Adjustable Speed Drive

ASD cover 2/12/01 10:40 AM Page 2
$15.95 CDN
Adjustable
Speed Drive
REFERENCE GUIDE
4th Edition
First Edition, November 1987

Second Edition, March 1991
Third Edition, February 1995
Fourth Edition, August 1997
Revised by:
Richard Okrasa, P.Eng.
Ontario Hydro
Neither Ontario Hydro, nor any person acting on its behalf,

assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or for
damages resulting from the use of, any information,
equipment, product, method or process disclosed in
this guide.
In-House Energy Efficiency

Energy Savings are Good Business
Printed in Canada
Copyright © 1997 Ontario Hydro
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ADJUSTABLE SPEED
DRIVE
Reference Guide
4th Edition
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TA B L E OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
Latest Improvements .................................................................................2
CHAPTER 1: CLASSIFICATIONS ......................................................................... 3

Classification of Motors .......................................................................... 3
Classification of Drives ............................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL APPEARANCE ................................................................. 5
CHAPTER 3: PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ............................................................ 7

Conventional Fixed-speed AC Systems .................................................. 7
DC Drives ................................................................................................ 8
AC Drives ................................................................................................ 8
Eddy Current Clutches ............................................................................. 8
Switched Reluctance Drives ...................................................................... 9
Vector Drive .......................................................................................... 10
Wound-rotor Motor Controllers ............................................................... 10
Variable Voltage Controllers .................................................................... 11
Variable Frequency Drives ..................................................................... 11
Components .......................................................................................... 12
Types of Inverters .................................................................................. 13
Waveforms ............................................................................................ 14
Switching Devices (Power Electronics) ........................................................14
Medium Voltage Drives...........................................................................14
Recommended Specifications .....................................................................15
CHAPTER 4: COMPARISON OF ASDS ............................................................. 17

AC Drives .............................................................................................. 17
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Variable Voltage Inverter (VVI) ............................................................... 17

Current Source Inverter (CSI) ................................................................. 18
Pulse Width Modulator (PWM) .............................................................. 20
Power Factor Comparison ....................................................................... 22
DC Drives .............................................................................................. 23
Eddy Current Coupling ......................................................................... 25
Cycloconverter.........................................................................................26
CHAPTER 5: STANDARD AND OPTIONAL FEATURES ......................................... 33
CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES ............................................................................. 35

Speed Control ........................................................................................ 35
Position Control ..................................................................................... 36
Torque Control ...................................................................................... 36
High Energy Savings Potential ................................................................ 36
Soft Start/Regenerative Braking .............................................................. 36
Equipment Life Improvement .................................................................. 37
Multiple Motor Capability ..................................................................... 37
Bypass Capability ................................................................................. 37
Safe Operation in Harsh Environments .................................................... 37
Temporary or Back-up Operation .............................................................37
Reduction in Vibration and Noise Level .................................................... 38
Re-acceleration Capability ...................................................................... 38
Tips and Cautions .................................................................................. 38
CHAPTER 7: APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS .................................................. 39

How to Select an ASD ........................................................................... 39
Software ...................................................................................................42
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Financial Evaluation ................................................................................42

Load Characteristics ............................................................................... 42
Application Types by Load ..................................................................... 43
Motor/Drive System .............................................................................. 49
Thermal Considerations ......................................................................... 54
Other Considerations ............................................................................ 56
Efficiency .............................................................................................. 57
Reliability of ASDs ................................................................................ 58
Applications .......................................................................................... 59
Performance Required ............................................................................ 60
Starting and Stopping Characteristics ...................................................... 62
Torque .................................................................................................. 62
Environment .......................................................................................... 63
Weight and Space ................................................................................. 63
Accessories ............................................................................................ 64
Safety .................................................................................................. 65
Service and Maintenance ....................................................................... 65
CHAPTER 8: ECONOMICS .............................................................................. 69

Economic Factors ................................................................................... 72
Capital Costs ........................................................................................ 72
Capital Savings .................................................................................... 73
Operating Costs and Savings ................................................................. 73
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CHAPTER 9: HARMONIC DISTORTION ........................................................... 77

Harmonics .............................................................................................. 77
What Harmonic Distortion Can Do ...................................................... 78
Production and Transmission ................................................................ 79
Isolation Transformers ............................................................................ 80
Other Guidelines (IEEE 519-1992) ........................................................ 81
APPENDIX A: FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING APPLICATIONS ............................. 83

APPENDIX B: CONVERSION FACTORS ............................................................. 93
ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ 95
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 97
INDEX .......................................................................................................... 99
ASD SUPPLIERS IN ONTARIO ....................................................................... 101
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Comparison of Range Process Speed Control ......................................1

2. Physical Appearance of Variable Frequency
Drive/Motor System ............................................................................ 5
3. 8/6 Pole Switched Reluctance Motor .................................................. 9
4. Vector Drive .........................................................................................10
5. Closed Loop (Feedback) Adjustable Frequency
Inverter System .................................................................................. 12
6. VVI – Variable Voltage Inverter .......................................................... 17
7. VVI – Waveforms ............................................................................... 18
8. CSI – Current Source Inverter ............................................................ 19
9. CSI – Waveforms ............................................................................... 19
10. Block Diagram for a Typical CSI Drive ............................................. 19
11. PWM – Pulse Width Modulated Inverter .......................................... 21
12. PWM – Waveforms ............................................................................ 21
13. Block Diagram for a Typical PWM Drive .......................................... 21
14. Power Factor Comparison ................................................................. 22
15. DC Drive ............................................................................................ 23
16. ECC – Eddy Current Coupling .......................................................... 26
17. Cycloconverter Circuit.........................................................................27
18. Duty Cycles ....................................................................................... 43
19. Variable Torque Load ......................................................................... 45
20. Constant Torque Load ....................................................................... 45
21. Constant Horsepower Load .............................................................. 45
22. Power Required is Proportional to RPM3 Centrifugal
Fan/Blower, Pump .............................................................................. 46
23. Power Savings in Fans and Pumps Using ASDs ............................... 48
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LIST OF FIGURES
24. Motor Derating Curves vs. Speed Range When

Applied to Adjustable Frequency AC Drives
(6-Step Waveform or PWM) ............................................................. 53
25. Watts Loss (Efficiency) Comparison ................................................ 57
26. Typical AC Drive Efficiency ............................................................. 57
27. Motor Performance, Typical 60 Hz ................................................. 63
28. Ideal Torque-Speed Curves .............................................................. 64
29. NEMA Design B Motor Torque-Speed Curve ................................. 64
30. Capital Cost Comparison of Motor/Drive
Systems Medium HP, Voltages ........................................................ 76
31. Harmonic Distortion ........................................................................ 78
A-1. Calculating Hollow Shafts ............................................................... 88
A-2. Calculating the Inertia of Complex,
Concentric Rotating Parts ................................................................ 89
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LIST OF TA B L E S
1. Comparison of Adjustable Speed Drives ............................................. 29

2. ASD and Electronic Motor Features .................................................... 34
3. Suitability of Inverters for NEMA Motor Designs ............................... 55
4. ASD Checklist of Costs/Savings .......................................................... 70
5. ASD Investment Decision Technique .................................................. 71
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INTRODUCTION
An adjustable speed drive (ASD) is a device used to provide

continuous range process speed control (as compared to discrete
speed control as in gearboxes or multi-speed motors).
An ASD is capable of adjusting both speed and torque from an

induction or synchronous motor.
An electric ASD is an electrical system used to control motor

speed.
ASDs may be referred to by a variety of names, such as variable

speed drives, adjustable frequency drives or variable frequency
inverters. The latter two terms will only be used to refer to certain
AC systems, as is often the practice, although some DC drives are
also based on the principle of adjustable frequency.
Discrete Continuous
Speed
Operation
FIGURE 1. Comparison of Range Process Speed Control
Introduction 1
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In this guide, “drive” refers to the electric ASD.
Application concerns in connecting electric or mechanical ASDs

have similar effects on the driven load, and these are covered in this
guide.
L ATEST I MPROVEMENTS
• Microprocessor-based controllers eliminate analogue,
potentiometer-based adjustments.
• Digital control capability.
• Built-in Power Factor correction.
• Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) filters.
• Short Circuit Protection (automatic shutdown).
• Advanced circuitry to detect motor rotor position by sampling

power at terminals, ASD and motor circuitry combined to keep
power waveforms sinusoidal, minimizing power losses.
• Motor Control Centers (MCC) coupled with the ASD using

real-time monitors to trace motor-drive system performance.
• Higher starting torques at low speeds (up to 150% running

torque) up to 500 MP, in voltage source drives.
• Load-commutated Inverters coupled with synchronous motors.

(precise speed control in constant torque applications.
2 Adjustable Speed Drive Reference Guide

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CHAPTER 1
CLASSIFICATIONS
C LASSIFICATION OF M OTORS
• There are two main types of motors, AC (alternating current)
and DC (direct current).
• AC motors can be sub-classified as induction (squirrel-cage and

wound-rotor) and synchronous.
• Induction motors are often classified as either high efficiency or

standard.
C LASSIFICATION OF D RIVES
• Adjustable speed drives are the most efficient (98% at full load)
types of drives. They are used to control the speeds of both AC
and DC motors. They include variable frequency/voltage AC
motor controllers for squirrel-cage motors, DC motor
controllers for DC motors, eddy current clutches for AC motors
(less efficient), wound-rotor motor controllers for wound-rotor
AC motors (less efficient) and cycloconverters (less efficient).
Chapter 1: Classifications 3
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• Other types of drives include mechanical and hydraulic

controllers. Examples of mechanical drives are adjustable belts
and pulleys, gears, throttling valves, fan dampers and magnetic
clutches. Examples of hydraulic drives are hydraulic clutches
and fluid couplings.
• In this guide, emphasis is on AC variable frequency drives, or

inverters, which are used to control industry’s workhorse, the
standard AC induction motor. This is because this motor is
replacing the DC motor for many applications. In addition,
some information is provided on the DC motor/drive system,
since it remains the most suitable choice for certain
applications.
• Drives may be classified according to size ranges (horsepower,

voltage) for which increasing specifications are required in
designing an ASD driven system:
- Less than 500 HP.

- Medium sized (up to 2000 HP).
- Motors rated 4kV and up.
• An output transformer between the drive and motor, common
mode voltage is isolated from the motor and put on the drive
side transformer winding.

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CHAPTER 2
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
• Variable frequency AC drives are comprised of many electrical

circuits and components usually arranged within a cabinet that
provides heat dissipation and shielding.
ASD + transformer (if required)

Feedback Can be
Loop hundreds of
LOAD (Optional) metres away
Tachometer Motor
FIGURE 2. Physical Appearance of Variable Frequency

Drive/Motor System
Chapter 2: Physical Appearance 5

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• Drives vary greatly in size, depending upon their horsepower

and voltage rating and type.
• Electrical cables connect the motor to the drive, which might

involve a considerable distance.
• Small AC drives may be built on to their associated motors.

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CHAPTER 3
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
• Both AC and DC drives are used to convert AC plant power

to an adjustable output for controlling motor operation.
• DC drives control DC motors, and AC drives control AC

induction and synchronous motors.
C ONVENTIONAL F IXED - SPEED AC S YSTEMS

(AC M OTOR W ITHOUT D RIVE )
• Standard squirrel-cage induction motors are usually considered
to be constant speed motors.
• These systems require some means of throttling (via valves,

dampers, etc.) to meet process changes.
• If a reduction in demand occurs, excess energy is wasted in the

control device (dampers, throttling valves, recirculation loops)
since the power delivered does not decrease in proportion to
the reduction in demand.
Chapter 3: Principles of Operation 7

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DC D RIVES
• The DC motor is the simplest to which electronic speed control
can be applied because its speed is proportional to the armature
voltage.
• The DC voltage can be controlled through a phase-controlled

rectifier or by a DC-DC converter if the input power is DC.
This is usually accomplished by a separate motor-generator set
producing a DC output.
• The speed of a DC motor can be adjusted over a very wide

range by control of the armature current and/or field currents
(brushless DC drives, vector controlled DC drives).
AC D RIVES
E DDY C URRENT C LUTCHES
• Eddy current clutches can be used to control standard AC
squirrel-cage induction motors. However, they are low
efficiency compared to ASDs and have limited applications.
• An eddy current clutch has essentially three major components:

a steel drum directly driven by an AC motor, a rotor with poles
and a wound coil that provides the variable flux required for
speed control.
• Efficiency is significantly lower than ASDs.
• A voltage is applied to the coil of wire, which is normally

mounted on the rotor of the clutch to establish a flux, and thus
relative motion occurs between the drum and its output rotor.

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• By varying the applied voltage, the amount of torque

transmitted, and therefore the speed, can be varied.
S WITCHED R ELUCTANCE D RIVES

• Switched reluctance (SR) drives have a high power to weight
ratio.
• In closed-loop control, they are well suited for speed and

torque control.
FIGURE 3. 8/6 Pole Switched Reluctance Motor

(one phase winding shown)
• The rotor has salient poles with no windings or electric

connections.
• A pair of opposite stator poles magnetically pulls rotor poles

in-line.
• Rotor position sensor controls switch each pole pair in

sequence, giving continuous rotation.

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V ECTOR D RIVE
• Vector drive control of AC motors is similar to DC drive
performance in speed, torque and horsepower.
• It can produce full torque from start to full speed. (The motor
needs to control heat at full torque and low speed.)
• It requires complex electronics (digital signal processors, or

DSPs) to calculate servomotor phase currents.
• Magnitude and direction of armature current together are a

vector quantity which must be regulated to adjust torque.
• Slip speed and motor speed are tracked by an encoder.
• Synchronous motors can be controlled by vector drives by

eliminating magnetizing current and slip values.
Speed
Regulator
Encoder
2 Phase Current
to Regulator
3 Phase
Flux Motor
Command
Controller Position
Signal
FIGURE 4. Vector Drive
W OUND - ROTOR M OTOR C ONTROLLERS

• Wound-rotor motor controllers are used to control the speed of
wound-rotor induction motors.

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• By changing the amount of external resistance connected to the

rotor circuit through the slip rings, the motor speed can be
varied.
• The slip energy of the motor is either wasted in external

resistance controllers (in the form of heat) or recovered and
converted to useful electrical or mechanical energy. For
conversion to useful electrical energy, the system would be
known as a wound-rotor slip energy recovery drive.
VARIABLE V OLTAGE C ONTROLLERS
• Variable voltage controllers can be used with induction motors.
• Motor speed is controlled directly by varying the voltage.
• These controllers require high slip motors and so are inefficient

at high speed.
• Only applications with narrow speed ranges are suitable.
VARIABLE F REQUENCY D RIVES

• A variable frequency drive controls the speed of an AC motor
by varying the frequency supplied to the motor.
• The drive also regulates the output voltage in proportion to the

output frequency to provide a relatively constant ratio (V/Hz) of
voltage to frequency, as required by the characteristics of the
AC motor to produce adequate torque.
• In closed-loop control, a change in demand is compensated by a

change in the power and frequency supplied to the motor, and thus
a change in motor speed (within regulation capability).

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Feedback Speed
Reference TACHOMETER
Signal from Process
REGULATOR
(Controls)
Motor
INVERTER LOAD
RECTIFIER (Switching
Section)
Constant Fixed or Variable
Frequency Variable Frequency
Constant Voltage DC Voltage Variable Voltage
AC Power AC Power
Supply Output
FIGURE 5. Closed Loop (Feedback)

Adjustable Frequency Inverter System
C OMPONENTS
• A variable frequency drive has two stages of power conversion,
a rectifier and an inverter. (“Inverter” is also used to refer to the
entire drive.)
• The system functions this way:

- 60 Hz power, usually 3-phase, is supplied to the rectifier.
The input voltage level is usually standard 208V, 230V, 460V,
600V, 4,160V, etc. (Higher than 600V requires step-down
transformers.)
- The rectifier is a circuit which converts fixed voltage AC
power to either fixed or adjustable voltage DC.

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- The inverter is composed of electronic switches (thyristors or

transistors) that switch the DC power on and off to produce
a controllable AC power output at the desired frequency
and voltage.
- A regulator modifies the inverter switching characteristics so
that the output frequency can be controlled. It may include
sensors to measure the control variables.
T YPES OF I NVERTERS
• There are three basic types of inverters commonly employed in

adjustable AC drives:
- The variable voltage inverter (VVI), or square-wave six-step
voltage source inverter (VSI), receives DC power from an
adjustable voltage source and adjusts the frequency and
voltage.
- The current source inverter (CSI) receives DC power from an
adjustable current source and adjusts the frequency and
current.
- The pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter is the most
commonly chosen. It receives DC power from a fixed voltage
source and adjusts the frequency and voltage. (PWM types
cause the least harmonic noise.)
• AC/AC adjustable frequency drives are used only for large
horsepower applications (1000 hp and above). They include
cycloconverters (AC/AC) and load-commutated inverters
(LCIs). Both can be used with induction or synchronous
motors. (Since these drives are usually custom-designed for
each application, they will not be fully discussed in this guide.)

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W AVEFORMS
• The voltage and current waveforms produced by inverter
systems approximate, to varying degrees, the pure sine wave.
• Of the three most common inverter systems, the pulse width

modulated inverter produces output current waveforms that
have the least amount of distortion.
S WITCHING D EVICES
• Advances in Power Electronic technology have greatly
enhanced performance range and reliability of ASDs.
• New switching devices are faster, produce less heat, and less
harmonics into the motor circuit. Some types are:
- SCR (silicon - controlled rectifier).

- Diode.
- GTO (gate turnoff thyristor).
- IGBT (insulated gate bi-thermal thyristor).
M EDIUM V OLTAGE D RIVES

• Voltages above 2300V, and controlling induction motors
between 1,000 HP to 15,000HP are becoming increasingly
available.
- Input line isolation transformer.

- Internal cooling (liquid or air).
- Input circuit breaker, output contactor with isolation
switches.

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- Motor harmonics filter to supply maximum 5% current total

harmanic distortion.
- DC link reactor to prevent saturation at faulted conditions.
R ECOMMENDED S PECIFICATIONS
• Nominal power at +- 10% voltage, 3 phase, 60 Hz ( +- 2%).
• Capable of operation during temporary voltage drop of 70% to

90% lasting up to 6 voltage wave cycles.
• Bus voltage restored within 5 seconds, drive automatically

restarts, if not, drive automatically trips and shuts down. Manual
reset required to start.
• Uninterruptible Power Source (UPS) recommended to provide

control circuit power during supply power disturbances, from
5 seconds up to 15 minutes UPS supply recommended.
- Ambient Indoor Conditions:

- 0°C to 40°C.
- Relative humidity up to 95% non condensing.
- Overload capability: 15% rated current for 60 seconds.
- Class H insulation, class B temperature rise.
- ANSI C57.12.01 construction materials.
- NEMA Std. TR-27 for noise.

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CHAPTER 4
COMPARISON OF ASDS
AC D RIVES
VARIABLE V OLTAGE I NVERTER (VVI)
• A controlled rectifier transforms supply AC to variable voltage
DC. The converter can be an SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier)
bridge or a diode bridge rectifier with a DC chopper. The
voltage regulator presets DC bus voltage to motor requirements.
AC to DC DC to AC
Rectifier DC Link Inverter
Constant Voltage Variable Voltage/

Voltage Smoothing Frequency Control
FIGURE 6. VVI – Variable Voltage Inverter
• Output frequency is controlled by switching transistors or

thyristors in six steps.
Chapter 4: Comparison of ASDs 17
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Voltage 6 Step
(Line to
Neutral) 0
Current
(Line) 0
Time
FIGURE 7. VVI – Waveforms
• VVI inverters control voltage in a separate section from the

frequency generation output.
• Approximate sine current waveform follows voltage.
• VVI is the simplest adjustable frequency drive and most

economical; however, it has the poorest output waveform.
It requires the most filtering to the inverter.
• Ranges available are typically up to 500 horsepower but can

be up to 1000 horsepower.
• Voltage source inverters use a constant DC link voltage.
C URRENT S OURCE I NVERTER (CSI)

• AC current transformers are used to adjust the controlled
rectifier. Input converter is similar to the VVI drive. A current
regulator presets DC bus current.
• The inverter delivers six step current frequency pulse, which

the voltage waveform follows. Switches in the inverter can be
transistors, SCR thyristors or gate turnoff thyristors (GTOs).

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AC to DC DC to AC
Rectifier DC Link Inverter
Variable Current Variable

Voltage Smoothing Frequency
Control Control
FIGURE 8. CSI – Current Source Inverter
Voltage
(Line to
Neutral)
0
Current
(Line) 0
Time
FIGURE 9. CSI – Waveforms
AC AC/DC Inverter
Converter Filter
Line
Motor
Current Frequency
Regulator Control
Speed
Speed or
Voltage
Control
FIGURE 10. Block Diagram for a Typical CSI Drive

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• The capacitor in the inverter is matched to motor size.
• Voltage exhibits commutation spikes when the thyristors fire.
• Because it is difficult to control the motor by current only, the

CSI requires a large filter inductor and complex regulator.
• CSI drives are short circuit proof because of a constant circuit

with the motor.
• They are not suitable for parallel motor operation.
• Braking power is returned to the distribution system.
• The CSI drive’s main advantage is in its ability to control

current and, therefore, control torque. This applies in variable
torque applications.
• CSI-type drives have a higher horsepower range than VVI and

PWM (typically up to 5000 horsepower).
P ULSE W IDTH M ODULATOR (PWM)

• Diode rectifiers provide constant DC voltage. Since the inverter
receives a fixed voltage, the amplitude of output waveform is
fixed. The inverter adjusts the width of output voltage pulses as
well as frequency so that voltage is approximately sinusoidal.
• The better waveforms require less filtering; however, PWM

inverters are the most complex type and switching losses can
be high.
• The range of PWM inverters is typically up to 3000 horsepower,

but each manufacturer may list larger sizes (usually custom-
engineered).

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AC to DC DC to AC
Converter DC Link Inverter
Variable Voltage Variable

Voltage Smoothing Frequency
Control Control
FIGURE 11. PWM – Pulse Width Modulated
Voltage
(Line to
Neutral)
Current
(Line)
0
FIGURE 12. PWM – Waveforms
Diode
AC Bridge Filter Inverter
Line Rectifier
Motor
Speed
Reference
Voltage &
Frequency
Control
FIGURE 13. Block Diagram for a Typical PWM Drive

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• Motors run smoothly at high and low speed (no cogging);

however, they are current limited.
• PWM drives can run multiple parallel motors with acceleration

rate matched to total motor load.
• At low speeds, PWM drives may require a voltage boost to

generate required torque.
• A vector drive can control similar to a DC drive.
• PWM is the most costly of the three main AC ASD types.
• Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) drives are a variation of

PWM drives.
1.0
PWM &
Vector Drive
.75
Power Factor
VVI
.50
CSI
.25
0
450 900 1350 1800
Speed (RPM)
FIGURE 14. Power Factor Comparison
P OWER FACTOR C OMPARISON

• The power factor of VVI and CSI drives declines with speed as
the thyristor firing angle varies in the controlled rectifier.

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• PWM drives have near unity power factor throughout the speed
range, due to the diode rectifier and constant voltage DC bus.
• Note that true Root-Mean-Square (RMS) meters will determine

the real power factor on three-phase systems. It may be less
than the displacement power factor (kW/kVA) which appears
on single-phase meters.
DC D RIVES
• DC drives are a simpler, more mature technology than AC
drives, and they continue to have applications where larger
horsepower is required due to high voltage capacity.
• Armature voltage-controlled DC drives are constant torque

drives capable of rated motor torque at any speed up to rated
motor base speed.
Armature Voltage Field Current
Control Control
Constant Field Constant Armature
Current Voltage
100
Constant Constant
% of Rated Power
Torque Power
0
0 100
% of Base Speed
FIGURE 15. DC Drive

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• Field voltage-controlled DC drives provide constant horsepower

and variable torque. A variable voltage field regulator can
provide alternate armature and field voltage control.
• Motor speed is directly proportional to voltage applied to the

armature by the ASD. A phase-controlled bridge rectifier with
logic circuits is used. Tachometer feedback achieves speed
regulation.
• DC drives have good efficiency throughout the speed range

and are larger than AC for the same horsepower. However,
with DC drives, the power factor decreases with speed, it is not
possible to bypass the drive to run the motor and maintenance
costs are high due to armature connections through a brush and
commutator ring.
• Regenerative DC drives can invert the DC electrical energy

produced by the generator/motor rotational mechanical energy.
• Cranes and hoists use DC regenerative drives to hold back

“overhauling loads,” such as a raised weight or a machine’s
flywheel.
• Non-regenerative DC drives are those where the DC motor

rotates in only one direction, supplying torque in high friction
loads such as mixers or extruders. The load exerts a strong
natural brake. If desired, the drive’s deceleration time can affect
speed regulation.
• Flywheel applications such as stamping presses have

overhauling load; hence, braking torque or “dynamic braking” is
applied. All DC motors are DC generators as well.
• Regenerative drives are better speed control devices than non-

regenerative but are more expensive and complicated.

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• Armature voltage control DC drives have constant torque

features, capable of rated torque across the motor speed range.
These drives must be oversized to handle constant horsepower
applications.
• Field voltage control of shunt wound DC motors with a voltage

regulator coordinate armature and field voltage for extending
speed range in constant horsepower applications.
• Table 1 compares the electric variable speed drives that may be

used to control the speed of standard squirrel-cage induction
motors. For comparison, information on DC systems is also
provided. Note that this table covers products representative of
the types available. Actual product lines may differ. In addition,
special order equipment may not conform to these guidelines.
Voltage ranges depend on the manufacturer as well as the need
for auxiliary equipment, such as step-down transformers, line
filters and chokes.
E DDY C URRENT C OUPLING

• The eddy current coupling (ECC) is similar in principle to a
friction-type clutch. It provides electromechanical coupling
with torque transmitted by eddy currents. The eddy currents
are generated by rotation.
• The ECC has electrically energized magnetic coil windings on

the rotor via slip rings. The magnetic fields in the drum are
caused by eddy currents.
• Horsepower Slip Loss = motor hp x slip speed RPM

motor RPM

ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 26
Drum
Motor
Load
TD SD SR TR
Magnetic Rotor
TD = Drum Torque TR = Rotor Torque

SD = Drum Speed SR = Rotor Speed
FIGURE 16. ECC – Eddy Current Coupling
C YCLOCONVERTER
• Mainly used in large synchronous motor drives in low
frequency applications:
- Steel rolling mill end tables.

- Cement mill furnaces.
- Mine hoists.
- Ship propulsion drives.
• Limitation: wave forms become distorted above 40% of input
frequency (i.e., 20Hz from 50Hz supply).
• Advantage: high power factor using synchronous motors.

ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 27
A.C. Supply
Bridge
A
Load
Bridge
B
A.C. Supply
FIGURE 17. Cycloconvertor Circuit

ASD tables 2/12/01 10:26 AM Page 25
TABLE 1. Comparison of Adjustable Speed Drives
Type of Electric Variable Voltage Current Source Pulse Width Modulated Wound Rotor with Eddy Current
Drive Inverter (VVI) Inverter (CSI) Inverter (PWM) DC Drive Slip Energy Recovery Coupling (ECC)
MOTOR COMPATIBILITY • Squirrel-cage induction • Squirrel-cage induction • Squirrel-cage induction Commutated DC Wound rotor induction Squirrel-cage induction
or synchronous or synchronous or synchronous
• Can handle motors • Can handle motors • Can handle motors
smaller than inverter smaller than inverter smaller than inverter rating
rating rating (at reduced rating)
5 – 5,000
TYPICAL POWER RANGE 1 – 1,000 50 – 5,000 0 – 10,000 400 – 20,000 1 – 1,000
(hp)
30:1
SPEED REDUCTION 10:1 10:1 20:1 open loop 5:1 34:1 but may be difficult to
(typical) = 200:1 with tachometer control above 2:1
Maximum Speed
Minimum Speed
5%
CONTROL OPEN LOOP 5% 5% 0.1 - 5% 2 - 5% 3 - 5%
CAPABILITY depending upon feedback
(no feedback) methods
(Note: Can be improved
with feedback controls)
Good
ADAPTABILITY OF MOTOR Good Good Poor due to high Medium Good
TO HOSTILE maintenance of motor
ENVIRONMENTS
85 - 95%
EFFICIENCY RANGE 88 - 93% 88 - 93% 90 - 94% 92 - 96% 0 - 70%
• for system: drive & motor
TORQUE hp Yes
• Constant Yes Yes Yes Yes
• Variable Yes Yes
• Control Method Field voltage, armature Rotor current Field winding
voltage or both
600
VOLTAGE RANGE

TABLE 1. Comparison of Adjustable Speed Drives (cont’d)
MULTIPLE MOTOR Yes, unlimited within No Yes, unlimited within inverter Yes, with manufacturer’s No No
CAPABILITY (e.g., two inverter rating rating engineering for load sharing
200 hp motors on a single
400 hp drive)
SOFT STARTING Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes, if starting resistors Yes
used
Power Factor to Motor (PF) Better than CSI (*2) (*2) Near unity (excellent) (*2)
Relatively low (can be Good
Drops with speed Drops with speed improved with capacitors)
OUTPUT SYSTEMS Worst Better than VVI Least Yes Yes No

HARMONICS
(dependent on leakage
reactance)
COMPLEXITY OF:
• POWER CIRCUIT Simple Simple Simple Simple N/A
• CONTROL CIRCUIT Simple Semi-complex Complex Simple Simple Simple
PRINCIPLE The inverter receives DC The inverter receives DC The inverter receives DC Speed is adjusted by Changes current in rotor The output speed is varied
power from an adjustable power from an adjustable power from a fixed voltage changing field voltage circuit by means of a by controlling the magnetic
voltage source and adjusts current source and adjusts source (diode rectifier) and and/or armature voltage. rectifier and converter coupling between two
the frequency. the frequency and voltage. controls voltage and connected to rotor winding. rotating members. This is
The DC current regulator is frequency. The RMS Energy recovered is usually done by means of a field
controlled by a closed loop voltage amplitude is fixed, fed back into power supply. winding which controls the
speed regulator. but the width of voltage clip between them.
intervals is varied.

CIRCUIT PROTECTION
• Inverter Open Circuit Inherent voltage limit Requires careful design Inherent voltage limit Inherent voltage limit N/A N/A
• Inverter Short Circuit Must be carefully designed Inherent current limit Same as for VVI, except Inherent current limit N/A N/A
to handle DC bus capacitor PWM circuit is very fast
discharge acting
CONTROL VARIABLE Motor voltage, frequency Motor voltage, frequency Motor voltage and frequency Motor armature voltage, Rotor current Field between rotating
and current current and/or field voltage member
(not common)
REGENERATIVE BRAKING Option with added circuitry Standard Option Option No No
REVERSE CAPABILITY Yes Yes Yes Yes No Poor
RIDE-THROUGH Difficult Difficult Yes, using battery or Special applications only No No

CAPABILITY capacitive storage
SIZE & WEIGHT Intermediate Large Small Intermediate Small Small controller; large
rotating element
MAIN ADVANTAGES • High output frequencies • Short circuit and overload • Excellent power factor; • Simple system • Costs are relatively low • Low costs
(higher than 60 Hz if protection due to current harmonics are minimal • Wide speed range for narrow variable speed • Simple compact control
necessary) control of regulator • Can be retrofitted to • Soft start ranges • Wide constant torque
• Can be retrofitted to • Soft start existing fixed speed motor • Simple circuitry speed range
existing fixed speed • Soft start • Adaptable to existing
motor wound rotor motors
• Soft start
MAIN DISADVANTAGES • Harmonics increase • Instability may result • Motor is subject to voltage • Brush and commutator • Maintenance of brushes • Efficiency low at low
losses in motor under partial loading stresses maintenance is high is high speeds
• Standard inverter cannot • Harmonics increase • Complex logic circuits • Limited to medium and • May pose problems in • Lack of reversing
operate in a regenerative losses in motor lower speed applications; hazardous environments capability
mode • Difficult to retrofit to special motor enclosures • Relatively low power • Limited speed range
existing fixed speed may be specified if higher factor • Maintenance of brushed
motor drive speed capability is • Limited speed range is required
required (TENV, TEAO) • Regenerative braking n/a

MAIN DISADVANTAGES • Lower horsepower ranges • Only single motor control • High initial cost • Not suitable for
(cont’d) typically hazardous environments
where explosive gases
may exist
• Expensive, large motor
• Power factor always poor
at low speed
APPLICATIONS
• General • General purpose low- • General purpose when • Best reliability AC type, at • For applications with a • Used if speed range is • General purpose for
medium horsepower regenerative braking added cost wide range of speed narrow (70%-100%) and equipment normally
(<500 horsepower), wanted (hoists) • Also suitable for most adjustment and a low- reversing not required operating at full speed
multiple motor control applications moderate starting torque
• Used for medium and low
speed applications
• General purpose
• Specific • Conveyors • Pumps • Slow speed ranges • Extruders • Large pumps & fans with • Fans
• Machine tools • Fans • Conveyors • Machine tools limited speed range • Pumps
• Pumps • Compressors • Pumps • Mine hoists • Compressors • Blowers
• Fans • Blowers • Fans • Cranes • Kilns • Fluid propulsion systems
• Packaging equipment • Elevators • Conveyors • Driving extruders
• Rotary kilns • Mixers
• Rubber mills
• Printing presses
• Shakers (foundry or car)
• Winches
• Public transportation
(*1) A totally enclosed motor is usually required because the ECC is normally used in close proximity to the driven machine (e.g., machine tools).
(*2) The VVI, CSI and DC drives have power factors that decrease with speed. For the AC inverters, this can be corrected by implementing a diode and chopper control.
This will slightly increase acoustical noise and slightly reduce efficiency.
N/A Not Applicable

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CHAPTER 5
STANDARD AND OPTIONAL

FEATURES
• See Table 2 on the following page for a general guideline list of
standard and optional features for AC variable frequency drives
and new power electronic devices. Note, however, that
manufacturers may differ on some factors.
Chapter 5: Standard and Optional Features 33

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TABLE 2. ASD and Electronic Motor Features
ASD Standard ASD Optional New Power

Protection Features Features Electronic Devices
Overvoltage Soft start Metal oxide semi-

conductor (MOS)
Undervoltage Overload protection controlled thyristors
Overcurrent Torque limit (inverter switches)
Loss of control power Power outage Insulated-gate bi

ride-through thyristors (IGBT are
Across-the-line start more capable of rapid
Brake stop energizing)
Line-to-line shorts
on output Coast stop
Line-to-ground shorts Bypass

on output
Motor slip
Continuous overload compensation
Locked rotor Electronic reversing
Motor single phasing Voltage boost (at start)
Accel/decel
Regenerative power
protection
Low speed jog
IR compensation

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CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES
• Electronic AC or DC adjustable speed drives have a number of

advantages over mechanical, hydraulic and fixed speed drives.
They include a continuous speed range from 0 to full speed,
improved process control, improved efficiency and potential
energy savings, enhanced product quality and uniformity, soft
starting/regenerative braking, wider speed, torque and power
ranges, short response time, equipment life improvement,
multiple motor capability (except CSI), easy to retrofit (except
CSI), bypass capability, increased productivity, safe operation in
hazardous environments, reduction in vibration and noise level,
re-acceleration capability, reduced maintenance and downtime
and operation above full load speeds.
• Motor diagnostics are available in feedback controls.
S PEED C ONTROL
• ASDs are used to control production speed in conveyor
systems in the food, paper, automotive, and consumer goods
industries. In mining, ASDs are used in crushers, grinding mills,
rotary kilns, presses, rolling mills, and textile machinery.
Chapter 6: Advantages 35
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P OSITION C ONTROL
• ASDs are used for machine tools.
T ORQUE C ONTROL
• ASDs are used for tensioning (winders).
H IGH E NERGY S AVINGS P OTENTIAL

• Applications with highest energy savings potential are
centrifugal pumps and fans (power is proportional to speed
cubed), pumping applications (municipal water systems,
centrifugal chillers, chemical/petrochemical industries, pulp and
paper plants and food industries) and replacing damper controls
in air handling and ventilation applications.
S OFT S TARTING /R EGENERATIVE B RAKING
• When a constant speed drive starts up, the surge of inrush

current that moves the motor out of its stationary position is
about six times the ordinary current, thus producing much
stress on the equipment, especially the windings.
• With adjustable frequency drives, acceleration times can be

adjusted from instantaneous up to several minutes, thus
providing soft starting capabilities.
• Regenerative braking is used when the rapid reduction of motor

speed in a controlled manner is needed for production or safety
reasons. It is a form of dynamic braking in which the kinetic
energy of the motor and driven machinery is returned to the
power supply system. The motor becomes a generator when
the driven load is applying torque in the reverse direction.

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E QUIPMENT L IFE I MPROVEMENT

• The soft starting feature reduces water hammer and cavitation
situations for fluid systems to prolong equipment life.
• Operation of motors, transformers, cables, pump seals, pipes,

valves and impellers may be prolonged.
• Soft starting reduces inrush current and voltage drop during

starting and therefore also reduces stresses on windings,
starting currents and heating.
M ULTIPLE M OTOR C APABILITY

• One multiple motor ASD (except CSI) can control a number of
synchronized motors at the same speed (e.g., in the textile
industry).
B YPASS C APABILITY
• The adjustable frequency drive can be for service, without need
to shut down the driven equipment (with additional circuitry
optional).
S AFE O PERATION IN H ARSH E NVIRONMENTS

• Adjustable frequency drives offer safe operation in harsh
environments since the drive can be housed in a remote
location.
T EMPORARY OR B ACK - UP O PERATION

• Instead of operating a second pump or fan for temporary
service when extra pressure or flow is required, use a larger
capacity single pump or fan under ASD control to meet the
EXACT requirements at ALL times.
Chapter 6: Advantages 37
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R EDUCTION IN V IBRATION AND N OISE L EVEL

• Vibration and noise level are reduced when the operating speed
of the equipment is lowered and because valves or vanes are
eliminated.
R E - ACCELERATION C APABILITY
• Some adjustable frequency drives continue to have power
supply during power losses of short duration, whereas fixed
speed devices would trip out.
T IPS AND C AUTIONS

• If using multiple motors, each one must be protected by its
own overload relay. The total current drawn by all the attached
motors must be equal to or less than the current rating of the
controller.
• Equipment life will be prolonged only if the proper precautions

are taken for power conditioning. Poor quality power can cause
overheating, insulation damage and even equipment destruction.
• Consider torsional harmonics. Avoid operating at speeds

coincident with rotating equipment natural frequencies
(resonance).

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CHAPTER 7
APPLICATION
CONSIDERATIONS
H OW TO S ELECT AN ASD
• Use this section as a general guide. The information provided
does not address differences in types of driven equipment.
• Essentially, selecting an ASD involves matching the

performance of the ASD to the needs of the motor and load.
- Determine the need for speed or process flow control.
Without varying speed requirements, equipment may simply
be oversized for the needs of the process, if present throttling
devices are frequently on.
- Describe the range of speed control. An ASD offers a
continuous range from 0 to full speed. If only a few select
operating points are required, a multi-speed motor may be a
better choice.
- Estimate the process duty cycle (see Figure 18). Duty cycle is
a listing of the process operating points (for example, fan
pressure and flow) and the duration each point occurs. This is
perhaps the most important part of assessing the need for an
ASD in a particular application. The duty cycle characterizes
the process being served by the motor.
Chapter 7: Application Considerations 39

ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 40
- Gather equipment performance data. Performance curves

supplied by the equipment manufacturer describe the power
requirements of the driven equipment at selected operating
points. It is necessary, however, to check that the “as installed”
performance matches that of the performance curves. Otherwise,
improper performance selection of the ASD may result. Also note
that performance ratings and field ratings may differ. Consider
getting the help of a qualified installation and set-up contractor to
verify field performance.
- Operating points are the intersection of the particular process
system curve and the equipment’s characteristic
performance curve.
- System curve is the set of points that describes the volume of
flow and resistance to flow as defined by the application.
- Throttling, or dampers, change the system curve by
increasing the resistance to flow.
- Performance curve is the set of points of flow vs. pressure
that the particular fan, pump or blower must follow at a
particular speed and fluid density. Manufacturers usually
supply performance curves that give the selected design
point.
- Brake horsepower and efficiency vs. flow are also supplied by
the manufacturer. They determine the motor and any
gearbox or belt sheave reduction necessary to achieve the
correct speed.
- Calculate constant and ASD power requirements. Using the
formulas in Appendix A, calculate the power required for
each operating point in the duty cycle for constant speed
(throttling flow control) and adjustable speed cases.

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- Calculate energy consumption. Multiply the power required

at each operating point by the annual hours at the point from
the duty cycle, then sum the total for constant and adjustable
speed.
- Select a drive type and features and estimate costs. Based on
the load type (constant vs. adjustable torque, horsepower,
starting time, speed regulation, speed, torque range,
regeneration, shielding, transformers, installation, control
logic and other specific features listed in this guide), select the
type of drive for the application. Obtain manufacturers’
quotes. Prices will depend greatly on whether you need a
custom-designed ASD or an off-the-shelf model.
- Calculate simple payback (based on energy savings alone).
Total the cost to install a drive. Multiply the estimated annual
energy savings (adjustable vs. constant speed) by the utility
energy rate charge. Divide the total installed cost by annual
energy savings. The result is simple payback in years.
- Consider other ASD savings, such as reduced wear due to
soft start, lower maintenance costs and less material wastage
resulting from more accurate speed adjustment. These
savings are difficult to estimate and can usually be
determined only through ASD operating experience.
- Note:
Measure power in kW, not kVA.
Use power meters, not ammeters.
Power factor must be measured. kW = kVA x p.f.
Check that phases are balanced in a three-phase system.
(Do not assume three phase = 1.73 x single phase.)

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S OFTWARE
F INANCIAL E VALUATION
• Software is available from several ASD suppliers, including
some utilities. Be careful to include lower part-load efficiencies
when inputting performance data.
L OAD C HARACTERISTICS
Varying Duty Cycle
• The load profile or duty cycle will also indicate the potential
suitability of an ASD for an application. The duty cycle shows
the typical speeds and corresponding time intervals for which a
motor operates annually. From an energy standpoint, the
ingredients of a good ASD application are high percent throttling
(changing load) and high annual operating hours.

ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 43
100
% Flow Good
Application
0
Time
100
% Flow
Poor
Application
0
Time
FIGURE 18. Duty Cycles
A PPLICATION T YPES BY L OAD

• There are three main types of adjustable speed loads: variable
torque/variable horsepower (hp = torque x RPM) (centrifugal
pumps, fans), constant torque and constant horsepower,
(constant tension winders, machine tools).

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• The behaviour of the horsepower and torque as a function of

percent speed partially determines the requirements of the
motor/controller system.
• For an induction motor, the speed-torque relationship depends

on the voltage and frequency of the supplied voltage as well as
the characteristics of the rotor conductors.
• Constant torque drives are often supplied as “standard” drives.

To make a variable torque drive, the manufacturer usually adds
a jumper and chopper to the standard model.
• Examples of variable torque loads are centrifugal loads, where

torque is proportional to RPM2, where horsepower is
proportional to RPM3 such as fans, pumps and blowers
(dynamic).
• Examples of constant torque loads are agitators, positive

displacement compressors, conveyors (belt, batching, chain,
screw), crushers, drill presses, extruders, hoists, kilns, mixers,
packaging machines, positive displacement pumps,
screwfeeders, roll out tables and winders-surface. Note that
some may not be constant torque loads but require constant
torque drives due to shock overloading, overload or high inertia
load conditions.
• Examples of constant horsepower loads are drilling machines,

lathes, machine tools, milling machines and centre-driven
winders. Note that torque is inversely proportional to speed.

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Percent hp and Torque
100
80
60
40 Torque hp
20
0 50 100
Percent Speed
FIGURE 19. Variable Torque Load

Torque
100
80
60
hp
40
20
0 50 100
Percent Speed
FIGURE 20. Constant Torque Load

hp
100
80
60 Torque
40
20
0 50 100
Percent Speed
FIGURE 21. Constant Horsepower Load

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T IPS AND C AUTIONS

• The variable torque controller is designed to provide 100%
rated torque continuously with no overload capability. This
should be used only for applications where the load torque
varies proportionally with speed, such as fans and centrifugal
pumps. The current rating of the motor must be checked with
Fan/Blower (incompressible flow)
Outlet Damper Control ASD Control
Unstable
Area
Pressure
Performance
System
Inlet Guide
Vane Control
Flow Flow
Pump
Valve Control ASD Control
System
Perf
orma
nce
Pressure
Dynamic
Performance
System
Static
Flow Flow
FIGURE 22: Power Required is Proportional to RPM3
Centrifugal Fan/Blower, Pump

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the current rating of the controller to ensure that the controller

can provide the full horsepower capability of the motor.
• Low speed motor cooling does not limit the speed range with a
variable torque load since the load requires less torque at lower
speeds. For this type of load, it is important to choose a
horsepower rating for the highest speed attained.
• The minimum allowable motor speed for continuous constant

torque or constant horsepower operation is determined by the
motor cooling requirements at low speeds. These methods can
be used to increase the motor’s constant torque speed range:
- Use a separate blower for motor cooling.

- Use an oversized motor, and operate it at less than its
nameplate rating. This provides additional mass for heat
dissipation. However, this may result in oversizing the drive
to compensate for the increased magnetizing current.
- Use a motor with a high service factor. Specify class F or H
insulation.
- Use a high efficiency motor.
• Also, see “Thermal Considerations.”
• Torsional harmonics may occur if resonant frequencies coincide

with reduced speeds. These can be programmed out by
the ASD.
• Low speed operation can cause mechanical instability if it

results in operating too far up the fan/pump performance curve
(the unstable region before peak pressure).

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• Multiple fan/pump systems will run at the same pressure if

in parallel operation. So, do not put an ASD on only one of
parallel pumps or fans.
• Sizing the drive means matching torque, speed, voltage, current

and horsepower to the load and motor requirements.
• The cost for custom-engineered applications (mostly DC,

synchronous or wound-rotor motors with slip energy recovery,
load-commutated inverters) will be higher.
• ASDs are generally selected for their speed control capability,

not specifically for energy savings. Energy savings are achieved,
however, when process control dampers or throttling valves or
recirculation lines are replaced by higher efficiency ASDs.
• ASDs offer the best potential for energy savings when controlling
the speed of centrifugal fans, pumps and blowers. The power
required is proportional to RPM3. Therefore, a 10% drop in speed
results in a 27% drop in power consumption (1.0-0.93).
Damper
Control
Power Required
Saving
ASD
Control
Speed
FIGURE 23. Power Savings in Fans and Pumps Using ASDs

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• Demand savings are not attributable to ASD control, however,

since achieving better speed control does not usually result in
downsizing absolute power requirements. There may be “time
of use” demand savings (taking advantage of reduced speed
operation during utility peak demand periods).
• In-rush current is about 600% rated current when started at full

voltage and frequency. If the motor is started at low voltage and
frequency through an ASD, it will never need more than 150%
of rated current (started at 2 Hz). This soft start reduces stresses
on the motor, extending its life.
M OTOR /D RIVE S YSTEM

• If, after examining the load characteristics and process
requirements of an application, it appears that an ASD may be
an asset, investigate motor/drive compatibility.
• If a drive is to be retrofitted to an existing motor, get this

information from the motor: nameplate voltage and
horsepower, current and torque data, insulation class and
NEMA design characteristic.
• Manufacturers’ curves should be consulted to aid in motor

selection for new systems.
• When considering the information here, also look at Table 1,

because the table lists typical applications for each of the drives
and may help you narrow the choices available for a particular
application. It should be used when conducting the remainder
of the selection process.

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Motor Type
• Your choice of available drives depends to a large extent on the
motor used. Although DC systems were largely used in the
past, AC motors are much more popular now due to their
relatively low cost, low maintenance requirements and better
reliability. For most low- and medium-speed applications,
squirrel-cage AC induction motors are now used.
• Variable Speed Brushless DC “Electronically Commutated”

motors are available in ≤600 horsepower sizes.
Horsepower Rating
• Induction motors are best suited for power levels up to
approximately 500 horsepower (325 kW), although they can
be used for higher power levels. Above 1,000 horsepower,
synchronous motors are often used and are usually driven by
current source inverters or by load-commutated inverters or
cycloconverters. These high-powered systems are very
expensive to purchase for use in the lower end of their operating
ranges. Medium Voltage AC induction motors are now available
under ASD control.
• It is important to determine the maximum horsepower

requirements of the driven load and how the required power
varies with speed.

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Voltage Requirements
• These are the size ranges usually available for AC variable
frequency drives:
Horsepower Range Voltages Available
<50 208V to 600V three-phase

50-200 460V to 600V three-phase
200-1,000 low voltage (460V, 600V) and medium
voltage (2,300V, 4,160V)
1,000-2,500 mostly medium voltage
(2,300V, 4,160V)
*2,500-10,000 medium voltage
(4,160V, 6,900V, 13,800V)
*>10,000 13,800V
(usually DC, or wound rotor)
• Note that suitably rated transformers may be used to match the

drive voltage rating to that of available power supply voltages.
• The system voltage should be within the deviation permitted

by the specifications for the ASD. This is usually +10% and
-5% per NEMA standards. Specific values can be obtained from
the manufacturer.
Torque and Current

• After checking the horsepower requirements, ensure that the
starting torque and full load torque are within the motor’s
rating.
• Continuous permissible running torque decreases with motor

speed.

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• It is important to ensure that the drive can supply the required

current. Inverters are current-limited and may only allow a
relatively high output current for short time periods. An
estimate of the motor torque to current ratio can be made by
referring to the motor speed, torque and current characteristics.
• The drive must have a maximum continuous current rating that

is greater than or equal to the motor’s full-load current rating.
Speed and Speed Range

• Consider the minimum and maximum speed requirements.
• The speed range depends on the motor used. A standard

efficiency, class F insulated motor is applicable only to a 2:1
constant torque speed ratio. A high efficiency motor can
provide a 3:1 ratio. To obtain wider speed ranges, the motor
can be oversized.
• Below 6 Hz, however, significant motor cogging may occur as

the motor tries to follow the waveshape. A practical speed
range of 10:1 below 60 Hz is suggested for VVIs and CCIs.
(This is not a concern for PWMs.)
• If precise speed control is needed, a synchronous or

synchronous reluctance motor can be used for an AC system.
Otherwise, a DC system could be used.

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Speed Range
100
z
0-60 H
Percent (%) of 60 Hz Torque Rating
90 2:1 3
z
0-6 0 H
3:1 2 0 Hz
80 1 5 - 6
4:1
0 Hz
1 0-6
70 6:1 6 0 Hz
7 . 5 -
8:1
-6 H z
0 Induction Motor:
60 1 0:1 6
Constant Torque Load,
50 USEM 4-P TEFC 460 V
30 60 Hz Motor With
Hz
40 2 0 : 1 3-6 0 Boost At Low Frequency.
Source Data:
30 EIC Program Based on
Constant Temp. Method
0
1 20 40 50 75 100 125 150 200 250
Motor Horsepower – 60 Hz Rated
FIGURE 24: Motor Derating Curves vs. Speed Range

When Applied to Adjustable Frequency AC Drives
(6-Step Waveform or PWM)
• The speed range of an AC motor can be extended in using a

drive above 60 Hz, provided the V/Hz ratio is maintained. The
motor is rated at V/Hz; as speed increases at constant rated
torque, the horsepower output increases. The drive must be
sized to accommodate the horsepower rating as well as motor
current and voltage.
Speed Regulation
• Mechanical loads cause a drop in motor speed (according to its
speed/torque curve).
• Tachometers can monitor motor shaft speed through a feedback

loop to the drive controller, which sends a compensation speed
increase signal to the ASD.

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• NEMA design B is the most common standard duty AC motor.

Speed can be held within 3% of setpoint (which is motor slip).
• Thyristors are limited in their switching speed, which

determines ASD speed regulation capability.
Time required to accelerate the load:

T(sec) = WK2 (lb-ft2) x change in RPM
308 x torque (lb-ft)
(load inertia: WK2 total = sum of WK2 components,
W is weight, K is radium of gyration.)
Torque (lb-ft) = HP x 5250

RPM
T HERMAL C ONSIDERATIONS
• If variable frequency controllers are used, there are a number of
important factors to consider to ensure that the motor/drive
system is compatible from a thermal standpoint.
• The main concern when retrofitting existing motors with variable

frequency drives is to ensure that the controller can provide the
current required for the load torque to prevent motor overheating.
• Since the cooling systems of most motors are designed for a

fixed speed, the cooling action will be reduced when operating
at reduced speeds (since cooling fan speed decreases with
motor speed). This is especially true for constant torque
applications and applications in which CSI drives are used. For
these situations it is important to provide additional cooling or
overframe or derate the motor. An overframed motor may also
require a larger controller. See “Tips and Cautions.”

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• NEMA type 1 vented enclosure to dissipate ASD heat within.

Ambient limits as specified.
• It is also important to ensure that the motor will not overheat

because of the harmonics in the AC waveform supplied by the
inverter. This is especially true for standard motors. (See
Chapter 9, “Harmonic Distortion.”)
• Harmonic losses are affected by the design type of NEMA

speed torque characteristics as well as the characteristics of
the motor under consideration. The motor leakage reactance,
which limits harmonics, varies with each NEMA design. The
compatibility of variously rated motors with inverters is useful
to know. See Table 3 for the most suitable motor
design/inverter combination to use.
TABLE 3. Suitability of Inverters for NEMA Motor Designs
Motor NEMA Design VVI CSI PWM
High Efficiency Motor

A X
B X X X
C* X X
D*
* These motors are very undesirable for adjustable frequency control, due to
high harmonic losses.
• NEMA design B squirrel-cage induction motors are commonly

used in industry.
• Energy efficient motors have lower losses than standard motors

and therefore provide wider torque capability when used with
variable frequency drives.

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O THER C ONSIDERATIONS
• The next step in the decision process is to evaluate the relative
importance of each of the remaining factors to be considered.
One of these factors may exclude one drive system. For
example, if the system is to be used in an explosive
environment, commutators and brushes cannot be used
because of the sparks that would be generated.
• These are some other selection considerations: economics,

process requirements and load characteristics, performance
required (speed regulation/control accuracy, efficiency and
reliability), starting and stopping characteristics (load inertia),
torque (breakaway torque, accelerating time and torque and
decelerating time and torque), environment, weight and space,
maintenance, programmability needed, lead time for delivery,
line power factor and mechanical considerations.
• Process requirements and load characteristics were discussed at

the beginning of this chapter. Although initially used as
indicators, the importance of these factors should now be
compared with all other considerations.

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E FFICIENCY
• At full speed and full load, VVI, CSI and PWM drives are all
about 95% efficient. Efficiency drops at approximately a square
rate with speed, as commutation losses (thyristor closing) vary
with torque and current.
4.0
3.5
Driver Losses (kW)
3.0 PWM
2.5
2.0 VVI
1.5 CSI
1.0
.5
450 900 1350 1800

Speed (RPM)
FIGURE 25. Watts Loss (Efficiency) Comparison
100%
75% Load 100% Load
Percent Efficiency
94%
90%
50% Load
86%
25% Load
82%
78%
74%
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Speed
FIGURE 26. Typical AC Drive Efficiency (PWM)

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• CSI drives tend to be more efficient than VVI and PWM as

speed is reduced.
• Higher horsepower sizes, as well as drives operating close to

their maximum design rating, tend to be at higher efficiency.
• Information about efficiency of drives is generally not easily

obtained from manufacturers since so many factors affect it.
• Motor efficiency at reduced speed needs to be recalculated.
R ELIABILITY OF ASD S
• Reliability of ASDs has improved as power electronics
technology has advanced. Thyristors convert to AC to DC
power and GTO designs improved reliability. Metal oxide
semi-conductor controlled thyristors, surface mount technology
and specific integrated circuits are reducing drive sizes.
• Voltage drop temporary “ride-through” (see Harmonics section).
• Current rise or drop limits are features specified.
• Sizing the controller to handle required load currents is important.
• Motor heating at low speeds will not be a problem with

centrifugal loads due to the drop in motor current and I2R
losses.
• CSI drives use the motor as part of the circuit, so selecting the
motor and drive together will minimize risk of mismatching.
• Transistors can be made for high current and voltage and faster
response than thyristors.

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• Constant voltage/frequency ratio means the motor will not stall

when overloaded, maintaining constant speed regardless of load.
• The motor may trip out when decelerating rapidly. With large
inertia loads, regeneration of power back through the drive
may trip the voltage protection bus. Elevators and lowering
conveyors are examples. Sizing the protective bus to suit the
application should prevent it, (see recommended technical
specifications for medium voltage drive).
A PPLICATIONS
• Constant torque (hoists, presses and conveyors) operation up to
120 Hz can be provided by applying constant V/Hz to the
motor. This requires an AC drive with twice the voltage output
capability than the supply voltage to the motor (@ 60 Hz).
Since a motor is rated at V/Hz, it can be operated at rated
torque and twice the speed if voltage and frequency are both
doubled. Operation at twice the motor-rated horsepower
requires sizing the AC drive at that horsepower and considering
stresses and balancing on the motor.
• Position control is important in materials handling, machining

and robotics.
• Multiple motor operation in parallel by a single voltage inverter

AC drive can be done by sizing the drive to the sum of the
maximum continuous running currents of each motor. All
motors start and stop together. If motors are coupled together
through the load, load sharing must be considered. High-slip
NEMA design D motors may be required. Also, individual
motor overload protection is necessary.
• Cogging refers to torque pulsation at below 6 Hz frequency. If

smooth operation is needed at low speed, it may be necessary

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to use a six- or eight-pole motor with a 90 Hz or 120 Hz

maximum frequency, (eliminated with vector drives).
• IR compensation is a circuit that senses changing motor load

and reduces voltage boost when the motor is lightly loaded.
This improves starting torque and low speed overload
capability.
• Regenerative braking occurs when the motor acts as a generator

when driven by the load. The energy is returned to the power
lines through the drive. The drive must be sized to handle the
energy absorbed. Hoists, flywheels and other constant torque
applications make use of regenerative braking. Centrifugal loads,
such as fans, pumps and blowers, do not.
P ERFORMANCE R EQUIRED
Speed Regulation/Control Accuracy
• The importance of the drive’s sensitivity to changes in load,
temperature, humidity, drift and line voltage fluctuations should
be determined.
• If there is to be no speed deviation, a synchronous motor

is used.
• Vector drives can smoothly hold position and speed and torque
over a full range from 0% to 100% of scale.

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Efficiency
• System efficiency = mechanical power output from motor shaft
electrical power input to drive
• The efficiency of a motor/drive system depends on

characteristics of the connected motor (power factor, efficiency),
speed range and duty cycle, load, measurement method and
instrument accuracy, inverter size and horsepower rating, input
power tie voltage variation and manufacturing variations.
(Sometimes, it’s better to use a high efficiency motor.)
• The motor design and specific operating points are the largest
contributors to efficiency differences.
• High efficiency motors are more susceptible to tripping due to

heat, voltage or current drops.
• Multi-speed motors (i.e., pole changing motors) offer fixed

speed combinations (two to four is typical) that are a much
cheaper alternative to ASDs if continuous speed adjustment is
not needed.
• A more important consideration is:
Energy Lost = Output Power – Input Power
• Higher horsepower drives tend to have higher efficiencies.

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• The CSI controller tends to maintain better efficiency than other

inverters as operating speed is reduced.
S TARTING AND S TOPPING C HARACTERISTICS

• Are soft starts or controlled acceleration needed for the driven
machine?
• Does the power supply system need reduced voltage starting or

controlled acceleration?
• Does the driven machine require accurate positioning,

controlled deceleration or regenerative braking?
T ORQUE
• The ability of the drive to reach the torque required at various
points in the process cycle should be considered.
• Breakaway or locked rotor torque is needed to start the load

from rest to overcome static friction. An ASD can provide a
voltage boost that will permit this torque to be higher than
normal. The inverter components may have to be sized larger
and the current limit set higher if this is the case.
• Accelerating time and torque is needed to increase the speed of

the machine. An ASD permits short or long accelerating times.
For high inertia loads, such as machines with flywheels or large
blowers, care must be taken to ensure that the system can
provide enough accelerating torque.

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• Decelerating time and torque is needed for high inertia loads.

An ASD permits long or short deceleration times.
E NVIRONMENT
• Abrasive, moisture laden, explosive, dusty or otherwise difficult
environments may affect the ability of the drive/motor system
to function and the ability to provide adequate maintenance.
The effects can be eliminated by careful design or locating the
drive in a clean, cool room. Providing an adequate cooling air
supply for air-cooled converters is another important
consideration.
W EIGHT AND S PACE

• There may be space and economic considerations involved in
decisions concerning large drives due to their size.
Standard Operating Extended

Motor Torque 7 hp (Continuous)
Speed Range Speed Range

% Motor Full Load Rating
150
High Eff. Motors

100
Torque hp hp
80
1.15 SF Motors
50
hp Torque
0
6 15 30 60 90 120
Frequency (Hertz)
FIGURE 27. Motor Performance, Typical 60 Hz

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Percent Torque 300
200
100
2 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (Hertz)
FIGURE 28. Ideal Torque-Speed Curves
Pull Out or
Breakdown Torque
200 NEMA Design B Motor
Locked Torque vs. Speed
Rotor
or Stall
Torque Operating
100 Point
Load Torque
Slip
Percent
Torque 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Speed Synchronous
Operating Speed Speed
FIGURE 29. NEMA Design B Motor Torque-Speed Curve
A CCESSORIES
• Accessories include auto transformers (for voltage overload
protection), regenerative braking circuits (overhauling loads in
constant torque such as cranes), bypass loop (for operating the
motor directly bypassing the drive), filters and the line chokes

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(to reduce electric harmonics), cooling fans and programmable

logic controllers (PLC) for speed control through feedback
process monitoring.
S AFETY
• Follow NEMA recommended enclosure design and installation
specifications. High voltage and current are present. DC power
is more dangerous than AC; DC is found in both AC and DC
drives. The DC bus can be more than 600V in AC drives if input
power is not checked in harmonic spikes. All circuit boards
should be covered in metal for shielding and cooling. Access
interlocks should shut down and disconnect the drive input
power before the cabinet can be opened. Manual control panels
are restricted to 120V.
• It is important to separate control wiring from power wiring.

Use separate metal conduits to reduce electronic “noise” from
power to control circuits (see Chapter 9).
S ERVICE AND M AINTENANCE

• AC and DC drives can be located several hundred feet away from
the motor where heat, humidity and contaminants can be controlled.
• DC motors require commutator and brush replacement periodically,

(except brushless DC types).
• Installation is usually a simple matter of three-phase electrical

connection to the motor and power lines.
• Solid-state electronics are relatively maintenance free. Most drive

manufacturers supply built-in diagnostics as well as protection
relays and fuses. As proper drive performance depends on
matching motor and load requirements, expert trouble-shooting

ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 66
may be necessary. For this reason, consider purchasing a service

contract until you have experience with the particular drive.
• The frequency and degree of complexity of maintenance

requirements for a particular system can be a significant factor.
Are company personnel restricted to the type of equipment they
service? Are self-diagnostics supplied with the control module? Is
the supplier willing to service the drive after purchase? Does the
supplier have representatives located close to you? Purchasing
equipment from a supplier who has no representatives close to
the installation may result in the supplier losing interest in
installation and maintenance after the purchase is made.
• Mechanical devices that provide adjustable speed need more

maintenance than their electrical counterparts.
• Servicing a PWM inverter requires a complex diagnostic aid

equivalent to a logic analyzer. CSIs and VVIs, on the other
hand, are easy to service since each part of the system can be
operated independently to isolate problems.
Programmability Needed
• Will it be necessary to frequently change the operating characteristics
of the drive, as offered by a PC or a drive equipped with a
microprocessor?
Lead Time for Delivery

• Lead time for delivery depends on whether the application requires a
small horsepower drive (the equipment may be purchased off the
shelf) or if increased horsepower or custom-engineered features, such
as line filters, chokes and autotransformers, are needed. Drive
sophistication or special options, such as cooling requirements,
unique process control interface or packaging, tend to lengthen lead
time. Many applications require a custom-engineered drive system.

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Line Power Factor

• If a specific power factor is specified or limitations are imposed
for an installation, this should be considered. Normally, the
power factor is satisfactory.
Mechanical Considerations
• If adjustable speed is being considered, the natural torsional
frequencies of the connected mechanical loads should be
checked to ensure that they do not correspond to the frequencies
produced at lower operating speeds. This may still be a concern
even if the motor is mounted to a massive support pad.
T IPS AND C AUTIONS

• When a few discrete speeds are needed, a multiple speed
motor may be satisfactory. It would be significantly cheaper
than purchasing a variable frequency drive. This can be
accomplished by using a special stator winding arrangement.
This method is often used for applications involving pumps,
fans, blowers, conveyors and printing presses. For example, a
2:1 speed ratio is easily obtained from a single stator winding
by reconnection.
• On new installations, an ASD can replace the standard motor

starter. All that is needed is a feeder breaker to protect the
cables to the controller.
• If retrofitted, the existing motor is usually retained, but it must

be derated.
• It is important to ensure that the electrical supply line uses the

correct voltage. This is particularly important in view of the

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large number of electrical drives that are manufactured outside

Canada and where different standards may be used.
• Circuit breakers, transformers, fuses and disconnect switches

may or may not be included in an ASD system. If this
apparatus is to be mounted separately, its current rating should
be based on the input current of the ASD, not the motor full
load current. This is due to harmonic effects which cause the
ASD input current to be greater than the motor full load current
for a given power level.
• If a motor drives a load through a gearbox at reduced speed

under ASD control, it may not deliver enough running torque.
Check minimum torque times speed requirements.
• Induction motors cause supply current to lag behind supply

voltage. The ratio of kW to kVA (true power to apparent power)
is the “displacement power factor.” This is the cosine of the
phase angle between current and voltage, when current and
voltage are assumed to be clean sine waveforms.
• Harmonic currents from inverter switching may increase

apparent power and decrease power factor. This “true power
factor” will be less than displacement power factor cosine of
current to voltage phase angle.
• A true RMS meter is required to measure non-linear loads

and filter harmonic currents (usually 5th and 7th are most
significant.)

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CHAPTER 8
ECONOMICS
• Economics is usually one of the most important factors

involved in selecting industrial equipment, but it is not
straightforward. Many economic aspects are often ignored in
ASD evaluations.
• Use the Table 4 ASD checklist of costs and savings to avoid

overlooking certain economic aspects.
• The simple payback method is frequently used to determine how

long it would take for a piece of equipment to “pay for itself” in
terms of savings:
Number of Years =Total Initial Capital Cost (including any service)

Total Annual Savings
• This method should only be used as a risk indicator, however,

since it is very inaccurate and neglects the impact of inflation.
ASD quotes of two- to three-year paybacks often underestimate
the true period until breakeven.
Chapter 8: Economics 69
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• The net present value method is a good technique that can be

used to appraise the profitability of an investment. By using
the discounted cash flow technique, it takes into account the
time value of money. A summary of this approach appears in
Table 5.
TABLE 4. ASD Checklist of Costs/Savings
Operational
Capital Costs and
Capital Costs Savings Savings Other
Drive Control valves Energy (total Salvage value

energy
Motor Gear box consumed, Tax
peak demand implications
Power Fluid coupling/ charge)
conditioning mechanical
equipment speed Maintenance/
changing useful life/
Installation equipment downtime
Electrical Reduced- Overspeed

system voltage starters capability
upgrade
Torsional
analysis
Space
requirements
Cooling

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TABLE 5. ASD Investment Decision Technique
For detailed examples of this procedure and relevant software, contact your local
utility.
1. Evaluate the cost/savings of the factors in Table 4 for each option you are
considering (for example, purchasing an ASD, purchasing a mechanical
drive system, not purchasing a variable speed drive). Capital costs will be
expressed in total dollars; operating expenses will be expressed in terms of
time.
2. Determine the real discount rate that should be used for each time-
dependent and future-valued factor. For example, for energy savings
calculations:
x% per annum = nominal discount rate

y% per annum = rate at which electricity rates will rise
i% = {x/y – 1}%
As another example, a salvage value n years from the present should be

discounted using the rate at which the interest rate is expected to rise
between now and n years.
3. All factors for each option should be discounted to their present values,
using the appropriate discount rate. The number of years used for time-
dependent factors should be chosen as a reasonable payback period.
Present value tables and annuity tables are useful for the discounting
process.
4. The net present value (NPV) of each option is found by summing the costs
and savings that have been calculated in present value terms for each
factor.
5. For any option, if NPV >0, there is a net gain

NPV <0, there is a net loss
NPV = 0, breakeven occurs at the time
under consideration.
6. The option with the greatest positive value of NPV is the most profitable.
7. The procedure could be repeated assuming different total time periods.
8. A comparison between two options could also be made by using the relative
difference between the option for each factor and finding one NPV.
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E CONOMIC FACTORS
C APITAL C OSTS
Drive
• The cost of this major item will vary greatly, depending on
the options required. The cost should include speed controls,
start/stop controls, engineering, cable, conduit, foundations,
spare parts and any related modifications. For example, a
battery back-up for the controls may be provided for auto re-
start or shut-down sequences.
Motor
• The cost of a motor must be considered for a new system.
Power Conditioning Equipment

• The cost of any power conditioning equipment, such as
harmonic filters, should be included. This includes filters for
incoming power to the motor as well as power conditioners
for harmonic voltages and currents sent back to the power
supply from the drive.
Installation
• Installation, labour and commissioning charges for the drive and
motor and power conditioning apparatus should be determined.
Electrical System Upgrade

• Upgrading of the electrical system may be necessary if higher
reliability is required than the present system can offer. Potential
upgrades include relay protective systems, supply transformer
redundancy, transfer switching/alternate feeders, maintenance and
emergency staff training and preventive maintenance programs.

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Torsional Analysis
• A torsional analysis will define the vibration effects of inverter
harmonics in the drive train. It should be conducted for large
drive applications.
Space Requirements
• This includes the cost of any indoor space requirements for
the drive and filters, as well as any outdoor space costs, such
as those associated with transformers, filters or reactors.
Cooling
• Additional cooling may be required for drive installation. For
large applications, although HVAC equipment is often used,
water cooling may be a much more economical alternative.
C APITAL S AVINGS
• Use of an ASD may avoid certain capital investments. Examples
are gear boxes, control valves, fluid coupling/mechanical speed
changing equipment and reduced voltage starters.
O PERATING C OSTS AND S AVINGS

Energy
• There may be savings in terms of both energy consumed and
peak demand charge. The extent of these savings depends on
the local utility’s rate schedule. If an ASD is installed, the total
energy consumed will likely be reduced.
• The other element of electrical power cost is the demand charge,

measured in kVA, which compensates the utility for the peak
current it must deliver during the month. The most significant
factor affecting KVA demand is the power required by the load,
ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 74
which varies with the cube of the speed. Because of this,

adjustable speed drives may provide significant savings.
• It is important to keep in mind that the kilowatt-hours of energy

saved are the last ones that would have otherwise been
purchased. The use of average energy cost can be very
misleading.
Maintenance/Useful Life/Downtime
• The reduction of maintenance and downtime may be quite
substantial if an AC variable frequency drive is employed.
Contributing factors are elimination of control valves, current-limit
feature (prevents motor burnouts caused by multiple restarts) and
protection of the motor insulation (so it is shielded from voltage
problems).
• Useful life of equipment, such as bearings, can be extended by

operating at reduced speeds. Stresses and metal fatigue in the
drive train shafts will be lowered.
• Repairs to variable frequency drive systems do not usually take

much time.
Overspeed Capability
• The overspeed capability of adjustable frequency drives can

save considerable operating costs, as well as investment, if
increases in production levels occur. For example, the airflow
through an existing fan can be increased by retrofitting a
variable speed drive to its motor so that the motor is supplied
with a frequency higher than an existing 60 Hz rating.

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T IPS AND C AUTIONS

• An adjustable frequency drive is the most cost effective choice
if the duty cycle is more evenly distributed over the entire range
of flow rates.
• Relative energy savings improve if the performance and system

resistance curves are steep.
• Many potentially good ASD applications are passed up because

benefits other than energy savings are overlooked. Frequently,
however, process control and reliability far outweigh efficiency-
related benefits to the user.
• By using the average cost of energy in savings analyses, the

savings can be significantly overstated for variable frequency
applications. Instead, both the energy and demand charges of
the local utility’s rate schedule should be used.
• For variable torque loads, the variable frequency drive is very

energy conscious, since the horsepower varies proportionally to
the cube of the speed.
• Coupling systems (eddy current and hydraulic) have the

quickest economic payback. Electronic drive systems have the
highest dollar return.
• Cost savings through reduced energy consumption often result

in ASD payback periods of five to six years, rather than the two
to three years normally required by industry.
• Induction motors tend to be cheaper than DC motors for

similar horsepower ratings.
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• See Figure 27 for a relative purchase price comparison for

various motor/drive systems. For explosion-proof
environments, the relative cost of the DC motor would
increase substantially.
• For horsepower applications above 50, installation costs are

usually comparable to the total capital cost for the drive. Below
this power rating, installation costs may be as much as double
the drive cost.
• Software packages which evaluate the economic aspects of

adjustable speed drives are available. It is important to keep in
mind that these programs require part-load efficiency within
their analyses.
Controller
Controller
Eddy
Current
Valve Coupling
Motor Motor Motor Motor
Valve Slip DC AC
Control Control Solid-state
Control
FIGURE 30. Capital Cost Comparison of Motor/Drive Systems

Medium HP, Voltages

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CHAPTER 9
HARMONIC DISTORTION
• Adjustable Speed Drives have defined capability to withstand

voltage and current waveform distortion.
• The latest IEEE standard 519 defines harmonic distortion limits

acceptable on the input side to the AC power system.
• For a full discussion of harmonic distortion and mitigation

techniques, see Ontario Hydro’s Power Quality Reference Guide
and Power Quality Mitigation Reference Guide.
H ARMONICS
• There are two types or harmonics: electrical and mechanical.
• The inverter (switching) section of an ASD generates

harmonics.
• Electrical harmonics cause waveform distortion. They are

currents or voltages that oscillate at integer multiples of the
fundamental 60 Hz frequency, which is the main power
frequency. For example, a frequency five times the fundamental
frequency is called the fifth harmonic.
Chapter 9: Harmonic Distortion 77

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Bus Voltage
Line Current
FIGURE 31. Harmonic Distortion
• If large, electrical harmonics may cause power system

waveforms to deviate from perfect sinusoids, eg.: capacitor
switching, large induction, motors start-up.
• Any static power converter that converts AC to DC or DC to

AC, or any solid-state switch, generates harmonics (e.g.,
thyristors or SCRs).
• All adjustable frequency drives with power switching devices

generate harmonics.
• The odd harmonic amplitudes usually decrease with

increasing frequency, so the lowest order harmonics are the
most significant. Even harmonics are normally not generated
by three-phase converters.
W HAT H ARMONIC D ISTORTION C AN D O

• As with many other forms of pollution, harmonic distortion
affects the whole electrical environment. It propagates through

ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 79
the power system and may even show up at distant points

outside the plant, thus causing problems for other equipment
connected to the power supply.
• Typical effects of harmonics on the motor/drive system are

reduced motor efficiency due to increased losses, increased
heating of motors, cables and transformers, excessive voltage
stress on insulation of motor windings and torque pulsations,
(“torsional harmonics”).
• General problems caused by harmonics are general degradation of

power quality, voltage dips or voltage ripple, premature
equipment failure, improper operation of important control and
protection equipment, interference with telecommunication or
computer systems, amplification of harmonic levels resulting
from resonance, incorrect readings on mechanical timing relays
and watt-hour meters and blown fuses.
• All capacitors, including those used for power factor correction,

tend to be very susceptible to harmonic damage. Disastrous
consequences can occur if capacitors are exposed to excessive
harmonic voltages or currents.
• The harmonics produced by a converter may increase motor

losses by 5% to 10%.
P RODUCTION AND T RANSMISSION

• Harmonics are produced in utility or industrial electrical
systems by equipment that switches repetitively in less than a
cycle, such as variable frequency AC drives, cycloconverters,
DC drives, rectifiers, UPS systems, arc furnaces and static VAR
generators. Fluorescent and gaseous discharge lamps can also
produce harmonics.

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• Harmonics occur as long as the harmonic generating equipment

is in operation. They tend to be of a steady magnitude.
• Harmonic currents flow through the impedance of the

transmission and distribution network and generate harmonic
voltages, which distort the electrical user’s input voltage.
• Harmonic currents often flow in the neutral line.
• The order and magnitude of the harmonics generated by a drive

depend on the drive configuration and the system impedance.
• Harmonics may be greatly magnified by power factor

correction capacitors. Supply system inductance can resonate
with the capacitors at some harmonic frequency, causing large
currents and voltages to develop. This may damage equipment.
In addition, since the impedance of a capacitor decreases with
increasing frequency, capacitors tend to act as sinks for higher-
order harmonics.
I SOLATION T RANSFORMERS
• Isolation transformers are frequently used to protect the drive as
well as the AC line from distortion. They may also decrease the
available short circuit current in a fault situation and prevent
drive shutdown and possible damage in the event of a motor
line ground fault. If their use is not properly planned, however,
they may cause electrical difficulties elsewhere in the system.
• The description of the power system used when ordering

equipment should include fault level at the service entrance,
rating and impedance of transformers between the service
entrance and the input to the power conditioning equipment
and details of all capacitor banks on the same utility substation.

ASD body (0-82) 2/12/01 9:52 AM Page 81
O THER G UIDELINES
• There are no current CSA standards specifically relating to
ASDs. CSA approval may be granted to many different drive
designs, many of which are imported.
• Minimum guaranteed full load, full speed ASD efficiency of

95%, (including any supplied equipment: isolation transformers
and filters).
• Harmonic Distortion: Latest recommended specification: IEEE

519-1992: total voltage harmonic distortion shall not exceed
5% at common coupling ASD to motor.

ASD appendix (83-102) 2/12/01 10:09 AM Page 83
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A
Formulas for Calculating Applications
C ALCULATING H ORSEPOWER
Once the machine BHP (speed x torque) requirement is
determined, horsepower can be calculated using the formula:
rated motor hp = motor efficiency (%)

100
= available hp
BHP = TxN (required hp)

5,250
Where,
hp = horsepower, supplied by the motor
T = torque (lb-ft), force x radius
N = base speed of motor (rpm)
If the calculated horsepower falls between standard available motor

ratings, select the higher available horsepower rating. It is good
practice to allow some margin when selecting the motor
horsepower.
Appendix A 83
For many applications, it is possible to calculate the horsepower

required without actually measuring the torque required. The
following will help:
BHP = brakehorsepower, the mechanical load required by the

driven equipment
F OR C ONVEYORS
weight (lb) x velocity (FPM)
hp (vertical) =
33,000 x efficiency
weight (lb) x velocity (FPM) x coef. of friction

hp (horizontal) =
33,000 x efficiency
F OR W EB T RANSPORT S YSTEMS AND S URFACE W INDERS

Note that the tension value used in this calculation is the actual
web tension for surface winder applications, but it is the tension
differential (downstream tension – upstream tension) for
sectional drives.
C ENTRE W INDERS (A RMATURE C ONTROL O NLY )

tension (lb) x line speed (FPM) x buildup
hp =
33,000 x taper
C ENTRE W INDERS (F IELD C ONTROL )

If taper x field range ³ buildup, then
tension (lb) x line speed (FPM)

hp =
33,000

If taper x field range ² buildup, then
tension (lb) x line speed (FPM) x buildup

hp =
33,000 x taper x field range
Note that these formulas for calculating horsepower do not include

any allowance for machine function windage or other factors.
These factors must be considered when selecting a drive for a
machine application.
F OR FANS AND B LOWERS

Effect of speed on horsepower
hp = k1 (RPM)3 – horsepower varies as the 3rd power of speed

T = k1 (RPM)2 – torque varies as the 2nd power speed
Flow = k3 (RPM) – flow varies directly as the speed
CFM x pressure (lb/in2)

hp =
229 x (eff. of fan)
CFM x (inches of water gauge total pressure)

hp =
6,362 x (eff. of fan)
Total pressure = static pressure + velocity pressure
2
Velocity pressure = (velocity*
1,096 )
x air density
*(velocity in fpm)
Appendix A 85
F OR P UMPS
GPM x head (ft) x (specific gravity)
hp =
3,960 x (% eff. of pump)
Specific gravity of water = 1.0

1 ft3 per sec = 448 GPM
1 PSI = A head of 2.309 ft for water weighing
62.36 lb/ft3 at 62°F
C ONSTANT D ISPLACEMENT P UMPS

hp = k(RPM) – horsepower and capacity vary directly

as the speed.
Displacement pumps under constant heat require approximately
constant torque at all speeds.
C ENTRIFUGAL P UMPS
hp = k1 (RPM)3 – horsepower varies as the 3rd power

of speed
T = k1 (RPM)2 – torque varies as the 2nd power of speed
Flow = k3 (RPM) – flow varies directly as the speed
P UMP E FFICIENCY ( TYPICAL )

500 to 1,000 gal/min = 70% to 75%
1,000 to 1,500 gal/min = 75% to 80%
Larger than 1,500 gal/min = 80% to 85%
Displacement pumps may vary between 50% to 80% efficiency,
depending on size of pumps.

H ORSEPOWER R EQUIRED
hp = torque (lb-ft) x speed (RPM)
5,250
hp = torque (lb-in) x speed (RPM)

63,000
Torque (lb-ft) = hp x 5,250

speed (RPM)
WK2 (lb-ft2) x RPM

Accelerating torque (lb-ft) =
308 x t (sec)
Where,
WK2 = inertia (lb-ft2) reflected to motor shaft
ÆRPM = change in speed
t = time (seconds) to accelerate
WK2 (lb-ft2) x ÆRPM

t = = time to accelerate (sec)
308 x t (lb-ft)
RPM = FPM
.262 x diameter (inches)
2
Inertia reflected to motor = load inertia ( Motor RPM )
Load RPM
I NERTIA (WK 2)
The factor WK2 is the weight (lb) of an object multiplied by the
square of the radius of gyration (k). The unit measurement of the
radius of gyration is expressed in feet.
Appendix A 87
For solid or hollow cylinders, inertia may be calculated by using

the equations given here.
To calculate hollow shafts, take the difference between the

inertia values for the OD and ID (see Figure A-1).
The inertia of complex, concentric rotating parts may be calculated

by breaking the part up into simple rotating cylinders, calculating
their inertias and summing their values, as shown in Figure A-2.
L
Hollow
D1
D2
Solid
D
WK2 = .000681 r L(D24 – D14)
WK2 = lb.ft.2
L D1D2, D1 and L = in.
r = lb.in.3
WK2 = .000681 r LD4 r (aluminum) = .0924

r (bronze) = .320
r (cast iron) = .260
r (steel) = .282
r (paper) = .0289
FIGURE A-1. Calculating Hollow Shafts

= + +
2 2 2
WK 2tot = WK 1 = WK 2 = WK 3
FIGURE A-2. Calculating the Inertia of Complex,
Concentric Rotating Parts
WK 2 OF R OTATING E LEMENTS
In practical mechanical systems, all the rotating parts do not oper-

ate at the same speed. The WK2 of all moving parts operating at
each speed must be reduced to an equivalent WK2 at the motor
shaft, so that they can all be added together and treated as a unit,
as follows:
( NN ) 2
Equivalent WK2 = WK2
m
Where,
WK2 = inertia of the moving part
N = speed of the moving part (RPM)
Nm = speed of the driving motor (RPM)
When using speed reducers, and the machine inertia is reflected

back to the motor shaft, the equivalent inertia is equal to the
machine inertia divided by the square of the drive reduction ratio.
Appendix A 89
WK 2 OF L INEAR M OTION
Not all driven systems involve rotating motion. The equivalent
WK2 of linearly moving parts can also be reduced to the motor
shaft speed as follows:
W (V)2
Equivalent WK2 =
39.5 (Nm)2
Where,
W = weight of load (lb)
V = linear velocity of rack and load or conveyor and load
(FPM)
Nm = speed of the driving motor (RPM)
This equation can only be used where the linear speed bears a
continuous fixed relationship to the motor speed, such as a
conveyor.
Hz x 120
Synchronous (RPM) motor speed =
no. of poles
synchronous (RPM – full load RPM) x 100

% Slip =
synchronous RPM
O HMS L AW
volts
Amperes =
ohms
volts
Ohms =
amperes
Volts = amperes x ohms

P OWER IN DC C IRCUITS
volts x amperes
Horsepower =
746
Watts = volts x amperes
volts x amperes
Kilowatts =
1,000
volts x amperes x hours

Kilowatt-hours =
1,000
P OWER IN AC C IRCUITS
Kilovolt-amperes (kVA)
volts x amperes
kVA (single-phase) =
1,000
volts x amperes x 1.73

kVA (three-phase) =
1,000
Kilowatts (kW)
volts x amperes x power factor

kW (single-phase) =
1,000
volts x amperes x power factor x 1.73

kW (three-phase) =
1,000
kilowatts
Power factor =
kilovolts x amperes
Appendix A 91
T HREE - PHASE AC C IRCUITS

HP = E x I x 3 x EFF x PF
746
hp x 746
Motor amps =
E x 3 x EFF x PF
kVA x 1,000
Motor amps =
3xE
kW x 1,000
Motor amps =
3 x E x PF
kW x 1,000
Power factor =
ExIx 3
E x I x hours x 3 x PF
Kilowatt-hours =
1,000
kW
PF = displacement power factor = cos q =
kVa
Power (watts) = E x 1 x 3 x PF
kVARi kVARc
EFF = mechanical efficiency C
I
E = volts N
A
P
I = amps D A
U C
kVA C I
T T
I I
1 kW = 56.88 BTU/min V V
1 Ton= 200 BTU/min f E E
1 hp = 0.7457 kW kW (AC Added
= 550 lb-ft per sec motors) (to correct
= 33,000 lb-ft per min KVARi) to
= 2,545 BTU per hour improve
PF

APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B
Conversion Factors
Multiply By To Obtain
Length Metres 3.281 Feet

Metres 39.37 Inches
Inches .0254 Metres
Feet .3048 Metres
Millimetres .0394 Inches
Torque Newton-Metres .7376 lb/ft

lb-ft 1.3558 Newton-Metre
lb-in .0833 lb-ft
lb-ft 12.00 lb-in
Rotation RPM 6.00 Degrees/sec

RPM .1047 Rad/sec
Degrees/sec .1667 RPM
Rad/sec 9.549 RPC
Appendix B 93
Multiply By To Obtain
Moment of Newton-Metres2 2.42 lb-ft2

Inertia oz-in2 .000434 lb-ft2
lb-in2 .00694 lb-ft2
Slug-ft2 32.17 lb-ft2
oz-in-sec2 .1675 lb-ft2
lb-in-sec2 2.68 lb-ft2
Power Watts .00134 HP

lb-ft/min .0000303 HP
hp 746. Watts
hp 33000. lb-ft/min
Temperature Degree C = (Degree F-32) x 5/9

Degree F = (Degree C x 9/5) + 32

A B B R E V I AT I O N S
ABBREVIATIONS
AC = alternating current
ANSI = American National Standards Institute
ASD = adjustable speed drive
BHP = brakehorsepower
CSA = Canadian Standards Association
CSI = current source inverter
DC = direct current
DSP = digital signal processor
ECC = eddy current coupling
GTO = gate turnoff (thyristor)
HDF = harmonic distortion factor
IGBT = insulated gate bi-thermal thyristor
IEEE = Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
LCI = load-commutated inverter
NEMA = National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NPV = net present value
PAM = pulse amplitude modulation
PLC = programmable logic controller
PWM = pulse width modulated (inverter)
SCR = silicon-controlled rectifier
SR = switched reluctance
V = voltage
VSI = variable source inverter
VVI = variable voltage inverter
Abbreviations 95
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANSI/IEEE Standard 446-1987 (February 1987): IEEE

Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power
Systems for Industrial and Commercial Applications.
Hanna, R, Dr. and Prabhu, S., Study of Medium Voltage Drives.

Ontario Hydro, Technology Services Department. 1995.
Jarc, Dennis, and John Robochuck. Reliance Electric: Static Motor Drive
Capabilities for Petro. Ind. New York: IEEE Press, 1981.
Mohan, N., et al. Power Electronics: Converters Applications & Design.

John Wiley & Sons: 1989.
Persson, E. “Energy Savings and Pay-Back of Adjustable Speed

Drives in Flow Control,” Pulp and Paper Canada, 88:6 (1987).
Pollack, J.J. “Some Guidelines for the Application of Adjustable-

Speed AC Drives,” Adjustable Speed Drive Systems. New York: IEEE
Press, 1981.
Proceedings of the Symposium on Electric Variable Speed Drives,

Ontario Hydro/Ministry of Energy/CCE, 1987.
Radovanovic, V. “Variable Speed Drives,” Electrical Business,

June 1987.
Reason, J. “Special Report: AC Motor Control,” Power Magazine,

February 1981, Vol. 125, No. 2.
Bibliography 97
Reason, J. “Special Report: Powerplant Motors,” Power Magazine,

March 1986.
Stevenson, A.C. “Fundamentals and Applications of Static Power

Conversion,” IEEE 1984 Conference Record of Pulp and Paper
Industry Technical Conference.
Wennerstrom, C.H., et al. “Motor Application Considerations on

Adjustable Frequency Power,” IEEE 1984 Conference Record of
Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference.

INDEX
Adjustable speed drive (ASD) Efficiency

cost, 70 comparison, 29
definition, 1 discussion, 57
Advantages Environment, 63
comparison, 31 Harmonics
general, 35 comparison, 29
Applications definition, 77
comparison, 29 effects, 78
energy savings, 36, 43, 73 guidelines, 81
speed control/process losses, 55
requirements, 35 production and
Constant horsepower, 44 transmission, 79
Constant torque, 44 Horsepower rating
Control accuracy, 60 comparison, 29
Current-source general, 50
inverter (CSI), 13, 18, 29 Inverter (see also variable
DC drive frequency drive), 12
general, 23 Maintenance, 65
principle of operation, 8 Motors
Delivery time, 66 classification, 3
Economics motor/drive requirements, 49
cost/saving factors, 69 NEMA motor designs, 55
general, 72 Net present value, 70
methods, 69 Power conditioning
Eddy current clutch equipment, 72
general, 29 Pulse width modulated
principle of operation, 8 inverter (PWM), 13, 20, 25
Index 99
Rectifier, 12 Variable frequency drive (see also

Regenerative braking adjustable speed drive)
comparison, 31 comparison, 29
description, 36 principle of operation, 11
simple payback, 69 types, 13
Regulator, 13 Variable torque, 44
Softstarting Variable voltage controllers, 11
comparison, 30 Variable voltage
description, 36 inverter (VVI), 13, 17, 29
Speed Voltage requirements, 51
regulation, 53, 60 Voltage source inverter (VSI) - (see
requirements, 29 variable voltage inverter)
Thermal considerations, 54 Waveforms, 14
Torque Wound rotor motor controllers
considerations, 62 general, 29
requirements, 51 principle of operation, 10

ASD SUPPLIERS IN O N TA R I O *
ABB ITT Fluid Products Canada

4410 Paletta Court 55 Royal Road
Burlington, Ontario L7L 5R2 Guelph, Ontario N1H 1T1
Contact: Steve Seppanen Contact: Phil Searle
(905) 577-1986 (519) 821-1900
Fax: (905) 681-2810 fax: (519) 821-5316
Canadian Drives Inc. Rockwell Automation/Allen-Bradley

40 Claireville Drive 135 Dundas Street
Etobicoke, Ontario M9W 5T9 Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5X1
Contact: Andrew J. Houston Contact: (519) 623-1810
(416) 213-1022
Fax: (416) 213-0821 Siemens Electric Limited
Energy and Automation Division
Cegelec Automation 2185 Derry Road West
5112 Timberlea Boulevard Mississauga, Ontario L5N 7A5
Mississauga, Ontario L4W 2S5 Contact:: Drives Sales Representative
Contact: Roger D. Coote (905) 819-5800 ext. 6414
(905) 624-2026 Fax: (905) 819-5802
Fax: (905) 629-8203
Toshont-Toshiba
G.E. Canada Inc. 2295 Dunwin Drive
2300 Meadowvale Boulevard Unit #4
Mississauga, Ontario L5N 5P9 Mississauga, Ontario L5L 3S4
Contact: Mike Marshall Contact: Tom Johnson
(905) 858-5128 (905) 607-9200
fax: (905) 858-5132 Fax: (905) 607-9203
*at time of printing
Suppliers 101
OTHER IN-HOUSE REFERENCE GUIDES:
• Energy Monitoring & Control Systems

• Fans
• Lighting
• Motors
• Power Quality
• Power Quality Mitigation
• Pumps
COMMENTS:
For any changes, additions and/or comments call or
write to:
Scott Rouse
Account Executive
Ontario Hydro
700 University Avenue, H10-F18
Toronto, Ontario
M5G 1X6
Telephone (416) 592-8044
Fax (416) 592-4841
E-Mail srouse@hydro.on.ca
In-House Energy Efficiency

Energy Savings are Good Business
"The sun represents sustained life

while the lightning bolt depicts energy. The integration
represents the perfect partnership of energy utilization and the
environment that encourages wise use and respect for all natural
resources. The roof represents the in-house aspect of energy
efficiency throughout Hydro."
Marcel Gauthier
Georgian Bay Region - Retail
Printed on
Ontario Hydro
recycled papers

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ASD cover 2/12/01 10:40 AM Page 2

First Edition, November 1987

Neither Ontario Hydro, nor any person acting on its behalf,

In-House Energy Efficiency

CHAPTER 1: CLASSIFICATIONS ......................................................................... 3

CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL APPEARANCE ................................................................. 5

CHAPTER 3: PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ............................................................ 7

CHAPTER 4: COMPARISON OF ASDS ............................................................. 17

Variable Voltage Inverter (VVI) ............................................................... 17

CHAPTER 5: STANDARD AND OPTIONAL FEATURES ......................................... 33

CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES ............................................................................. 35

CHAPTER 7: APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS .................................................. 39

Financial Evaluation ................................................................................42

CHAPTER 8: ECONOMICS .............................................................................. 69

CHAPTER 9: HARMONIC DISTORTION ........................................................... 77

APPENDIX A: FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING APPLICATIONS ............................. 83

ASD SUPPLIERS IN ONTARIO ....................................................................... 101

1. Comparison of Range Process Speed Control ......................................1

24. Motor Derating Curves vs. Speed Range When

1. Comparison of Adjustable Speed Drives ............................................. 29

An adjustable speed drive (ASD) is a device used to provide

An ASD is capable of adjusting both speed and torque from an

An electric ASD is an electrical system used to control motor

ASDs may be referred to by a variety of names, such as variable

FIGURE 1. Comparison of Range Process Speed Control

In this guide, “drive” refers to the electric ASD.

Application concerns in connecting electric or mechanical ASDs

• Digital control capability.

• Built-in Power Factor correction.

• Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) filters.

• Short Circuit Protection (automatic shutdown).

• Advanced circuitry to detect motor rotor position by sampling

• Motor Control Centers (MCC) coupled with the ASD using

• Higher starting torques at low speeds (up to 150% running

• Load-commutated Inverters coupled with synchronous motors.

2 Adjustable Speed Drive Reference Guide

• AC motors can be sub-classified as induction (squirrel-cage and

• Induction motors are often classified as either high efficiency or

• Other types of drives include mechanical and hydraulic

• In this guide, emphasis is on AC variable frequency drives, or

• Drives may be classified according to size ranges (horsepower,

- Less than 500 HP.

4 Adjustable Speed Drive Reference Guide

• Variable frequency AC drives are comprised of many electrical

ASD + transformer (if required)

FIGURE 2. Physical Appearance of Variable Frequency

Chapter 2: Physical Appearance 5

• Drives vary greatly in size, depending upon their horsepower

• Electrical cables connect the motor to the drive, which might

• Small AC drives may be built on to their associated motors.

6 Adjustable Speed Drive Reference Guide

• Both AC and DC drives are used to convert AC plant power

• DC drives control DC motors, and AC drives control AC

C ONVENTIONAL F IXED - SPEED AC S YSTEMS

• These systems require some means of throttling (via valves,

• If a reduction in demand occurs, excess energy is wasted in the

Chapter 3: Principles of Operation 7

• The DC voltage can be controlled through a phase-controlled

• The speed of a DC motor can be adjusted over a very wide

• An eddy current clutch has essentially three major components:

• Efficiency is significantly lower than ASDs.

• A voltage is applied to the coil of wire, which is normally

8 Adjustable Speed Drive Reference Guide