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Equation 1
Where :
are measured
Equation 2
Where :
and
and respectively
: is the power law exponent
In Equation 1, roughness length that shows the effect of roughness of a terrain on the wind profile
is included. It is defined as the height above the Zero displacement plane
1
at which the mean wind
becomes zero when extrapolating the logarithmic wind speed profile downward through
the surface layer[9].
Frequency distribution (probability distribution Profile)
Probability distribution of wind speeds shows the range of wind speed and its frequency of
occurrence. The weibull probability density function, Equation 3, gives a very good representation
of wind speed frequency for many areas.
()
Equation 3
Where ()is the probability of occurrence of wind speed U
: a [m/s
2
] is the weibull scale factor
: is the shape factor that describes the distribution of the wind speeds (how peak
the curve is)
1
Zero-plane displacement is the height in meters above the ground at which zero wind speed is achieved because
of flow obstacles such as trees or buildings. It is generally approximated as
2
/
3
of the average height of the
obstacles.[9] (2000, The American Meteorological Society's (AMS) Glossary of Meteorology (2nd ed.). Available:
http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary
CHAPTER TWO
7
The weibull scale factor a and shape factor k are related to the average wind speed with,
Equation 4.
)
Equation 4
Where
Equation 5
Annual Mean Wind speed
Annual Mean Wind speed as the name indicates is the average wind speed of a certain site over a
year. It is useful in giving an estimate of the average available energy. Since the available energy
varies as the cube of the wind speed, a very accurate estimate of wind speed is crucial. It is worth
mentioning that sites with the same mean wind speed but dissimilar frequency distribution may
have different energy potential.
Power Density
The power density of the site is the average wind power over one square meter of a turbine; it can
be calculated using individual wind measurements Equation 6. In [13], it is indicated that for a
wind distribution with a shape factor k=2, if the estimate of the power density is done using
annual mean wind speeds underproduction of annual power density by a factor of 1.9 will be
observed.
Equation 6
Where :
is the i
th
wind speed
:
to
)
: h is the boundary layer height
: x is the distance from roughness change
By matching the neutral wind profile at height h an empirical relation that models the
friction velocity was developed Equation 8 [31]. This equation is used to relate the friction
velocity at the observed site to the friction velocity upstream of the roughness change.
)
(
)
Equation 8
Where:
Equation 7
CHAPTER THREE
22
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
Equation 9
Where
) and
) and
is the von Karman constant
( )(
)
Equation 10
Where:
)
: p is porosity (open/total area)
:h is height of obstacle
:z is height considered
:x is Downstream distance
3.3. Factors affecting the prediction process
As mentioned in[32] the factors that affect the WA
S
P prediction process are grouped into the
following categories:
Atmospheric conditions
The atmospheric conditions that affect WA
S
P prediction occur due to location of
predicted and predictor site at different regional wind climate. The existence of two
sites in one climatic condition can be shown using Correlation coefficient. However,
even when the sites are found under the same regional wind condition due non-
standard atmospheric conditions such as atmospheric stability and stratification;
prediction errors can occur[35].
Wind speed records
While prediction WA
S
P assumes that the two sites (predictor and predicted) are fully
correlated. However, if the averaging time is very small this is not always true unless
the sites are very close to each other. The measurement time is another factor seen to
have effect on the prediction error.
Weibull fit error and wind direction
Prediction error can occur while forcing the observed data to fit into the weibull
frequency distribution. The directional differences can occur when the incidence flow
is changed due to oblique steeps ridges.
Orography
The effect of topography is very significant besides atmospheric conditions.
Predictions errors can be caused by site ruggedness, flow separation, and use of
topographic features beyond the terrain map considered by WA
S
P etc.
CHAPTER THREE
25
3.4. Ruggedness Index (RIX)
The ruggedness index (RIX) of a given site is the fractional extent of the surrounding terrain
which is steeper than a critical slope which is usually 0.3 [32]. It was proposed to give a
measure of flow separation in complex terrains, which are outside the operation envelope of
WA
S
P. RIX value of zero means that the terrain is within the working envelop of WA
S
P.
It is calculated for a number of sectors originating from site, by dividing each radius into line
segments defined by the crossing of the radius with contour lines [36]. The sum of segments
whose slope is greater than 0.3 divided by the sum of all the segments (which equals the
radius) gives the RIX value of the radius. The Site ruggedness index is then given as the
mean of the sector wise RIX values.
Figure 12: Ruggedness index of area around Rotterdam Noord (the thick red Points inside the circle indicate RIX
greater than 0.3)
It was mentioned in [32] that RIX that is the difference in RIX value between the predictor
and predicted site (
)
(
Equation 11
Where: Z
(si)
is the measured value at the i
th
location
:
i
is an unknown weight for the measured value at the i
th
location
: s
o
is the prediction location
: N is the number of measured values
Kriging is optimal in a sense that the interpolation weights are chosen to optimize the
interpolation function hence provide Best Linear Unbiased Estimate (BLUE)
4
for the value of a
variable at a given point [43]. It uses Semi-variogram to define the weights that determine the
contribution of each data point to the prediction of un-sampled values. A detailed mathematical
modelling and description of Kriging method can be found in [47-48].
4.1.1.1. Steps of kriging interpolation
The steps of Kriging interpolation as describe in [46] are explained as follows.
Calculation of Empirical Semi- Variogram
This step consists of the calculation of experimental variogram from the measured data using
Equation 12. Variogram is a quantitative descriptive statistic that can be represented graphically
in a manner that characterizes the spatial continuity (i.e. roughness) of a data set. It shows a
texture difference (continuity of high and low zones) of a data set in which common descriptive
statistics and histograms fail to identify [49].
Where: ( ) is variogram of separation ( )
: Z(x, y) is the value of the variable of interest at location (x, y)
: is the statistical expectation operator
If there are n observed data points, there will be (1)/2 unique pairs of observations. Thus, even
a data set of reasonable size generates many pairs. This makes it difficult to plot all variograms
quickly, and hence the pairs are grouped into lag bins and averaged variogram result of a
specific lag distance is used as a representative variogram for the lag distance.
4
BLUE means that it has the smallest variance among all unbiased linear estimators.
( )
(( ) ( ))
Equation 12
CHAPTER FOUR
30
Variogram model fitting
After the empirical semi-variogram is calculated and plotted against lag distance, the Variogram
Model that fits the scatter plot is chosen. The scale and length parameters are adjusted iteratively
for a better fit. Figure 14 shows a fitted spherical variogram for 10000 sample points with a scale
of 6000 and length of 480.
Figure 14: Variogram Model for Sample Data with scale of 6000 and length of 480
Prediction using the fitted model
Using the spatial information of the raw data (for computing distances) and semi-variogram
model, weights are determined and predictions of unknown values are made.
4.1.2. Grid Filtering
Grid filtering uses corresponding grid node and its neighbours in the input grid to recalculate
values of output grid nodes [50]. Neighbourhood grids are rectangular sub array of nodes that
surround the corresponding grid Figure 15. Several grid filtering methods suited for different
purposes; such as smoothing (low pass filters) and sharpening (high pass filter) exist in surfer
[50]. These filtering methods are divided into two groups; a linear convolution which computes
weighted averages of the neighbouring input grid nodes and a nonlinear filtering method which
doesnt use a weighted average [50].
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Lag Distance
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
V
a
r
i
o
g
r
a
m
Direction: 0.0 Tolerance: 90.0
Column C
Length
S
c
a
l
e
Fitted variogram Model
Experimental variogram
CHAPTER FOUR
31
Maximum filtering method in which the value of output grid node equals the maximum of the
neighbouring values is one of the non-linear order statistics filtering method used in this work.
The other filtering method used for in this study is moving average, one of the non-linear
convolution methods. It computes the value for the corresponding grid node by averaging the
values of neighbouring grid nodes.
Figure 15: A 3 by 3-filter size grid showing the neighbouring (green) and corresponding (red) grid nodes
4.2. DSM Application Software
For the construction of DSM SURFER or ArcMap computer programs can be used. SURFER
developed by US Golden Company, is a contouring and 3D surface mapping program. It
contains up to 12 interpolation methods. It can create contours, 3D surfaces, and wireframes, etc.
from grids. It has different gridding and contouring methods with more control on the gridding
parameters [51]. It is also possible to export the elevation contour in different formats. ArcMap
has two extensions Spatial Analyst and Geo-statistical Analyst. The Geo-statistical analyst
extension provides several types of interpolation methods, and works best with Raster based
data[46].
4.3. Elevation Data
SRTM and CAD
Shuttle Radar Topography mission (SRTM) is an elevation database which is available for 80%
of the world. The data was collected by a radar system flown on board on the space shuttle
Endeavour on February 2000. The objective of this mission was to obtain RADAR data of most
of the Earths land surface to produce high resolution topographic maps[39]. This data is
available in TIFF format on United States Geological Survey (USGS) website [52] with a
resolution of approximately 90 meters by providing the latitude and longitude of the area. CAD
maps containing elevation data of buildings of the areas of interest can then be draped on the
prepared SRTM data to construct a DSM. However, the SRTM data was not used in this study
2 5 7
9 3 11
1 4 9
CHAPTER FOUR
32
for two main reasons. These are the low resolution of the SRTM data and the lack of CAD map
of the cities with information about the elevation of buildings.
Actual Height of the Netherlands (AHN)
The Actual Height of the Netherlands (AHN) data is an elevation map which is measured with
laser meter, a technique in which a plane or helicopter with a laser beam scans the surface[53].
The measurements of duration of laser reflection and the movement of the aircraft together give
a precise measurement of the height. This data includes elevation of buildings, trees, and other
features on the scanned surface. It was made available by the map room of TUDelft Library in a
.xyz data format.
The coordinate system used in the AHN data is the Empire Triangle Coordinate, which is also
known as Rijksdriehoekscordinaten or RD-coordinate. RD-coordinate is a Cartesian coordinate
system, which is based on false origin. It has a datum name Amersfoort because the false
origin is located in Amersfoort. Netherlands is found between the RD-coordinates of 20 km and
300 km false Easting (x coordinate) and 300 km to 600 km false Northing of RD coordinate
Figure 16 [54].
The AHN data is divided in to grids and assigned particular numbers for easy organisation
Figure 17. Each grid cell covers a 40 by 25 sq. km area which is then further divided into 32
smaller cells of area of 5 by 6.25 sq. km and given additional alphabetic representation [53]. The
particular sets of cells used for requesting the data from the TUDelft Map room are listed in
Table 3.
City AHN data name
Delft 37en1,37en2
Rotterdam
37bz2, 37dn2, 37dz2, 37ez1, 37ez2, 37gn1, 37gn2, 37gz1,
37gz2, 37fz1, 37hn1, 37hz1,
Zoetermeer 30hn1,30hn2,
Table 3: AHN data sets used for data Request
CHAPTER FOUR
33
Figure 16: Location of the Netherlands in RD coordinate [54]
CHAPTER FOUR
34
Figure 17: AHN data cell representation on RD coordinate system
4.4. Construction of a synthetic surface above the urban area
In this section, the steps followed for creating a synthetic surface that evolves above the urban
areas are presented. For showing the results of each step, an AHN data covering 3 by 3 sq. km
area of Rotterdam is used. All elevations are in centimetre and the coordinates are RD coordinate
system. A flow chart showing the steps is included in Appendix A.
Step 1: Grid Formation
The purpose of any gridding method is to create a regularly spaced rectangular array of Z values
from irregularly spaced XYZ data points using spatial interpolation[41].Each of the AHN data
used in this work have 1048576 data points. A gridding space of 5 m is used to get the similar
grid node values as that of the AHN data. For the formation of the grid the default linear
variogram is used because
The formation of a variogram model for large number of data points takes much
computational time and
The xyz data are regularly spaced and hence formation of variogram becomes
insignificant.
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
525
550
575
600
20 60 100 140 180 220 260
CHAPTER FOUR
35
A residual
5
of zero that indicates very high accuracy is found while checking the correctness of
the interpolation method. The reason for such a high accuracy is the use of 5 m grid size
(spacing), which is the same spacing as that of the regularly spaced .xyz AHN data.
The 3D surface model and shaded relief map of the grid are shown in Figure 18. From the maps,
the cluster of buildings in an area can be seen. Nevertheless, in the 3D model it is difficult to
differentiate buildings and other features of the urban area.
Step 2: - Grid mosaic
The Grid mosaic is used to combine different grids to get a larger grid that is helpful in placing
all the meteorological sites in one map. In this step, the grid size (resolution) of the bigger map
can also be changed to different values.
5
A residual is the difference in elevation values created by interpolation and the unprocessed AHN data
CHAPTER FOUR
36
Figure 18: DSM (Top) and shaded Relief map (Bottom) of the grid where kriging interpolation is applied
CHAPTER FOUR
37
Step 3: -Grid Filter (Smoothing)
To remove the detailed irregularities in the 3D model and create a surface that evolves above the
cluster of building and other features grid smoothing/filtering is a very important step. The filter
type, number of times the filter is applied, and the filter size are adjusted using the filtering
dialog box. As there are no standard methods suggested for this type of work, a trial and error
method with visual inspection was used for choosing suitable combination of grid filtering
methods.
First, the non-linear maximum filtering method with a five by five filter size was
used. The DSM is then constructed using the filtered grid. As seen in Figure 19,
the DSM shows a clearer view of buildings. Large ruggedness index values were
observed while using this surface as an elevation contour.
Figure 19: DSM of filtered grid (Maximum filter size 5 by 5)
Hence, for creating a smooth synthetic surface that evolves above clusters/groups
of buildings a combination of maximum and moving average filtering methods is
applied. First, maximum filtering and then moving average methods are applied to
smoothen the surface. A maximum filter method with filter size of 25 by 25 was
CHAPTER FOUR
38
applied to the grid formed in the step one. Further grid filtering was performed by
selecting a moving average filter method with 39 by 39 filter size.
Figure 20: 3D model of the double filtered grid
Because of the moving average filtering method at some locations, buildings
might go beyond the synthetic surface Figure 21. To include the elevation of the
buildings that go beyond the smoothened surface, grid math command of surfer is
used. By subtracting, the double filtered grid from the single filtered grid and
blanking out all the negative elevations (i.e. buildings covered by surface) the
elevation of the buildings above the synthetic surface is calculated. The grid
formed with this data is then added to the double filtered grid to find the final
elevation data. Figure 20 shows the DSM created using the final elevation grid.
CHAPTER FOUR
39
Figure 21: Overlaid 3D surface maps of double filtered (grey) and single filterd grid(red)
Figure 22: 3D surface of the final Grid
CHAPTER FOUR
40
Step 4: - Contouring
In this step, an elevation contour is created from the final grid Figure 23. To study the sensitivity
of the contour level on the wind resource; the elevation contours are created with different
contour levels. The results were then exported to DXF files with the contour level to be used as
an input to WA
S
P map editor.
Figure 23: Elevation contour of the final grid (synthetic surface)
80000 81000 82000 83000 84000
426000
427000
428000
429000
430000
431000
432000
CHAPTER FOUR
41
Ruggedness index of the DSM and the Synthetic surface
The following table shows summary of the sector wise RIX calculated for areas around
Geulhaven and Rotterdam Noord are shown Table 4. Threshold of 0.3 and radius of 2500 m
were used. From the table it can be seen that the individual ruggedness index is lower for the
synthetic surface. Having the lower ruggedness index will show that the terrain is relatively
gentle and suits the WA
S
P analysis better.
Geulhaven Rotterdam Noord
Synthetic
surface
DSM Synthetic
surface
DSM
Total RIX %
0.22 2.66 0 4.27
1 0 0.84 0 5.78
2 0 1.07 0 4.42
3 0 3.33 0 3.98
4 0.33 2.46 0 0.36
5 0.18 0.94 0.1 2.49
6 0.0 2,64 0 3.74
7 0.11 3.32 0 4.92
8 0.26 4.8 0.2 4.14
9 0.03 6.79 0 5.63
10 0.47 3.25 0.19 6.74
11 0.11 5.57 5.54
12 0.68 2,97 0 3,93
13 1 3.59 0 2.72
14
0.38 0.24 0 3.92
15 0 0.39 0 4.67
16 0 0.3 0 5.59
Table 4: Summary of Ruggedness Index for Geulhaven and Zestienhoven
CHAPTER FOUR
42
CHAPTER FIVE
43
5. WIND SPEED DATA
Long-term wind data with dense measurement masts are very important for wind resource
analysis. In this chapter, the meteorological station and the short-term measurement data
used for this work are discussed.
5.1. Historical Wind Data
The HYDRA project, which started in May 1998 and ended in November 2005 was first
organised to do risk assessment on the Dutch dike systems but later it ended up yielding
important information for the Wind Energy Communities. There are more than 50 measuring
stations throughout the Netherlands[34]. For some of the stations, the measurement started in
the early 50s. The wind speed and direction are recorded with a resolution of 0.1 m/s and 10
respectively. The data was very well examined by KNMI and was given different quality
codes. The codes show if the data is valid, questionable, added, or corrected manually etc.
From the website hourly potential wind speed, direction, date, time and quality code can be
downloaded freely in ASCII format [34]. Potential wind speed is wind that is corrected for
the effects of shelter from buildings or vegetation i.e. wind speed at 10 m height with the
station surrounding flat and roughness length of 0.03 m (which is equal to that of grass) and
free of obstacles [34].
The quality of the data that is collected from the measuring stations is of great importance for
quality of the wind map. For this study, a potential wind with a valid data code is directly
used without further quality assessment. Information about the location of the measurement
mast, measurement height, the measurement, and recording equipment, and status of the
station were documented. They can be accessed from the website [34]. All these information
allow relying on the KNMI data possible. The meteorological stations used are discussed in
detail in Sections 5.1.1 and 5.1.2.
CHAPTER FIVE
44
5.1.1. Station 344: Zestienhoven
Zestienhoven is found at latitude of 51.955 and longitude of 4.444 or X=90125 m and
Y=44100 m RD coordinate. The measurement period for this station starts from 1981.
However for this study the recent years measurement data (January 2001 - December of
2009) are used. The wind speed and direction are analysed using WA
S
P utility package OWC
to get site-specific wind climate. A directional binning of 16 sectors each with 22.5, which is
similar to the console binning of the measurement mast of the Rotterdam Noord Police
station, is used.
Figure 24 shows the result from OWC analysis: the Weibull distribution and wind rose. The
mean wind speed and power density are 4.94 m/s and 152 W/m
2
. It can be observed that the
prevailing wind directions are south and southwest direction (sectors 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13)
with an overall frequency of 39%. The strongest wind is 6.45 m/s from sector 12.
Figure 24 : Observed Wind Climate of Zestienhoven
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
15
CHAPTER FIVE
45
5.1.2. Station 343 Rotterdam Geulhaven
This station is located at latitude of 51.893 and longitude of 4.313 in RD coordinate. Even
though the measurement for this meteorological station starts from 1981, the data registered
from January 2001 until December 2009 is used for this study.
The Weibull distribution and the wind rose from OWC analysis are shown in Figure 25. The
mean wind speed, and power density for this site are 5.71 m/s and 196 W/m
2
respectively.
The prevailing wind directions are south and southwest (sectors 9, 10, 11, 12) with a total
frequency of 36.2% sectors 9 and 11 each contributing more than 10 % each. The strongest
wind of 7.25 m/s is registered for sector 12
Figure 25: Observed Wind Climate of Geulhaven
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
15
CHAPTER FIVE
46
5.1.3. Comparison of Zestienhoven and Geulhaven
Even though the wind speeds are standardized to topographies of flat terrain and roughness
length of 0.03 m, there is a difference of 0.77 m/s in mean wind speed with Geulhaven having
the higher value. This is because Geulhaven is located near to the coast of North Sea and
river Nieuwe Maas. For both sites, the strongest wind comes from sector 12.
Zestienhoven Geulhaven
Frequency
Difference
(f
z
f
g
)
Sector
No.
Zestienhoven Geulhaven
Frequency
[%]
Wind Speed
[m/s]
Frequency [%]
Wind Speed
[m/s]
1 6.8 3.34 6.1 4.12 0.7
2 3.1 3.41 4.5 4.12 -1.4
3 5.9 4.08 5.7 4.69 0.2
4 5.4 4.15 4.0 4.69 1.4
5 6.5 4.31 5.6 5.46 0.9
6 3.7 3.92 2.7 5.61 1
7 1.9 3.65 2.9 4.67 -1
8 4.2 4.32 5.5 4.41 -1.3
9 11.3 5.03 12.3 5.81 -1
10 8.5 6.30 4.9 6.65 3.6
11 9.5 6.35 11.6 7.10 -2.1
12 9.7 6.45 7.4 7.25 2.3
13 11.3 4.98 9.5 6.70 1.8
14 4.7 4.81 5.1 6.06 -0.4
15 3.4 4.78 6.1 5.56 -2.7
16 4.0 4.53 6.2 4.88 0.7
All 4.94 5.71
Table 5: Observed wind climate comparison of the two KNMI stations
CHAPTER FIVE
47
In addition to the difference in the mean wind speed, a sector wise frequency difference exists
between the two KNMI stations. The maximum frequency differences are seen in the
southwest direction especially sectors 10, 11, and 12. The wind speed frequency of
Geulhaven is higher than that of Zestienhoven for sectors 9 and 11 but lower for sector 10
and 12 Figure 26. This is because of the neighbourhood topography that deflects the wind
flowing in the direction of sector 10 (from southwest direction; which is the prevailing wind
direction in the Netherlands) to sectors 11 and 9 Figure 27.
Figure 26: Sector wise wind speed frequencies of the KNMI stations
Figure 27: Blockage effect of the neighbouring areas for Geulhaven [Google earth]
CHAPTER FIVE
48
5.2. Short Term Wind Data
Rotterdam Noord Police station
The wind data collected from the Rotterdam Noord police station is used for Validation .The
building has a height of 35 m and is located at latitude of 51 540 N and longitude of
4 300 E or in RD coordinate. The Davis Vantage Pro2
weather stations were installed in October 2009 (stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 at an elevation of 5
m). The middle station (station 5) was installed on a 9 m pole on November 2010. The data
from these stations were used to estimate mean wind speed and power density of the different
locations of the site. The setup has then been changed from January 2010 onwards to perform
wind shear analysis. The measurement heights of the new setup are 9 m, 7 m, and 5 m for
TOP, MIDDLE and BOTTOM weather stations respectively Figure 28. A 10-minutes
logging interval was selected, and a visit was made to the station every two weeks to collect
the data.
Figure 28: Old measurement setup (left) and new measurement setup (right) of Rotterdam Noord Police station
For analysing the wind data for the Rotterdam Noord police station, the wind data from
station 5 of the old setup and TOP station of the new setup are combined. The wind data
from November 11, 2009 until October 15 of 2010 are used. Some wind data are lost due to
malfunctioning of the console and failure to collect the data on time.
CHAPTER FIVE
49
Figure 29 shows the results from the OWC analysis. The prevailing wind direction is south
(sectors 8, 9 and 10) with a total frequency of 26.5 %. However, sectors 1 and 16 also have
high frequency. The 10-minute average wind speed for the measurement period is 4.42 m/s
and strongest wind speed of 5.57 m/s is registered for sector 10.
Figure 29 : Observed Wind Climate of Rotterdam Noord Police station
The statistics of the wind data used for this work are summarized in Table 6. Of the different
types of prediction errors of WA
S
P, one of them occurs while trying to fit the observed wind
data into a weibull distribution. It is quantified using percentage error. Table 5 shows the
weibull fit error for all the sites.
Station Measurement Period
Weibull
shape factor
K
Weibull
scale factor
A [m/s]
Mean
wind speed
U [m/s]
Weibull
Fit errors
[%]
Geulhaven Jan 2001 - Dec 2009 2.21 6.4 5.71
0.36
Zestienhoven Jan 2001 - Dec 2009 1.81 5.5 4.94
0.49
Rotterdam
Noord Police
station
Nov 11 2009 - Oct 15
2010
1.95 5.0 4.42 0.67
Table 6: Summary of the Observed Wind Climates
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
15
CHAPTER FIVE
50
5.3. Wind Speed Correlation
The two meteorological stations, Geulhaven and Zestienhoven, are 11.4 km apart. A zero
time lag cross correlation between the meteorological stations was calculated neglecting the
directional data to check if the two stations have a strong linear correlation for the whole
measurement period; i.e. from January 2001 until December 2009. The results show that
there is a strong linear correlation between the hourly mean wind speeds of the two
meteorological stations Table 7. This shows that the two stations are found in the same
regional wind climate. It was not possible to calculate the cross correlation between the
Rotterdam Noord police station and the two meteorological sites due to the difference in the
measurement period.
Station 344 Zestienhoven Station 343 Geulhaven
Station 344 Zestienhoven 1.0000 0.9164
Station 343 Geulhaven 0.9164 1.0000
Table 7: Zero time lag Correlation between the KNMI stations
CHAPTER SIX
51
6. APPLICATION OF WA
S
P ANALYSIS
This chapter discussed the results of WA
S
P analysis performed by using the synthetic surface
as a topographic map.
6.1. Cross prediction
In WA
S
P, the use of more than one meteorological station to define a wind atlas is not possible.
However, the different masts/meteorological sites can be used to validate the wind resource
modelling by performing a systematic set of comparative predictions known as cross prediction. It
is the procedure of using one meteorological station to calculate the regional wind climate and
then use it to perform prediction for the wind climate at the second station; and then repeating the
procedure but using the second station as a predicting station. In this study, the two
meteorological stations, Geulhaven and Zestienhoven are used for cross prediction. In addition,
prediction was made for Rotterdam Noord Police station using the two meteorological stations.
A synthetic surface of size 19.995 by 18.745 sq. km was used as topographic map. The synthetic
surface was created using 12 AHN topographic data sets shown in Figure 30. It has a resolution of
5 m and contour level of 3 m.
Figure 30: AHN data used for creating the DSM used in cross prediction
The roughness change map used in this analysis is generated by the KNMI wasp_map.exe and
then modified to consider the standardized potential wind speed. An area of 0.04 sq. km around
both meteorological sites is assumed to have a roughness length of 0.03 m. A change in these
areas creates a difference in the wind speed prediction.
19.995 Km
18.745 Km
37bz2 37ez1 37ez2 37fz1
37dn2 37gn1 37gn2 37hn1
37dz2 37gz1 37gz2 37hz1
CHAPTER SIX
52
For evaluating the prediction performance, the results of each analysis are compared to the
Observed Wind Climates using the statistical measurements Root mean Square Error (RMSE) and
Percentage error (P.E.), which are calculated using Equation 13 and Equation 14 respectively.
(
Equation 13
(
)
Equation 14
Where:
|
Equation 15
Where:
area were
developed. Zestienhoven meteorological site is used as a predictor site. Within the urban areas,
higher wind speeds are observed at elevated places, which in this case are tall buildings. It was
also possible to see very low wind speeds in the highly congested urban areas. The 25 m
resolution wind maps are presented in Appendix D.
The wind map developed for areas around Zestienhoven meteorological station is shown in Figure
49. It is developed using the wind atlas of Geulhaven. It covers an area of 2.5 by 2.5 sq. km and
has a resolution of 25 m. Within the urban areas, higher wind speeds are observed at elevated
places, which in this case are tall buildings .The shaded relief map for which the wind map was
developed is also shown in Figure 49. It shows the density of package of buildings. From the wind
map it is possible to see higher wind speed in lower density building areas and lower wind speed
in the highly dense areas.
CHAPTER SEVEN
70
Figure 48: Wind map for part of Rotterdam
Figure 49 : Shaded relief map of part of Rotterdam for which the wind map was developed
CHAPTER SEVEN
71
Delft
For developing the Delft wind map, the wind atlas generated using the Zestienhoven
meteorological station is used. As observed in the previous sections lower wind speeds were
observed in the urban areas. However within the urban area where tall buildings and street
canyons are located higher wind speed up to 6.9 m/s were observed. The areas where small
numbers of buildings are located (open areas) also have higher wind speed. Figure 50 and Figure
51 shows the wind map and shaded relief map of an area.
Figure 50: 25 m resolution wind map for Part of Delft
82200 82400 82600 82800 83000 83200 83400 83600 83800 84000
Easting[m]
444600
444800
445000
445200
445400
445600
445800
446000
446200
446400
N
o
r
t
h
i
n
g
[
m
]
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5
5.2
5.4
5.6
5.8
6
6.2
6.4
6.6
6.8
7
CHAPTER SEVEN
72
Figure 51: Shaded Relief map of part delft for which the wind map was developed
CHAPTER SEVEN
73
Zoetermeer
The wind resource map for Zoetermeer covers an area of 62.5 sq. km .It has a resolution of 25 m.
It is developed for an elevation of 10 m above the synthetic surface. For developing this wind
map, Zestienhoven meteorological station was used Appendix D (Figure 65). This wind map is
developed to show the general trend in the wind speed. There is big uncertainty in its correctness
as Zestienhoven is located far from Zoetermeer.
Figure 52 and Figure 53 show the wind map and shaded relief maps of part of Zoetermeer. From
these maps, it can be seen that in the open areas high wind speed up to 6 m/s are predicted.
However high wind speeds of up to 7.6 m/s were observed in area where high elevation buildings
are located. Areas in between the cluster of buildings also have a relatively high wind speed.
Figure 52:25 m resolution wind map for part of Zoetermeer
92000 92200 92400 92600 92800 93000 93200 93400 93600 93800
Easting [m]
452600
452800
453000
453200
453400
453600
453800
454000
454200
454400
N
o
r
t
h
i
n
g
[
m
]
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
5
5.2
5.4
5.6
5.8
6
6.2
6.4
6.6
6.8
7
7.2
7.4
7.6
CHAPTER SEVEN
74
Figure 53: shaded relief map for the area on which the map was developed
CHAPTER EIGHT
75
8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1. Conclusion
The large density of buildings and their height variation in the cities resulted in complex Digital
surface model i.e. high ruggedness. The implemented model, smooth synthetic surface, however
resulted in a better surface in terms of ruggedness index hence the topographic model is within the
WA
S
P working envelop.
Large sector wise prediction errors are observed for both stations during cross predictions
however, omni directional predictions were relatively better. The wind rose of the Predicted wind
climate has similar shape as that of the predictor site, which resulted in high sector wise wind
speed and frequency prediction errors. It was also seen that for the particular case tested here
Zestienhoven was a better predictor for Rotterdam Noord than Geulhaven.
The influence of contour level on wind speed prediction showed two opposite trends. In case of
under prediction, the error decreases with increase in contour level while in case of over
predication, the error increases with increase in contour level. Roughness length has Wind speed
has large correlation with prediction error.
The wind resource maps show the trend of spatial wind variation. In urban areas, lower wind
speeds in range of 3-5 m/s while in transitional areas (rural to urban) and high elevation places
higher wind speed were observed. These places are areas where there is good wind energy
potential.
The methodology gave a logical first estimate of the wind potential of sites .The results and drawn
conclusions are limited to cases tested here .It should be known that the application of WA
S
P for
complex terrain might introduce large uncertainties. Furthermore, calculation of turbulence
intensity falls out of scope of the study.
CHAPTER EIGHT
76
8.2. Recommendation
While developing the synthetic surface even though the overall ruggedness index has decreased,
the reduction was not uniform. This might result in larger between predictor and predicted
sites, which will then result in higher prediction error. Hence devising an approach that reduced
the ruggedness index of the synthetic surface uniformly will improve the results.
For improving the results, and reducing one of the many uncertainties of the methodology, use of
raw wind data that is not standardized to a certain type of terrain roughness length is
recommended.
The use of onscreen digitised roughness length is advantageous to address different types of urban
areas but at the same time, it is very subjective. Hence, it must be done with great care. In order to
avoid the subjectivity on roughens length use of morphometric (geometric) method which uses
Actual DSM for the calculation of roughness length would be helpful.
In this study first estimate of the wind speed in the urban areas is given. The methodology needs
further refinement and validation. Installation of more measurement masts in the urban areas is
very important for improving and validating the methodology. While doing so installation of the
measurement mast in areas where high wind speeds were seen is very advantageous.
77
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80
APPENDICES
81
APPENDICES
Appendix A
The flow chart shows the procedure used for creating a synthetic surface that evolves above the
urban area.
GRID FILTERING (step 3)
AHN data
GRID FORMATION (Step 1)
(Kriging interpolation)
GRID A
1
,A
2
,A
3
GRID B
GRID MOSAIC (Step 2)
Single Filtered
gird (Max 5 by 5)
GRID C
Double filtered grid
1. Max (25 by 25)
2. MAV (41 by 41)
GRID D
GRID C - GRID D
Data E
(.xyz format)
DATA PREPARATION
Filter the
data(remove all ve Z
values)
Crate a grid (kriging)
GRID F
GRID D + GRID F
GRID G
Contour GRID G
(Step 4)
END
APPENDICES
82
Appendix B
Rotterdam
The synthetic surface that is constructed for Rotterdam is shown in Figure 54. The coordinate
system used is RD and elevation is in centimetre.
Figure 54 : Synthetic surface above area of Rotterdam
APPENDICES
83
Figure 55: Snap shot of Rotterdam [source Google earth]
APPENDICES
84
Delft
The 3D synthetic surface and image map used for developing wind map for the area of Delft are
shown in Figure 56 and Figure 55.
.
Figure 56 : Synthetic surface evolving above area of Delft
Figure 57: Snap shot of Delft [Google Earth]
APPENDICES
85
Zoetermeer
Figure 58:3D synthetic surface evolving above the areas of Zoetermeer
Figure 59: Snap shot of Zoetermeer [Google earth]
APPENDICES
86
Appendix C
The roughness length used in wasp_map_exe
ID Zo (m) Class names
0 0.03 no data
1 0.03 grass
2 0.17 maize
3 0.07 potatoes
4 0.07 beets
5 0.16 cereals
6 0.07 other agricultural crops
7 0.15 foreign land
8 0.1 greenhouses
9 0.39 orchards
10 0.07 bulb cultivation
11 0.75 deciduous forest
12 0.75 coniferous forest
16 0.001 fresh water
17 0.001 salt water
18 1.6 continuous urban area
19 0.5 built-up in rural area
20 1.1 deciduous forest in urban area
21 1.1 coniferous forest in urban area
22 2 built-up area with dense forest
23 0.03 grass in built-up area
24 0.001 bare soil in built-up area
25 0.1 main roads and railways
26 0.5 buildings in rural area
27 0.0003 runways
28 0.1 parking lots
30 0.0002 salt marshes
31 0.0003 beaches and dunes
32 0.02 sparsely vegetated dunes
33 0.06 vegetated dunes
34 0.04 heathlands in dune areas
35 0.0003 shifting sands
36 0.03 heath lands
37 0.04 heath lands with minor grass influence
38 0.06 heath lands with major grass influence
39 0.06 raised bogs
40 0.75 forest in raised bogs
41 0.03 miscellaneous swamp vegetation
42 0.1 reed swamp
43 0.75 forest in swamp areas
44 0.07 swampy pastures in peat areas
45 0.03 herbaceous vegetation
46 0.001 bare soil in natural areas
Table 17 : Land-use and roughness classes in LGN3+ used by wasp_map.exe
APPENDICES
87
Appendix D
Wind Map of Delft
8
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APPENDICES
88
Wind maps of Rotterdam
Figure 60 shows the 100 m resolution wind map of Rotterdam. It shows a pattern of lower wind
speed (3-4 m/s) in the urban areas while rural (very lower density of buildings) areas have higher
wind speed of 4 to 5 m/s. In areas where transition from the non-built up area to more built up
areas occurs the wind speed ranges from 4-5 m/s. In this wind map, however it is impossible to
see the wind speed variation within the urban areas. For the 25 m resolution, wind map the area of
Rotterdam was divided into four parts. The wind maps of each section are shown in Figure 61
Figure 62, Figure 63 and Figure 64.
Figure 60 : A 100 m resolution Wind map for Rotterdam
76000 78000 80000 82000 84000 86000 88000 90000 92000 94000
Easting [m]
426000
428000
430000
432000
434000
436000
438000
440000
442000
N
o
r
t
h
i
n
g
[
m
]
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
APPENDICES
89
Figure 61: A 25 m resolution Wind map of Rotterdam 1
7
6
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t
[
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]
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9
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.
4
APPENDICES
90
Figure 62: A 25 m resolution Wind map for Rotterdam 2
87000 88000 89000 90000 91000 92000 93000 94000
East [m]
426000
427000
428000
429000
430000
431000
432000
433000
434000
435000
436000
N
o
r
t
h
[
m
]
2
.
6
3
.
1
3
.
6
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.
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.
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.
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.
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.
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.
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.
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8
.
6
APPENDICES
91
Figure 63 : A 25 m resolution Wind map for Rotterdam 3
76000 77000 78000 79000 80000 81000 82000
East [m]
426000
427000
428000
429000
430000
431000
432000
433000
434000
435000
436000
N
o
r
t
h
[
m
]
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.
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.
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.
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.
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9
9
.
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1
0
APPENDICES
92
Figure 64: A 25 m resolution Wind map for Rotterdam 4
Wind map of Zoetermeer
One general Pattern observed in this wind map is the high wind speed variation in the urban areas.
For most of the urban areas, the wind speed ranges from 3.5-4.5 m/s. Nevertheless, at the very
elevated places (where tall buildings are located), the wind speed reached up 6.5 m/s.
87000 88000 89000 90000 91000 92000 93000 94000
East [m]
437000
438000
439000
440000
441000
442000
443000
N
o
r
t
h
[
m
]
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2
.
5
3
3
.
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4
4
.
5
5
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.
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.
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.
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APPENDICES
93
Figure 65 : A 25 m Resolution wind map of Zoetermeer
9
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