the room.
%he nurse walked into the room.
)any people assume that doctors are men and that nurses are women. (ecause of such
assumptions, someone might write sentences like %The female doctor walked into the
room% or %The male nurse walked into the room.% !sing %female% and %male% in this way
reinforces the assumption that most or all doctors are male and most or all nurses are
female. !nless the sex of the nurse or doctor is important to the meaning of the sentence,
it can be omitted.
's you work on becoming a gender2savvy writer, you may find it helpful to watch out for
the following gendered nouns and replace them with one of the alternatives listed below.
>heck a thesaurus for alternatives to gendered nouns not included in this list.
gendered noun
man
freshman
mankind
man2made
the common man
to man
chairman
mailman
policeman
steward, stewardess
congressman
#ear "ir.
gender-neutral noun
person, individual
first2year student
people, human beings, humanity
machine2made, synthetic
the average (or ordinary) person
to operate, to cover, to staff
chair, chairperson, coordinator
mail carrier, letter carrier, postal worker
police officer
flight attendant
congress person, legislator, representative
#ear "ir or )adam., #ear Editor., #ear "ervice
<epresentative., To 4hom it )ay >oncern.
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Pro"er nouns
*roper nouns can also give gender2savvy writers pause, but as with common nouns, it is
usually very easy to use gender2neutral language once you5ve noticed the gendered
patterns in your own writing. 'nd the best way to avoid any confusion in your use of
proper nouns is to use the same rules to discuss of women subjects as you already use
when you5re writing about men. $n the examples below, notice how using different
conventions for references to male and female subjects suggests a difference in the
amount of respect being given to individuals on the basis of their gender.
@. <efer to women subjects by only their last names3just as you would do for men
subjects.
or example, we would never refer to 4illiam "hakespeare as just %4illiamA% we call
him %"hakespeare% or %4illiam "hakespeare.% Thus, you should never refer to Bane
'usten simply as %BaneA% you should write %Bane 'usten% or %'usten.%
,. $n circumstances where you5re writing about several people who have the same last
name, try using the full name of the person every time you refer to him7her.
or example, if you5re writing about Ceorge and )artha 4ashington, referring to him as
%4ashington% and her as %)artha% conveys a greater respect for him than for her. $n order
to express an e&ual amount of respect for these two historical figures, simply refer to each
subject by her7his full name. %Ceorge 4ashington% and %)artha 4ashington.% This
option may sound like it could get too wordy, but it actually works very well in most
situations.
D. <efer to women subjects by their full titles, just as you would refer to men subjects.
or example, you wouldn5t call 'merican *resident <eagan %<onald,% so you wouldn5t
want to refer to (ritish *rime )inister Thatcher as %)argaret.% "imply call her %*rime
)inister Thatcher,% just as you would write %*resident <eagan% to refer to him.
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&he'(list )or gender revisions
To ensure that you5ve used gender savvy language in your piece of writing, try asking
yourself the following &uestions.
@. :ave you used %man% or %men% or words containing one of them to refer to people
who may be female8 $f so, consider substituting another word. or example,
instead of %fireman,% try %firefighter.%
,. $f you have mentioned someone5s gender, was it necessary to do so8 $f you
identify someone as a female architect, for example, do you (or would you) refer
to someone else as a %male architect%8 'nd if you then note that the woman is an
attractive blonde mother of two, do you mention that the man is a muscular,
s&uare2jawed father of three8 !nless gender and related matters3looks, clothes,
parenthood3are relevant to your point, leave them unmentioned.
D. #o you use any occupational stereotypes8 4atch for the use of female pronouns
for elementary school teachers and male ones for scientists, for example.
E. #o you use language that in any way shows a lack of respect for either sex8
F. :ave you used %he,% %him,% %his,% or %himself% to refer to people who may be
female8
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Wor(s 'onsulted
4e consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a
comprehensive list of resources on the handout5s topic, and we encourage you to do your
own research to find the latest publications on this topic. *lease do not use this list as a
model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you
are using. or guidance on formatting citations, please see the !9> 6ibraries citation
tutorial.
:arris, )uriel. *rentice :all <eference Cuide to Crammar and !sage. Drd Ed. !pper
"addle <iver, 9B. *rentice :all, @GGH.
+leinman, "herryl. ("eptember, ,---). 4hy sexist language matters. The >enter 6ine, a
newsletter of the ;range >ounty <ape >risis >enter, pp. /2H.
+olln, )artha. <hetorical Crammar. Crammatical >hoices, <hetorical Effects. ,nd Ed.
6unsford, 'ndrea and <obert >onnors. The "t. )artin5s :andbook. Drd Ed. 9ew =ork.
"t. )artin5s *ress, @GG@.

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So'iologi'al gender en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_identity
Cender identity is the gender a person self2identifies as. The concept of being a woman is
considered to have more challenges, due to society not only viewing women as a social
category but also as a felt sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective
identity.
0@/1
The term %woman% has chronically been used as a reference to and for the
female bodyA this usage has been viewed as controversial by feminists, in the definement
of %woman%. There are &ualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of
genderA feminists challenge the dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and sex.
"ocial identity refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social category
which creates a common culture among participants concerned.
0@H1
'ccording to social
identity theory,
0@I1
an important component of the self2concept is derived from
memberships in social groups and categoriesA this is demonstrated by group processes
and how inter2group relationships impact significantly on individuals5 self perception and
behaviors. The groups to which people belong will therefore provide their members with
the definition of who they are and how they should behave in the social sphere.
0@G1
>ategori?ing males and females into social roles creates binaries, in which individuals
feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man
or woman. Clobally, communities interpret biological differences between men and
women to create a set of social expectations that define the behaviors that are
%appropriate% for men and women and determine womenJs and menJs different access to
rights, resources, and power in society. 'lthough the specific nature and degree of these
differences vary from one society to the next, they typically favor men, creating an
imbalance in power and gender ine&ualities in all countries.
0,-1
4estern philosopher )ichel oucault claimed that as sexual subjects, humans are the
object of power, which is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name
attributed to %complex strategical situation%.
0,@1
(ecause of this, %power% is what
determines individual attributes, behaviors, etc. and people are a part of an ontologically
and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels. "uch as, being female
characteri?es one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak, emotional, and
irrational, and is incapable of actions attributed to a %man%. Budith (utler said gender and
sex are more like verbs than nouns. "he reasoned that her actions are limited. %$ am not
permitted to construct my gender and sex willy2nilly,% she said. %0This1 is so because
gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. <ather than 5woman5 being
something one is, it is something one does.%
0,,1
There are more recent criticisms of Budith
(utler5s theories which criti&ue her writing for reinforcing the very conventional
dichotomies of gender.
0,D1
*edit+ So'ial assign%ent and idea o) )luidity
Cender can have ambiguity and fluidity.
0,E1
There are two contrasting ideas regarding the
definition of gender, and the intersection of both of them is definable as below.
Cender is the result of socially constructed ideas about the behavior, actions, and roles a
particular sex performs. The beliefs, values and attitude taken up and exhibited by them is
as per the agreeable norms of the society and the personal opinions of the person is not
taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender
roles as per the assigned gender. $ntersections and crossing of the prescribed boundaries
have no place in the arena of the social construct of the term %gender%.
The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biological
attributes assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed
conduct. The social label of being classified into one or the other sex is obligatory to the
medical stamp on the birth certificate. The cultural traits typically coupled to a particular
sex finali?e the assignment of gender and the biological differences which play a role in
classifying either sex is interchangeable with the definition of gender within the social
context.
$n this context, the socially constructed rules are at a cross road with the assignment of a
particular gender to a person. Cender ambiguity deals with having the freedom to
choose,manipulate and create a personal niche within any defined socially constructed
code of conduct while gender fluidity is outlawing all the rules of cultural gender
assignment. $t does not accept the prevalence of two rigidly defined genders %emale and
)ale% and believes in freedom to choose any kind of gender with no rules, no defined
boundaries and no fulfilling of expectations associated with any particular gender.
(oth these definitions are facing opposite directionalities with their own defined set of
rules and criteria on which the said systems are based.
*edit+ So'ial 'ategories
)ary rith (%)oll >utpurse%) scandalised @Hth century society by wearing male clothing,
smoking in public, and otherwise defying gender roles.
"exologist Bohn )oney coined the term gender role in @GFF. %The term gender role is
used to signify all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as
having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. $t includes, but is not
restricted to, sexuality in the sense of eroticism.%
0,F1
Elements of such a role include
clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to
biological sex. (ecause social aspects of gender can normally be presumed to be the ones
of interest in sociology and closely related disciplines, gender role is often abbreviated to
gender in their literature.
%<osie the <iveter% was an iconic symbol of the 'merican homefront in 44$$ and a
departure from gender roles due to wartime necessity.
)ost societies have only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles3masculine and
feminine3and these correspond with biological sexes male and female. :owever, some
societies explicitly incorporate people who adopt the gender role opposite to their
biological sex, for example the Two2"pirit people of some indigenous 'merican peoples.
;ther societies include well2developed roles that are explicitly considered more or less
distinct from archetypal female and male roles in those societies. $n the language of the
sociology of gender they comprise a third gender,
0,/1
more or less distinct from biological
sex (sometimes the basis for the role does include intersexuality or incorporates eunuchs).
0,H1
;ne such gender role is that adopted by the hijras of $ndia and *akistan.
0,I10,G1
'nother
example may be the )uxe (pronounced [mue]), found in the state of ;axaca, in
southern )exico, %beyond gay and straight.%
0D-1
The (ugis people of "ulawesi, $ndonesia have a tradition incorporating all of the features
above.
0D@1
Boan <oughgarden argues that in some non2human animal species, there can
also be said to be more than two genders, in that there might be multiple templates for
behavior available to individual organisms with a given biological sex.
0D,1
*edit+ ,e%inis% and gender studies
The neutrality o) this se'tion is dis"uted. *lease see the discussion on the talk
page. *lease do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. .e!tember
*++/0
The philosopher and feminist "imone de (eauvoir applied existentialism to women5s
experience of life. %;ne is not born a woman, one becomes one.%
0DD1
$n context, this is a
philosophical statement. :owever, it may be analy?ed in terms of biology 3 a girl must
pass puberty to become a woman 3 and sociology, as a great deal of mature relating in
social contexts is learned rather than instinctive.
0citation needed1
4ithin feminist theory, terminology for gender issues developed over the @GH-s. $n the
@GHE edition of -asculine1$eminine or 2uman, the author uses %innate gender% and
%learned sex roles%,
0DE1
but in the @GHI edition, the use of se3 and gender is reversed.
0DF1
(y
@GI-, most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for socioculturally adapted
traits.
$n gender studies the term gender is used to refer to proposed social and cultural
constructions of masculinities and femininities. $n this context, gender explicitly excludes
reference to biological differences, to focus on cultural differences.
0D/1
This emerged from
a number of different areas. in sociology during the @GF-sA from the theories of the
psychoanalyst Bac&ues 6acanA and in the work of rench psychoanalysts like Bulia
+risteva, 6uce $rigaray, and 'merican feminists such as Budith (utler. Those who
followed (utler came to regard gender roles as a practice, sometimes referred to as
%performative%.
0DH1
:urst states that some people think sex will Kautomatically determine oneJs gender
demeanor and role (social) as well as oneJs sexual orientation (sexual attractions and
behavior).L
0DI1
Cender sociologists believe that people have cultural origins and habits for
dealing with gender. or example, )ichael "chwalbe believes that humans must be
taught how to act appropriately in their designated gender in order to properly fill the role
and that the way people behave as masculine or feminine interacts with social
expectations. "chwalbe comments that humans %are the results of many people
embracing and acting on similar ideas%.
0DG1
*eople do this through everything from
clothing and hairstyle to relationship and employment choices. "chwalbe believes that
these distinctions are important, because society wants to identify and categori?e people
as soon as we see them. They need to place people into distinct categories in order to
know how we should feel about them.
:urst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly, there can
often be severe conse&uences for breaking these cultural norms. )any of these
conse&uences are rooted in discrimination based on sexual orientation. Cays and lesbians
are often discriminated against in our legal system due to societal prejudices.
0citation needed1

:urst describes how this discrimination works against people for breaking gender norms,
no matter what their sexual orientation is. :e says that %courts often confuse sex, gender,
and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not
only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a
manner traditionally expected of their sex%.
0DI1
This prejudice plays out in our legal
system when a man or woman is judged differently because he or she does not present the
%correct% gender. :ow people present and display their gender has conse&uences in
everyday life, but also in institutionali?ed aspects of our society.
<ecent criti&ues of feminist theory by 4arren arrell
0E-10E@1
have given broader
consideration to findings from a ten2year study of courtship by (uss.
0E,1
(oth perspectives
on gendering are integrated in Attraction %heory, a theoretical framework developed by
#r <ory <idley2#uff illustrating how courtship and parenting obligations (rather than
male dominance) act as a generative mechanism that produces and reproduces a range of
gender identities.
0ED10EE1
*edit+ So'iety and behaviors
)any of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced by both innate factors
and by environmental ones, which include everything from genes, gene expression, and
body chemistry, through diet and social pressures. ' large area of research in behavioral
psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and
various possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation, access to food and
vitamins, culture, gender, hormones, physical and social development, and physical and
social environments.
' core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on itself, in
other words, how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other
groups or individuals. "tarting in the late ,-th century, the feminist movement has
contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it, notably within sociology but
not restricted to it.
"pain5s desperate situation when invaded by 9apoleon enabled 'gustina de 'ragMn to
break into a closely guarded male preserve and become the only female professional
officer in the "panish 'rmy of her time (and long afterwards).
"ocial theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to
biological sex and sexuality,
0citation needed1
with the result being that culturally established
gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications which signify the allocation
of a specific 5biological5 sex within a categorical gender.
0citation needed1
The second wave
feminist view that gender is socially constructed and hegemonic in all societies, remains
current in some literary theoretical circles, +ira :all and )ary (ucholt? publishing new
perspectives as recently as ,--I.
0/G1
>ontemporary socialisation theory proposes the notion that when a child is first born it
has a biological sex but no social gender.
0citation needed1
's the child grows, %society provides
a string of prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or
the other%
0H-1
which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender.
0citation
needed1
There is huge incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation
0citation needed1
with
gender shaping the individualJs opportunities for education, work, family, sexuality,
reproduction, authority,
0citation needed1
and to make an impact on the production of culture and
knowledge.
0H@1
'dults who do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this
perspective as deviant and improperly socialised.
0H,1
"ome believe society is constructed in a way in which gender is split into a dichotomy by
social organisations which constantly invent and reproduce cultural images of gender.
Boan 'ckner (%he 4endered ociety 5eader) believes gendering occurs in at least five
different interacting social processes.
0HD1
The construction of divisions along the lines of gender, such as those which are
produced by labor, power, family, the state, even allowed behaviors and locations
in physical space
The construction of symbols and images such as language, ideology, dress and the
media, that explain, express and reinforce, or sometimes oppose, those divisions
$nteractions between men and women, women and women and men and men
which involve any form of dominance and submission. >onversational theorists,
for example, have studied the way in which interruptions, turn taking and the
setting of topics re2create gender ine&uality in the flow of ordinary talk
The way in which the preceding three processes help to produce gendered
components of individual identity. i.e. the way in which they create and maintain
an image of a gendered self
Cender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing processes of creating and
conceptualising social structures.
6ooking at gender through a oucauldian lens, gender is transfigured into a vehicle for
the social division of power.
0citation needed1
Cender difference is merely a construct of society
used to enforce the distinctions made between that which is assumed to be female and
male,
0citation needed1
and allow for the domination of masculinity over femininity through the
attribution of specific gender2related characteristics.
0citation needed1
%The idea that men and
women are more different from one another than either is from anything else, must come
from something other than natureN far from being an expression of natural differences,
exclusive gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities.%
0HE1
Cender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics
to a fundamental biological sex.
0citation needed1
"ocio2cultural codes and conventions, the rules
by which society functions, and which are both a creation of society as well as a
constituting element of it, determine the allocation of these specific traits to the sexes.
These traits provide the foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference. $t
follows then, that gender can be assumed as the ac&uisition and internalisation of social
norms. $ndividuals are therefore socialised through their receipt of societyJs expectations
of OacceptableJ gender attributes which are flaunted within institutions such as the family,
the state and the media. "uch a notion of OgenderJ then becomes naturalised into a
personJs sense of self or identity, effectively imposing a gendered social category upon a
sexed body.
0HF1
The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed also coincides with Budith
(utlerJs theories of gender performativity. (utler argues that gender is not an expression
of what one is, but rather something that one does.
0H/1
$t follows then, that if gender is
acted out in a repetitive manner it is in fact re2creating and effectively embedding itself
within the social consciousness. >ontemporary sociological reference to male and female
gender roles typically uses masculinities and femininities in the plural rather than
singular, suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as across them.
rom the 5evidence5, it can only be concluded that gender is socially constructed and each
individual is uni&ue in their gender characteristics, regardless of which biological sex
they are as every child is socialised to behave a certain way and have the OproperJ gender
attributes. $f individuals in society do not conform to this pressure, they are destined to be
treated as abnormalA therefore it is personally greatly beneficial for them to cooperate in
the determined OcorrectJ ordering of the world. $n fact, the very construct of society is a
product of and produces gender norms. There is bias in applying the word OgenderJ to
anyone in a finite wayA rather each person is endowed with certain gender characteristics.
The world cannot be egalitarian while there are OassignedJ genders and individuals are not
given the right to express any gender characteristic they desire.
*edit+ Gender and develo"%ent
Cender, and particularly the role of women is widely recogni?ed as vitally important to
international development issues.
0citation needed1
This often means a focus on gender2e&uality,
ensuring participation, but includes an understanding of the different roles and
expectation of the genders within the community.
0citation needed1
The ;verseas #evelopment $nstitute has highlighted that policy dialogue on the
)illennium #evelopment Coals needs to recognise that the gender dynamics of power,
poverty, vulnerability and care link all the goals.
0HI1
's well as directly addressing ine&uality, attention to gender issues is regarded as
important to the success of development programs, for all participants.
0citation needed1
or
example, in microfinance it is common to target women, as besides the fact that women
tend to be over2represented in the poorest segments of the population, they are also
regarded as more reliable at repaying the loans.
0citation needed1
"ome organi?ations working in developing countries and in the development field have
incorporated advocacy and empowerment for women into their work. The !nited 9ations
ood and 'griculture ;rgani?ation adopted in 9ovember ,--G a @-2year strategic
framework that includes the strategic objective of gender e&uity in access to resources,
goods, services and decision2making in rural areas, and mainstreams gender e&uity in all
';5s programmes for agriculture and rural development.
0HG1
The 'ssociation for
*rogressive >ommunications ('*>) has developed a Cender Evaluation )ethodology
for planning and evaluating development projects to ensure they benefit all sectors of
society including women.
0I-1
The Cender2related #evelopment $ndex (C#$), developed by the !nited 9ations (!9),
aims to show the ine&ualities between men and women in the following areas. long and
healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living.
*edit+ S"irituality
urther information. Cender and religion
yin and yang
$n Taoism, yin and yang are considered feminine and masculine, respectively.
yin and yang semantics
-ao se%anti'
yang
lightness
sun
sunshine
god
heaven
yin
darkness
dark
ghost
hill
*edit+ Linguisti's
)ain article. Crammatical gender
9atural languages often make gender distinctions. These may be of various kinds.
Crammatical gender is a property of some languages in which every noun is
assigned a gender, often with no direct relation to its meaning. or example, the
word for %girl% is muchacha (grammatically feminine) in "panish, -6dchen
(grammatically neuter) in Cerman, and cail7n (grammatically masculine) in $rish.
The term Kgrammatical genderL is often applied to more complex noun class
systems. This is especially true when a noun class system includes masculine and
feminine as well as some other non2gender features like animate, edible,
manufactured, and so forth. 'n example of the latter is found in the #yirbal
language. ' system traditionally called KgenderL is found in the ;jibwe language
which distinguishes between animate and inanimate, but since this does not
exhibit a masculine7feminine distinction it might be better described by Knoun
classL. 6ikewise, "umerian distinguishes between personal (human and divine)
and impersonal (all other) noun classes, but these classes have traditionally been
known as genders.
"everal languages attest the use of different vocabulary by men and women, to
differing degrees. "ee, for instance, Cender differences in spoken Bapanese. The
oldest documented language, "umerian, records a distinctive sub2language only
used by female speakers. >onversely, many $ndigenous 'ustralian languages have
distinctive registers with limited lexis used by men in the presence of their
mothers2in2law (see 'voidance speech).
)ost languages include terms that are used asymmetrically in reference to men
and women. >oncern that current language may be biased in favor of men has led
some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a more Cender2neutral
vocabulary in English and other languages.
0
*edit+ .e)eren'es
*edit+ ,ootnotes
@. / or example, the definition and use of the term in C. 'rgyrous and rank
"tilwell, "conomics as a ocial cience8 5eadings in 9olitical "conomy, ,nd ed.,
(*luto *ress, ,--D), in the feminist economics section, pages ,DI2,ED, especially
pages ,DD and ,DE.
,. / %4hat do we mean by %sex% and %gender%8%. 4orld :ealth ;rgani?ation.
http.77www.who.int7gender7whatisgender7en7index.html. <etrieved ,--G2-G2,G.
D. / 'nne austo2"terling, -yths of 4ender8 :iological %heories about -en and
Women (9ew =ork. (asic (ooks, @GG,), I.
E. / %$n the Teutonic word, as in 6atin genus and Creek PQRST three main senses
appear, (@) race or stock, (,) class or kind, (D) gender or sex A the last, found in
;E. and early )E., but not later, is the only sense in mod. #u., #a., and "w.%
5kin5, in ;xford English #ictionary.
F. / Bulius *okorny, 5gen5, in Indogermanisches etymologisches W;rterbuch, ((ern.
rancke, @GFG, reprinted in @GIG), pp. DHD2HF.
/. / 5gen
U
25, in 5'ppendix $. $ndo2European <oots5, to %he American 2eritage
<ictionary of the "nglish =anguage, ourth Edition, ((oston. :oughton )ifflin
>ompany, ,---).
H. / =our #ictionary.com, 5Cen5, reformatted from ':#.
I. /
' fourth rule is to observe *rotagoras5 classification of nouns into male, female
and inanimate.
3'ristotle
G. / owler5s )odern English !sage, @G,/. p. ,@@.
@-. / !sage note. 4ender , %he American 2eritage <ictionary of the "nglish
=anguage, ourth Edition, (,---).
@@. V
a

b
#avid :aig, 5The $nexorable <ise of Cender and the #ecline of "ex. "ocial
>hange in 'cademic Titles, @GEFW,--@5, Archives of e3ual :ehavior (,--E).
IHWG/. ;nline at *ub)ed and Xuestia.
@,. / %*eople defaulting on bank loans8 !se eunuchs to recover. *ak ">%. %he
"conomic %imes ((ennett >oleman). #ecember ,E, ,--G.
http.77economictimes.indiatimes.com7news7news2by2industry7et2cetera7*eople2
defaulting2on2bank2loans2!se2eunuchs2to2recover2*ak2
">7articleshow7FDH-GDI.cms. <etrieved ,--G2@,2,D.
@D. / )asood, "alman (#ecember ,D, ,--G). %*akistan. ' 6egal Yictory for
Eunuchs%. The 9ew =ork Times.
http.77www.nytimes.com7,--G7@,7,E7world7asia7,Ewebbriefs2
'6EC'6Y$>T;<Z(<.html. <etrieved ,--G2@,2,D.
@E. / "ee translation of Budith (utler5s 4ender %rouble
@F. / distinguishes
@/. / Cender Trouble. eminism and the "ubversion of $dentity. Thinking Cender.
9ew =ork [ 6ondon. <outledge, @GG-
@H. / "now, #.'. and ;liver, *.E. (@GGF). %"ocial )ovements and >ollective
(ehavior. "ocial *sychological #imensions and >onsiderations.% $n +aren >ook,
Cary '.ine, and Bames ".:ouse (eds) "ociological *erspectives on "ocial
*sychology, pp.FH@2/--. (oston. 'llyn and (acon.
@I. / Taifel, :. [ Turner, B.>. (@GI/). The social identity of intergroup relations. $n ".
4orchel [ 4.C. 'ustin (eds), The psychology of intergroup relations, pp.H2,E.
>hicago. 9elson2:all.
@G. / Terry, #.B., :ogg, ).'. (@GG/). Croup norms and the attitude2behavior
relationship. ' role for group identification. *ersonality and "ocial *sychology
(ulletin, ,,, HH/2HGD.
,-. / 4innie (yanyima5s sabbatical period at the 'frican Cender $nstitute, !niversity
of >ape Town . narrative report.http.77idl2
bnc.idrc.ca7dspace7handle7@,DEF/HIG7,H,ED,,--F.
,@. / Tong, <osemarie.eminist thought . a more comprehensive introduction 7
<osemarie Tong.(oulder, >olo. . 4estview *ress, ,--G.
,,. / Cender Trouble. eminism and the "ubversion of $dentity. Thinking Cender.
9ew =ork [ 6ondon. <outledge, @GG-.
,D. / Yigo, Bulian. 5The (ody in Cender #iscourse. The ragmentary "pace of the
eminine.5 =a femme et l>?criture. )ekn\s, )aroc, @GG/.
,E. / Cender ;utlaw 2 ;n )en, 4omen and the rest of us, pg. F@2F,
,F. / Bohn )oney, %:ermaphroditism, gender and precocity in hyperadrenocorticism.
*sychologic findings5, :ulletin of the @ohns 2o!kins 2os!ital 01 (@GFF). ,FDW
,/E.
,/. / Cilbert :erdt (ed.), %hird e3 %hird 4ender8 :eyond e3ual <imor!hism in
)ulture and 2istory, @GG/. $"(9 -GE,,GGI,F. ;>6> DF,GDEE-.
,H. / 4ill <oscoe, )hanging Anes8 %hird and $ourth 4enders in (ative (orth
America, *algrave )acmillan, ,---. $"(9 -2D@,2,,EHG2/
,I. / 9anda, "erena (@GGI). (either -an (or Woman8 %he 2i#ras of India.
4adsworth *ublishing. $"(9 -2FDE2F-G-D2H
,G. / <eddy, Cayatri (,--F). With 5es!ect to e38 (egotiating 2i#ra Identity in outh
India. (4orlds of #esire. The >hicago "eries on "exuality, Cender, and >ulture),
!niversity ;f >hicago *ress (Buly @, ,--F). $"(9 -2,,/2H-HF/2D
D-. / %' lifestyle distinct. the )uxe of )exico,% (ew Bork %imes, #ecember /, ,--I
0@1.
D@. / "haryn Craham, "ulawesi5s ifth Cender, Inside Indonesia 'pril2Bune, ,--@.
D,. / Boan <oughgarden, "volution's 5ainbow8 <iversity, 4ender, and e3uality in
(ature and 9eo!le, !niversity of >alifornia *ress, ,--E. $"(9 -2F,-2,E-HD2@
DD. / "imone de (eauvoir, %he econd e3, @GEG, as translated and reprinted @GIG.%
DE. / >hafet?, B". -asculine1$eminine or 2umanC An Averview of the ociology of
e3 5oles. $tasca, $llinois. . E. *eacock, @GHE.
DF. / >hafet?, B". -asculine1$eminine or 2umanC An Averview of the ociology of
e3 5oles. $tasca, $llinois. . E. *eacock, @GHI.
D/. / "tephanie Carrett, 4ender, (@GG,), p. vii.
DH. / Budith (utler, 4ender %rouble8 $eminism and the ubversion of Identity, (@GGG),
p. G.
DI. V
a

b
0:urst, >. "ocial $ne&uality. orms, >auses, and >onse&uences. "ixth
Edition. ,--H. @D@, @DG2@E,1
DG. / 0"chwalbe, ). The "ociologically Examined 6ife. *ieces of the >onversation
Third Edition. ,--F. ,,2,D1
E-. / arrell, 4. (@GII) Why -en Are %he Way %hey Are, 9ew =ork. (erkley (ooks.
E@. / arrell, 4. [ "terba, B (,--I) <oes $eminism <iscriminate Against -enC A
<ebate, ;xford !niversity *ress
E,. / (uss, #.). (,--,) :uman mating strategies. amdunfsokonemen, E. EI2FI.
ED. / <idley2#uff, <. B. (,--I) %Cendering, >ourtship and *ay E&uality. #eveloping
'ttraction Theory to !nderstand 4ork26ife (alance and Entrepreneurial
(ehaviour%, paper to the DEst I:" )onference , Fth2Hth 9ovember, (elfast
EE. / <idley2#uff, <. B. (,--H) "motion, eduction and Intimacy8 Alternative
9ers!ectives on Arganisation :ehaviour, (racknell. )en5s :our (ooks, $"(9
GHI2-2GHFED--2@2G
EF. / Bohn )oney, 5The concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and
adolescence after DG years5, @ournal of e3 and -arital %hera!y 22 (@GGE). @/D2
HH.
E/. / ' 'ron and 66 (rown, 5<omantic 6ove. ' )ammalian (rain "ystem for )ate
>hoice,5 9hiloso!hical %ransactions of the 5oyal ociety8 :iological ciences 11
(,--/). ,@HDW,@I/.
EH. / #avid ) (uss, %he <angerous 9assion8 Why @ealousy is as (ecessary as =ove
and e3, (9ew =ork. ree *ress, ,---. $"(9 -/IEIF-I@I. ;>6> E,G,@D/,.
EI. / #avid ) (uss, 5:uman nature and culture. 'n evolutionary psychological
perspective5. @ournal of 9ersonality 10 (,--@). GFF2GHI.
EG. / 4hite, C6 and *E )ullen, @ealousy8 %heory, 5esearch, and )linical 9ractice,
(9ew =ork, 9=. Cuilford *ress, @GIG). $"(9 -IGI/,DIFF. ;>6> @GFIGEIE.
F-. / "teven Coldberg, Why -en 5ule, (>hicago, $llinois. ;pen >ourt *ublishing
>ompany, @GGD). $"(9 -I@,/G,D/F. ;>6> ,IH,,D/,.
F@. / )ichael 'brams, 5The <eal "tory on Cay Cenes. :oming in on the science of
homosexuality3and sexuality itself5, <iscover 3une (,--H).
F,. / 5<ed6ist5, International 'nion for the )onservation of (ature and (atural
5esources official website.
FD. / 'manda "chaffer, 9as de <eu38 Why Are %here Anly %wo e3esC, late updated
,H "eptember ,--H.
FE. / 6aurence #. :urst, 54hy are There ;nly Two "exes85, 9roceedings8 :iological
ciences 21 (@GG/). E@F2E,,
FF. / E" :aag, 54hy two sexes8 "ex determination in multicellular organisms and
protistan mating types5, eminars in )ell and <evelo!mental :iology 14 (,--H).
DEI2G.
F/. / *atricia B. "chmidt, 4ade >. "herbrooke, Bustin ;. "chmidt, 5The
#etoxification of 'nt (*ogonomyrmex) Yenom by a (lood actor in :orned
6i?ards (*hrynosoma)5, )o!eia 104 (@GIG). /-D2/-H.
FH. / 6eslie E. ;rgel, 5The ;rigin of 6ife on the Earth5, cientific American ;ctober,
@GGE.
FI. / %Each independently lost the ability for sexual reproduction after diverging%.
(arbara :. (owmana, Thomas B. 4hitea and Bohn 4. Taylorb, %:uman
*athogeneic ungi and Their >lose 9onpathogenic <elatives%, -olecular
9hylogenetics and "volution 1 (@GG/). IGWG/.
FG. / :. Cee, B< *ickavance and B; =oung, 5' comparative study of the population
biology of the 'merican immigrant triclad #ugesia tigrina (Cirard) in two (ritish
lakes5, 2ydrobiologia 11 (@GHH). @DF2@ED.
/-. / %The speciose insect order 6epidoptera (moths and butterflies) and their closest
relatives, Trichoptera (caddis flies), share a female2heterogametic sex
chromosome system.% 4. Trauta, +. "aharab, . )arecc, %"ex >hromosomes and
"ex #etermination in 6epidoptera%, e3ual <evelo!ment 1 (,--H). DD,WDE/.
/@. / Bocelyn "elim (,--F2-E2,F). %"ex, =s, and *latypuses%. #iscover.
http.77discovermaga?ine.com7,--F7apr7sex2ys2platypuses-E,F7. <etrieved ,--I2
-F2-H.
/,. / ;nline )endelian $nheritance of )an, :'$<= E'<", =26$9+E#, although
see :'$<= E'<".
/D. / <ichard B :aier, <ex E Bung and others, 5The 9euroanatomy of Ceneral
$ntelligence. "ex )atters5, (euroImage 25 (,--F). D,-WD,H. *age D,E for
cerebrum difference of IW@-].
/E. / )ichael '. )c#aniel, 5(ig2(rained *eople are "marter. ' )eta2'nalysis of the
<elationship between $n Yivo (rain Yolume and $ntelligence5, Intelligence
(,--F). DDHWDE/.
/F. / <ichard B :aier, <ex E Bung and others, 5The 9euroanatomy of Ceneral
$ntelligence. "ex )atters5, (euroImage 25 (,--F). D,-WD,H.
//. / >arol '. Tamminga, 5(rain #evelopment, ^$. "exual #imorphism5, American
@ournal of 9sychiatry 151 (@GGG). DF,.
/H. / 'lexandra ). 6opes and others,5$nactivation status of *>#:@@^. sexual
dimorphisms in gene expression levels in brain5, 2uman 4enetics 110 (,--/). @W
G.
/I. / %Even when men and women do the same chores e&ually well, they may use
different brain circuits to get the same result.% 6inda )arsha, 5:e Thinks, "he
Thinks5, <iscover 3uly (,--H).
/G. / 4ender Articulated. <outledge. http.77books.google.com7books8
hl_en[lr_[id_/dDHl#!c6=E>[oi_fnd[pg_**@@[d&_gender`is`socially`con
structed`and`hegemonic[ots_:!a2
mpwDG&[sig_ftcExb;Ihip,u@B@yT':^)6Gh)$. <etrieved ,--I2-G2,@.
H-. / >onnell, < @GIH, Cender [ *ower, *olity *ress, >ambridge.
H@. / 6orber, B [ arrell, " (eds.) @GG@, The "ocial >onstruction of Cender, "age,
9ewbury *ark.
H,. / 4earing, ( @GG/, Cender. The *ain and *leasure of #ifference, 6ongman,
)elbourne.
HD. / 'cker, B ,---, O:ierarchies, Bobs, (odies. ' Theory of Cendered
;rgani?ationsJ, in ) +immel with ' 'ronson (eds), The Cendered "ociety
<eader, ;xford !niversity *ress, 9ew =ork.
HE. / Clover [ +aplan, ,---, p. xxi.
HF. / Clover, # [ +aplan, > ,---, Cenders, <outledge, 9ew =ork.
H/. / 6loyd, ) @GGG, O*erformativity, *arody, *oliticsJ in >!6T @G-@/
>ontemporary )odes of >ulture <esource )aterials, >entral Xueensland
!niversity, <ockhampton.
HH. / "ee for example http.77www.jstor.org7pss7,-@I/F
HI. / %Cender and the )#C"%. ;verseas #evelopment $nstitute. "eptember ,--I.
http.77www.odi.org.uk7resources7odi2publications7briefing2papers7E,2gender2
mdgs2poverty.pdf.
HG. / %Cender e&uity%. ood and 'griculture ;rgani?ation. 9ovember ,--G.
http.77www.fao.org7gender7gender2home7gender2programme7gender2e&uity7en7.
I-. / http.77www.genderevaluation.net Cender Evaluation )ethodology (CE))
I@. / >hant. ". ,--I. The Ofeminisation of povertyJ and the OfeminisationJ of anti2
poverty programmes. <oom for revision8 Bournal of development studies
EE(,).@/F2@GH.
I,. / %The )ale2emale :ologram,% 'shok Yohra, Times of $ndia, )arch I, ,--F,
*age G
*edit+ 6otations
Cender Trouble. eminism and the "ubversion of $dentity. Thinking Cender. 9ew
=ork [ 6ondon. <outledge, @GG-.
*edit+ ,urther reading
>hafet?, B". -asculine1$eminine or 2umanC An Averview of the ociology of e3
5oles. $tasca, $llinois. . E. *eacock, @GHE (@st ed.), @GHI (,nd ed.).
$"(9 -IHFI@,D@H. ;>6> EDEID@-.
6epowsky, )aria. $ruit of the -otherland8 4ender in an "galitarian ociety.
9ew =ork. >olumbia !niversity *ress, @GGD. $"(9 -,D@-I@,--.
;>6> ,I@IDF,,.
6erro, (ruce %*ower in Eden. The Emergence of Cender :ierarchies in the
'ncient 4orld%, ,--F, Trafford *ublishing . $"(9 @E@,-,@E@D.
Gender Issues in Languages
http://www.mindrelief.net/gender_issues_in_languages.html
The chapter K6anguage and CenderL that $ have read explains how language can be
used to discriminate against individuals and groups on the basis of their sex. This
chapter also provides some helpful information, which certainly will help us teachers
to recognise and avoid discriminatory practices.
!sing non2discriminatory language does not involve the conscious learning of a new
language in order to communicateA this is due to the fact that people continually learn
new words, expressions and constructions. 6anguage is dynamic and reflects changes
in society and contributes to such changes. !sing non2discriminatory language is, of
course, a part of this dynamic process.
(roadly speaking, in most cases, using non2discriminatory language means avoiding
certain expressions and selecting others that already exist in the language. "ometimes
it may involve combining existing words into a new compound word. ;nly in
exceptional cases a completely new word or expression has to be KcreatedL.
"exist language is language that favours one sex and treats the other sex in a
discriminatory manner. $n many cases it favours men and goes against women. $n
language, men are considered the KruleL for the human species, that is to say, their
characteristics, thoughts, beliefs and actions are seen as representing those of all
humans, male and female. This practice can make women imperceptible in language
or exclude them. The linguistic status of women often depends on the status of men.
(eing women in a dependent, subordinate position, sexist language prevents women
and men from being shown as e&ual human beings.
>ommon forms of sexism in English include the use of KmanL and Khe 7 him 7 hisL
as generics3that is to say, nouns and pronouns referring to both men and women3
the use of suffixes 2man, 2ette, 2ess, 2trix in occupational nouns and job titles,
asymmetrical naming practices, and stereotyped images of women and men as well as
descriptions of (mainly) women which denigrate them and their status. $t is
recommended that women should be more evident and visible in language by avoiding
the use of Kmale2orientedL words in the generic sense.
man (generic sense) humans, human race, human beings, human
species, humanity, humankind
or
women and men, person(s), man and
woman, individual(s), people(s), etc.
English does not possess a third person singular pronoun which is gender2neutral.
$nstead the KmasculineL pronouns KheL, KhimL and KhisL are generally used to refer to
both men and women. This is confusing and inaccurate and makes women invisible.
There are many ways of replacing the Khe 7 him 7 hisL pronouns without distorting the
message or compromising style or readability. :ere are some major strategies.
W recast the sentence in the plural
W leave out the pronoun
W repeat the noun
W use 5he or she5, 5she or he5 or in writing 5s7he5
W recast the sentence and use another pronoun, for example, 5you5, 5$5 or 5we5
W recast the sentence to avoid pronouns
$n speech it is common practice (however, considered ungrammatical) to use the
pronoun KtheyL as in. K$f a student wants to get a practice test, they should come to my
office between , and E p.m. todayL.
;ccupational nouns and job titles ending in 2man reduce the presence of women in
such professions and positions. There are various strategies for replacing 2man
compounds. or example, the use of an existing gender2neutral term (police officer
instead of policeman), or of the 2person alternative (layperson instead of layman) or
the explicit naming of both sexes (sportsmen and women instead of sportsmen) are
some of the possibilities. $t is, of course, acceptable to use the 2man compound to refer
to a man occupying the position if a woman in such a position is referred to by a
2woman compound (spokeswoman for a woman and spokesman for a man). :owever,
the practice of referring to a man by means of the Wman compound and to a woman by
means of the 2person compound is discriminatory. :ere is a list of the most fre&uently
used alternatives. the alternatives marked 0"1 are gender2specific.
'void 'lternatives
businessman business executive, business manager, business owner, business person,
entrepreneur, financier, investor, proprietor
0"1 businesswoman, businessman, businessmen business community, business people,
0"1 businessmen and businesswomen
cattleman cattle breeder, cattle owner, cattle producer, cattle raiser, cattle worker,
farmer
chairman the chair, chairperson, convener, coordinator, discussion leader, head (of)
N ,
leader, moderator, person chairing a meeting, person in the chair, president,
presiding officer
0"1 layman, laywoman
laymen laypeople, laypersons, lay community, laity
milkman milkdeliverer, milk supplier, 5milko5 (informal)
policeman member of the police, police officer (term indicating rank)
0"1 policewoman, policeman
postman letter carrier, mail carrier, mail deliverer, postal delivery officer, postal
worker,
5postie5 (informal)
0"1 postwoman, postman
salesman sales agent, sales associate, sales attendant, salesperson, sales representative,
salesworker, shop assistant, shop attendant
0"1 salesman, saleswoman (not saleslady or sales girl)
spokesman (principal) advocate, offical, representative, (person) speaking on behalf of
N ,.speaker, spokesperson
0"1 spokesman, spokeswoman
sportsman athlete, player, sports competitor, sportsperson
0"1 sportswoman, sportsman
#o not use weathergirl if the forecaster is a woman.
workman worker, employee, working person
;ccupational nouns and job titles, which refer exclusively to women, should also be
avoided. ;ften these have been derived from male job titles by adding such suffixes as
2ette, 2ess and 2trix. This practice reinforces the view that women5s status is dependent
on, or derived from, that of men. Bob titles like Kgirl fridayL and KsalesgirlL trivialise
the work women do.
'void 'lternatives
cleaning lady 7 woman cleaner (house cleaner, office cleaner)
camera girl camera operator (see also 5cameraman5 for other alternatives)
career girl professional, executive (or be specific about the profession)
matron (nursing) director of nursing
actress actor
comedienne comedian
manageress manager
poetess poet
waitress waiter