1 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - COMPOSITE AND NON-METALLIC

A composite is something, which is made up from many parts, and this term could be
applied to a wide range of engineering materials. These would include not only the
metallic alloys, but also the most earliest of all composite materials used by man,
wood (the tough, fibrous, xylem, or water-conducting tissue, of shrubs and trees,
which contains lignin and cellulose). Brick, concrete, and glass are among the many
other materials, which could be considered as composites.

In the aerospace industry, the term composite is used when referring to materials,
which, in turn, are a combination of fibrous and synthetic resin materials that provide
many advantages by their great strength-to-weight ratios.

This topic covers a number of different materials, including plastics, resins, natural
and synthetic rubbers, adhesives and sealants. Most of these materials will be found
in use on modern aircraft.
1.1 PLASTICS
The word plastic comes from the Greek plastikos to mould, and plasticity (as was
discussed in The Properties of Metals) is the ability to retain a deformation after the
load, producing it, has been removed. Plastics are particularly useful for applications,
which involve relatively low-stress levels, where lightness is important, and where
low electrical or thermal conductivity is required.

The earliest plastic materials (before the synthetics) were those made from the sap,
or latex, of certain trees (gutta-percha), the secretions of tiny, scaly insects (shellac)
and the softened, moulded parts of the horns of animals.

The American inventor, John Wesley Hyatt (in 1869), produced the first synthetic
plastic material (used as an inexpensive substitute for ivory), from the cellulose of
plants (and called it Celluloid), while the chemist, L H Baekeland (in 1909) developed
the first entirely synthetic plastic material (Bakelite), from phenol-formaldehyde.
Bakelite is hard and fairly brittle. It is often used with a suitable filler material (mica,
or wood flour) and is widely used for various electrical mouldings and low-stressed
handles.

Plastics, however, is now the generic name, used to identify various materials
(natural and synthetic), based on long-chain molecules (polymers) of carbon, that
can be cast, extruded or moulded into various shapes or drawn out into filaments to
be used as fibres.

While the two major groups of plastics are the Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
compositions, the manufacture of synthetic rubbers (called Elastomers) is also
considered to be part of the plastics industry.
1.1.1 THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS
Thermoplastic materials, in their normal state, are hard but become soft and pliable
when heated (the Greek word thermo heat). When softened, thermoplastic
materials can be moulded and shaped, and they retain their new shape when
cooled. Unless their heat limit is exceeded, this process can be repeated many times
without damaging the material.

Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials are used for aircraft windshields
and side windows, and are usually referred to as cellulose acetate and acrylic.

Older aircraft used cellulose acetate plastic because of its transparency and light-
weight. A disadvantage of cellulose acetate is its tendency to shrink and discolour
with time, which has led to it being phased out almost completely.

Cellulose acetate can be identified by its slight yellowish tint (especially when aged),
and by the fact that a scrap of it will burn with a sputtering flame and give off black
smoke. It will also react, and soften, upon contact with some materials, such as
acetone.

Acrylic plastics are identified by such trade names as Perspex (UK) and Plexiglass
(USA). It is stiffer than cellulose acetate, more transparent and practically colourless.
Acrylic burns with a clear flame and gives off a fairly pleasant odour. Acetone, if
applied, will cause white marks but will leave the material as hard as it previously
was.
1.1.1.1 Use of Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are, normally, used where there are no unusual temperature
changes and the majority of all plastics production is thermoplastics, which include:
Acetate - widely used for tool handles, and electrical goods.
Poly-Ethylene - commonly known as polythene. Its uses include flexible tubing,
cable insulation and packaging.
Poly-Propylene - stronger, harder and more rigid than polythene. Used for such
items as high-pressure air piping.
Poly-Vinyl-Chloride - commonly known as PVC. Varying degrees of
rigidity/flexibility are achievable by varying the amount of plasticiser used.
Rigid, moulded sections or piping can be produced and also flexible electric
cable insulation
Polystyrene - can be produced in rigid form, but is more familiar in the
expanded form, when it is useful for thermal insulation, buoyancy or shock-
resistant packaging.
Acrylics - these are particularly useful where light transmission is necessary.
Perspex and Plexiglas belong to this family. They have excellent light
transmission properties and are also resistant to splintering. There is a
tendency for some fine craze-cracking to develop if exposed for long periods to
ultra violet light. These transparent plastics may be solid or laminated. When
laminated two or more layers are bonded together with a clear adhesive and,
in this form, they are more shatter-resistant and are ideally suited to
pressurised aircraft windows.
An even stronger and more shatterproof transparent plastic can be achieved by
stretching the acrylic in both directions before final shaping. These improved
properties, result from the stretching operation causing a preferential alignment
of the long-chain molecules. Extreme care should be taken when handling
acrylics, as they are they are easily scratched. The acrylics are supplied with a
paper or rubberised film, which should not be removed, until required for use. If
dirty, they should be cleaned with cold water or soapy water. Care should also
be taken when using solvents in the vicinity of acrylics. Some solvents, or their
vapours, may cause crazing of the material. , Reference to the appropriate
Manuals or manufacturers specification sheets are essential.
Poly-Carbonates - these have similar uses to the acrylics (Perspex etc) but are
more temperature-resistant and also have superior impact strength. They are
also more expensive.
Nylon - belongs to the polyamide family and is an extremely useful and
versatile material. It is strong, tough and also has low friction properties. It can
be used as a fibre or produced as a moulding. Popular uses include textiles,
furnishings, ropes, tyre reinforcement, bushes, pulleys, gears, and lightweight
mouldings such as brackets, handles etc.
Poly-Tetra-Fluoro-Ethylene - commonly known as PTFE, it is similar to nylon
in appearance but is denser, whiter and much more expensive. It has a wax-
like surface and this characteristic results in very low friction properties, which
make it suitable for bushes and gears. It also has a high temperature capability
(over 300C) and is extensively used as a non-stick coating e.g. Teflon. PTFE
tape is often used as a thread sealant for oxygen pipe threads, and as backing
rings for hydraulic seals
1.1.2 THERMOSETTING MATERIALS
Thermosetting materials (also called Thermosets) will, initially, soften when heated,
but will remain soft for only a short time and will set (and harden) if the heat
continues to be applied.

The process of Thermosets becoming hard, when heated, is called curing and
curing can also be achieved by chemical (exothermic) reactions.
During the curing process, the long-chain molecules of the material cross-link (link
together between chains) and, once the cross-links are formed, the plastic becomes
hard and cannot be re-softened by heating.

Thermosets are, thus, chosen where a plastic component will be exposed to
relatively high temperatures, as some of them can tolerate temperatures in excess of
250C before beginning to char.

Note: Thermosetting materials are generally stronger, have a lower ductility and
lower impact properties than the Thermoplastics.
1.1.3 RESINS
Natural resins are obtained from the exudations from certain trees and other plants
and as clear, translucent, yellow (amber), brown, solid, or semisolid agents, they are
used in inks, lacquers, linoleum, varnishes and, of course, plastics.

While the words plastics and resins are often used synonymously, they are, in fact,
quite different, in that plastics refers to the material in the finished items while resins
are the raw materials which may be found in the form of flakes, pellets, powder, or a
syrup.

Resins may be used alone to form plastics but, usually, additives are employed with
them, to assist in the moulding characteristics, or to enhance the properties of the
finished product.

The resin may be thickened and given more body by the addition of inert fillers,
which may be used to fill gaps and voids in the structure. Typical fillers are micro-
balloons, cotton and glass flock and aerosil (fumed silica).

Reinforcing agents, plasticizers, stabilisers, colorants, flame-retardants, smoke
suppressants and processing aids, such as lubricants and coupling agents, are
among the other additives used with resins.

Resins have little strength in themselves and are generally used to impregnate linen,
paper, and cloths made up from various synthetic fibres. For many years, aircraft
control cable pulleys have been made from thermosetting resins, reinforced with
layers of linen cloth. These pulleys are cured in a mould, at high temperature, and
have high strength without causing wear to the control cables.

When layers of paper are impregnated with a thermosetting resin such as phenol-
formaldehyde or urea-formaldehyde, they can be moulded into flat sheets or other
shapes. Once hardened, the material makes an exceptional electrical insulator and
can be found in use as terminal strips and printed circuit boards.
1.1.3.1 Polyester Resin
Polyester resin can be extruded into fine filaments and woven into fabric (like nylon)
or cast into shape and it is also useful as a heat-resistant lacquer.

Glass fibres and mat, for example, have great strength for their weight, but lack
rigidity so, to convert glass fibre into a useful structural material, it is impregnated
with polyester resin and moulded into a desired form.

Polyesters cure by chemical action, and, so, differ from materials, which cure by the
evaporation of an oil or solvent. As polyester is thick and unmanageable, a styrene
monomer is added to make it thinner and easier to work.

If left alone, the mixture of polyester and styrene will, eventually, cure into a solid
mass, so inhibitors are added to delay this curing process and to improve shelf life.

A catalyst then has to be used, when the inhibitors are no longer wanted and the
curing process is to be started and an accelerator will appreciably shorten the curing
time of the resin, depending on the temperature and mass of the resin.

The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a chemical reaction between the
catalyst and accelerator generates heat within the resin. This (exothermic reaction
can be seen when a thick layer cures more rapidly than a thin layer.

1.1.3.2 Thixotropic Agents
The heat, generated by the chemical reaction, can make the material less viscous
and cause it to run (particularly if it is on a vertical surface). To overcome this
problem, a thixotropic agent is added to the resin after mixing, to increase its
viscosity. The increased viscosity allows the resin to remain in place no matter where
it may be used.

1.1.3.3 Epoxy Resin
Another type of resin that can be used in place of polyester in laminated structures is
epoxy resin. Epoxy resin has a low percentage of shrinkage, high strength for its
weight and the ability to adhere to a wide range of materials

Unlike polyester resins, that require a catalyst, epoxy resins require a hardener or
curing agent without recourse to heating.

There is also a difference in the mixing ratios between polyester and epoxy resins.
For polyester resin, the ratio is 64:1, resin to catalyst whilst, for epoxy resin, the ratio
is 4:1, resin to hardener.
1.1.4 ELASTOMERS
From the Greek word elastos elastic, elastomers may be natural or, synthetic
materials (polymers) which have considerable elastic properties.

Because they may also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to be
included in the category of plastics. Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and
return to their original size and shape, in a similar way to natural rubber

Some of the more common elastomers, to be found in the aerospace industry
include:
Buna N - also known as Nitrile. A synthetic rubber, made (initially in Germany)
by the polymerisation of butadeine and sodium (hence BuNa), it has excellent
resistance to fuels and oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, and
seals. This material also has low stiction properties, when in contact with
metal, and is, therefore, particularly suited to moving-seal applications.
Buna - S relatively cheap material, also with a performance similar to natural
rubber. It is often used for tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to
fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it unsuitable for seals.
Fluoro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-temperature properties and
can be used at 250C. They are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for
high-temperature seals. A common name for these materials is Viton. These
materials are expensive.
Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent elastic recovery
qualities. It is also solvent-resistant and, therefore, has a wide range of
applications as fuel and hydraulic seals and gaskets. However, because of its
special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally suited to diaphragms and
hydraulic seals.
Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively poor physical
properties, it has exceptionally high resistance to fuels and oils and is widely
used for lining or sealing fuel tanks. It is also used for lightly stressed seals and
hoses, which come into contact with fuels or oils. This compound is commonly
known under the trade names of PRC or Thiokol.
Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-temperature properties (-80C to
+ 200C). It is often used for seals, but is also used for the potting of electrical
circuits, because of its ability to retain its rubbery state, even at low
temperatures.
1.2 PRIMARY ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
Plastics are being used on an ever-increasing scale and are frequently replacing
some of the more conventional materials such as metals, wood and natural rubbers.
Plastics have properties, which make them a popular choice over conventional
aircraft materials. Some of the more important characteristics of plastics, which help
to explain their popularity, are:
Lightness - most plastics have specific gravities of 1.1 to 1.6 whereas the more
common engineering materials, such as aluminium and steel, have values of
2.7 and 7.8 respectively.
Corrosion Resistance - plastics will tolerate hostile corrosion environments and
many of them resist acid attack.
Low Thermal Conductivity - this property makes many plastics ideal for thermal
insulators.
Electrical Resistance - plastics are used in enormous quantities for electrical
insulation applications.
Formability - many plastics are easily formed into the finished product, by
casting moulding or extrusion, often in a single operation.
Surface Finish - excellent surface finishes can be achieved in the basic forming
operation, so finishing operations are not necessary.
Relatively Low Cost because, although some of the materials may not be
particularly cheap, the lack of machining necessary and the high production
rates possible, keeps the costs down.
Light Transmission - some plastics are naturally clear, whilst other are opaque.
These characteristics, consequently, provide the possibility for a range of light-
transmission properties. Optical properties can also be achieved with some
plastics.
Vibration Damping - many plastics are naturally resistant to fatigue and,
because of the high value of internal damping present, resonances will tend to
be of relatively low amplitude.
1.3 PRIMARY DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
Although plastics are extremely useful materials, some shortcomings inevitably exist,
particularly when compared to some metals. Plastics major deficiencies are:
Lack of Strength - most plastics are much weaker than metals and mild steel
has approximately six times the strength of nylon. Mild steel, however, is six
times the weight of nylon so, on a strength/weight ratio, they are comparable.
Low Stiffness - plastics have a very inferior value of Youngs Modulus
compared with the common metals.
Low Impact Strength - many plastics have poor impact strength, but there are a
few exceptions, such as with certain polycarbonates.
Poor Dimensional Stability - mainly due to high values of thermal coefficient of
expansion.
Poor High-Temperature Capability - metals are generally capable of retaining
reasonable strength at much higher temperatures than the plastics. The long-
term maximum operating temperature, for the better plastics, is not usually
above 250C. High-temperature metals can operate for long periods well in
excess of 800C.
Moisture Absorption - many types of plastic absorb moisture, which can result
in a significant loss of strength in a humid environment.
Ultra Violet Light - some plastics deteriorate when exposed to UV light for long
periods. Increased brittleness and loss of strength can occur.
1.4 PLASTIC MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
The most common manufacturing methods are:
Casting - the molten material is simply poured into a mould and allowed to set.
Moulding - powder, liquid or paste is forced into a set of shaped dies.
Extrusion - plastic is forced through a suitably shaped die.
Rod, sheet, tube, angle sections etc. are produced this way.
Lay-up - load-carrying plastic fibres and an adhesive are layered in a mould or
around a former.
Sandwich-Construction - plastic facings have, sandwiched between them, a
honeycomb or foam core. Very stiff, but light, structures are achieved by this
method.
Compression Moulding the material is put into a heated, hardened, polished
steel container (the die) and forced into shape, by a plunger.
Note: Vacuum Forming uses a similar tooling but, in this instance, the plastic is
sucked into contact with the shaped die (a method often used to manufacture
aircraft interior trim).
1.5 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
As previously stated with Plastics, the main reason for utilising composite materials,
in aerospace structures, is to reduce weight, which has a direct benefit in lowering
operating costs. Composites also provide further benefits in their ability to be easily
formed, comparatively lower production costs, resistance to corrosion and reduced
maintenance costs.

The principal types of composite materials are those involving fibrous elements
which may be used as strands, or be woven into fine tapes and cloths (or coarser
mats), held in a suitable resin matrix and formed into the required shapes
1.5.1 GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (GFRP)
The first man-made fibre, glass can be spun into cloth and used for fire-proof
curtains or (when extremely pure glass is used), made into fibres which are able to
transmit light over long distances.

The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small diameter glass fibres is
extremely high, although the strength is reduced significantly if the fibres are slightly
damaged.

In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre or fibreglass, when
glass fibres (in various forms) are bonded together by appropriate resins.

When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is, also, of considerably lower
strength but, nevertheless, good GFRP structures are stronger than mild steel and,
on a simple strength-for-weight basis, can be comparable to high tensile steel if the
fibre form and lay-up is near optimum. It is however, considerably less stiff than steel
or even aluminium.

A graphic example of GFRP flexibility is the enormous deflection, which takes place
in the pole during a pole vault. As the glass fibres are about a hundred times
stronger than the resin, it is obviously necessary to get as much fibre packed into the
moulding as possible.

Non-structural items may be made from, or include, a percentage of chopped strand
mat, (i.e. glass fibres in a random, non- woven state) but, where considerable
strength is required, uni-directional glass cloth is used.

To provide all round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can be layed up at 90 to
each other, in a similar manner to the grain in plywood. Sometimes such sheets are
used as facings for an internal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated paper, to give a
very efficient structure in terms of strength, stiffness and weight.

The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already impregnated with
resin and partially cured (Pre-preg), in which case it is necessary to keep the
material in refrigerated storage. Resin curing is usually done at elevated
temperatures (120C - 170C), with the GRP component in its mould and, often,
under pressure, in an autoclave.

The main reasons for using GFRP are:
in instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar domes or other non-
electrical conducting applications)
the ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes
to provide good strength/weight ratio
its ability to produce selected directional strength.

The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness and, as such, is not
suitable for applications subject to high structural loadings.
1.5.1.1 Ceramic Fibres
Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic fibres are a form of glass
fibre, used in high-temperature applications. They can be used at temperatures up to
1650C and are suited for use around engine and exhaust systems. Ceramic fibres
are heavy (and expensive) and are only used where no other materials are suitable.
1.5.2 CARBON FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (CFRP)
CFRP (also referred to as Graphite) is a composite material, which was primarily
developed to retain (or improve upon) the high strength-to-weight ratio
characteristics exhibited by GFRP, but with very much greater stiffness values.

Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite, the Young's Modulus
(E) value can be higher than steel. CFRP is not only six times stiffer than GFRP but
is also over 50% stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-strength aluminium
alloy and three times the stiffness.

Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) in diameter and are
produced by subjecting a fine thread of a suitable nylon-type plastic to a very high
temperature (to decompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements with the
exception of carbon. The carbon thread is then stretched, at white heat (2000C-
3000C), to develop strength. Unfortunately, the process is complex and very costly.

Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CFRP can offer considerable
weight savings over conventional materials. CFRP components are generally made
from Pre-preg sheet (fibres impregnated with resin and a hardener, which only
require heat and pressure to cure). Some specialist items are made by a laborious,
but ideal, process called Filament Winding, in which a carbon fibre string is wound
over a former in the shape of the workpiece whilst bonded with resin.

Because of CFRP's high stiffness modulus, it is also used extensively to stiffen
GFRP or aluminium alloy structures.

A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also graphitised), is used for
the rotors and stators on brake units. It offers a significant weight saving, as well as
high efficiency, due to the fact that it dissipates the heat generated very quickly.

Replacing 40% of an aluminium alloy structure by CFRP would result in a 40%
saving in total structural weight and CFRP is used on such items as the wings,
horizontal (and vertical) stabilisers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many aircraft.

The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor blades, has led to
significant increases in their life and, in some cases, they may have an unlimited life
span (subject to damage). The modern blade is highly complex and may be
comprised of CFRP, GFRP, stainless steel, a honeycomb core and a foam filling.
1.5.3 ARAMID FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (AFRP)
The aramid fibres are closely related to the nylon-type of synthetic fibres and are well
known for their superior toughness, strength-to-weight characteristics and heat-
resistance. Tyres, reinforced with aramid fibres are comparable to those reinforced
with steel cords.

Better known under its trade name Kevlar in cloth form, it is a soft, yellow, organic
fibre that is extremely light, strong and tough. Its great impact-resistance makes it
useful in areas, which are liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in areas
around engine reverse-thrust buckets. Kevlar is used to manufacture bullet-proof
jackets and, also, as a reinforcement, in aircraft fuel tanks.
1.5.4 GENERAL INFORMATION
A sheet of fibre reinforced material is anisotropic, - which means its properties
depend on the direction of the fibres. Random direction fibres would result in a much
lower strength than uni-directional fibres, laying parallel to the applied load.
However, the strength (and stiffness) of a uni-directional lay-up would be very low,
with the applied load at 90 to the fibres, as this is primarily a test of the resin (hence
the usual practice of placing alternate layers at 90 to each other).
Due to small variations in the size of the individual fibres, and the final quality of the
finished component (which can be affected by careless handling, variations in
cleanliness or lay-up, voids, pressures, temperatures, etc), there will, inevitably, be a
greater scatter on final strength than on a conventional, metallic component. Due
allowance on stress reserve factors is, therefore, essential.
It has already been stated that composites usually have good internal damping
characteristics and are less prone to vibration resonances. Where high strength,
combined with stiffness is required, then a CFRP is used but, when lesser levels of
stiffness are necessary, then GFRP or AFRP are used.

Composites have very low elongation properties and toughness. Aluminium alloy has
a typical elongation-to-fracture value of 11%, whereas composites range from 3% for
GFRP to 0.5% for CFRP.

The maximum operating temperatures, for GFRP, CFRP and Kevlar composites,
depend, to some extent, on the actual adhesives used, but are, generally, in the
range 220C-250C.

Some composites, such as carbon fibre in a carbon matrix, have very high
permissible operating temperatures (around 3000C), and are used for high-energy
braking applications and as thermal barriers for space vehicles).

Boron, Tungsten, Silicon Carbide and Quartz may also be used to provide fibres for
high-temperature composites

1.5.5 LAMINATED, SANDWICH AND MONOLITHIC STRUCTURES
Laminated plastics consist of layers of synthetic resin-impregnated fibres (or other,
coated, fillers), which are bonded together (usually heated and under pressure), to
form a single laminate or sheet of composite material. Plastic laminates are used to
face other structural materials, in order to;

provide a more durable surface to a softer (less expensive) material
enhance the surface appearance (colour, porosity, smoothness etc.)
increase the strength and rigidity of many non-metallic structures
produce other desirable surface characteristics such as when acid- or corrosion-
resistance, non-conductivity, non-magnetisability or the ease of keeping a surface
clean is required

To provide a light-weight structure, which possesses strength and rigidity, one of
several structural materials, is sandwiched between two laminated composites.

The sandwiched material (the core) may be made of a solid material, such as wood,
or a series of thin corrugations of a material, which are joined and placed end-on (in
the form of the cells of a honeycomb), within the laminates.
Where wood is used, as the core material, it usually consists of low-density balsa
wood, which has been cut across the grain and sandwiched between two layers of
reinforced resin (or a metal). This construction makes an extremely light, yet strong
material, which can be used as floor panels, wall panels and, occasionally, aircraft
skins.

The cellular core, used for laminated honeycomb material, may be made from resin-
impregnated paper, or from one of the many fibre cloths. The core is formed or
shaped and then bonded between two face sheets of resin-impregnated cloth. The
finished sandwich structure is very rigid, has a high strength-to-weight ratio, and is
transparent to electromagnetic (radar/radio) waves, making it ideal for radomes of all
kinds.

Metal honeycomb cores (made from light alloy or stainless steel), are also
sandwiched between two face sheets of fibre-reinforced resins. On other occasions
the metal honeycombs may be found sandwiched between sheets of light alloy,
stainless steel or titanium. This type of core is referred to as metal-faced
honeycomb and is used where abrasion- and heat-resistance is important or when
sound-absorption qualities are desired.

In monolithic structures, angle sections (Top Hat, U, I and Z), frames ribs and
stringers are fashioned from similar materials to the outer layers of the sandwich
structure, then covered with the appropriate surface skin, before the stronger,
metallic spars and hinges are attached, Such a structure can save many kilograms
(or pounds) in the weight of the flying control surfaces (or the fin structure) of a large
aircraft.
1.6 NON-METALLIC COMPONENTS
In addition to the non-metallic materials, used in the aircraft structure, non-metallic
materials are used in many aircraft components and systems. Many of these
materials require specialist knowledge and understanding, during aircraft
maintenance.
1.6.1 SEALS
Seals or packing rings (refer to Fig. 18) serve to retain fluids and gases, within their
respective systems, as well as to exclude air, moisture and contaminants. They also
have to withstand a wide range of temperatures and pressures and, because of this,
they have to be manufactured in a variety of shapes and materials.

The most common materials, from which seals are manufactured, are natural
rubber, synthetic rubber and Teflon (trade name for polytetrafluoroethane or PTFE).
O-ring seals effectively seal in both directions of movement. They are used to
prevent both internal and external leakage, and are the most commonly used seals
in aviation























Where installations operate at pressures above 10.34 x 10 kN/m (1500 psi),
additional back-up rings can be used to prevent the O-ring from being forced out or
extruded. These back-up rings are usually made from Teflon, which does not
deteriorate with age, is unaffected by system fluids and vapours and tolerates
temperatures well in excess of those found in high-pressure hydraulic systems.

O-rings are available in many different materials and sizes (both diameter and
thickness). They are supplied in individual, hermetically-sealed, envelopes with all
the necessary information marked on the packaging. This system has generally
replaced the previously used, colour-coding of seals, which had severe limitations.

For applications (such as in actuators) that subject a seal to pressure from two sides,
two back-up rings can be used but, when the pressure is from one side only, a single
back-up ring is adequate.

Other seals, commonly found are V-ring and U-ring seals. The V-ring has an open
V facing the pressure and is located by the use of a male and female adapter. The
U-ring seals will, usually, be found in brake unit assemblies and master cylinders,
where pressures below 89 x 10 kN/m (1000 psi) are encountered. As they only seal
in one direction, the concave surface must face towards the pressure.

Examples of Seals and Packing Rings
Fig. 18