LANGUAGE FOCUS

CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS

1. Coordinating conjunctions (Tip-FANBOYS !or" and" nor"
#ut" or" $%t" so&
Addition/alternation
a) She is playing the guitar and singing.
b) You can read a book or take a bath.
Contrast
a) He is tall, but his son is short.
b) She is very rich, yet she doesn't wear expensive clothes.
Reason/result
a) I bought a new tie, for I have a ob interview to!orrow.
b) She saved !oney, so she could go to "urope.
2. Subordinating conjunctions
Simultaneous/sequential action (when, after, before, since, as, until, as soon as, by
the ti!e,#)
a) $ary was listening to the radio while she was studying.
b) Sara has loved tennis since she was a child.
c) She had gone away by the ti!e I got ho!e.
Condition (if, unless, as long as, on the condition that, provided%providing that)
a) &s long as you pro!ise to be back before nine, you can go out.
b) 'e will have fun at the beach, unless it rains.
Concession (though, although, even though, even if, no !atter what)
a) It is true although it !ay sound strange.
b) "ven if it snows, we !ust go to school.
Reason (because, since, as, now that)
a) Since you can't answer the )uestion, we'd better ask so!eone else.
b) He ate a ha!burger because he was hungry.
Purpose (so that, in order that)
a) *avid took a taxi so that he could arrive in ti!e for the !eeting.
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b) +arrett enrolled in a test prep course in order that he would not fail again.
3. Correati!e conjunctions
Inclusion (both#and, not only#but also, whether#or, neither#nor, either #or,#)
a) She likes to play both football and hockey.
b) He studies not only "nglish, but also Spanish.
Exclusion
a) ,ur !ilkshakes co!e in either chocolate or vanilla.
b) -either !y father nor I like watching the ballet.
c) It doesn't !atter to !e whether it rains or not.
". Distinction bet#een Conjunctions and Pre$ositions
Conjunctions are folloed !" subject % !erb# $ile prepositions are folloed !"
noun or an &ing form%
while vs. during
a) 'hile I was waiting at the bus stop, three buses went by in the opposite direction.
b) He was taken to the hospital during the night.
(al)though vs. despite
a) &lthough .ohn is very nice to $ary, she doesn/t love hi!.
b) *espite applying for hundreds of obs, he is still out of work.
because vs. because of
a) 0ecause I was very tired, I went to bed early last night.
b) He walked slowly because of his bad leg.
'. (e) Pre$ositions
A% *or ($o lon&') (s% during ($en')
for two weeks1 during the winter
)% b) (completion) (s% unti (continuation)
Have it done by to!orrow. 2se the car until this evening.
C% bet#een (to) (s% a+ong (more t$an to)
between the eyes1 a!ong the crowd
*% Prepositions at t$e end of questions
'ho did you co!e with3 'hat is this for3 'hat is it like3
+
PRESENT TENSES
I. Si+$e $resent
,. -or+ation. (ordinar" (er!s)
S /I0#e0)ou0t1e)2 % 3 /bare in*initi!e2 4..
S /t1ird singuar $erson. 1e0s1e0it2 % 3%
s0es
4.
2. 5ain usages
,se t$e simple present tense for routines# $a!its# or statements t$at are ala"s true%
a) 4he "arth is round.
b) I usually get up at 5677 in the !orning.
,se t$e simple present for future e(ents in sc$edules/timeta!le%
a) 'hat ti!e does the flight depart this afternoon.
b) 'hen does the train leave to!orrow3
Note. -$e simple present is frequentl" used it$ always, sometimes, usually, often,
rarely, hardly, ever, never.
II. Present $rogressi!e
,. -or+ation. a+0is0are % 36ing
2. 5ain usages
8 ,se t$e present pro&ressi(e for an action currentl" in pro&ress%
a) I'! eating lunch right now.
b) 'hat are you talking about3
,se t$e present pro&ressi(e for future e(ents t$at are certain to ta.e place%
a) He's co!ing back to!orrow.
b) She is getting !arried next !onth.
/ Present pro&ressi(e (er!s are frequentl" used it$ today, now, at the moment, for the
time being, currently, at right now,
Not% T'%r% ar% so(% )%r#s in Eng*is' +'ic' cannot #% us%d
in continuous t%ns%s
A. 3erbs o* +enta state
.no !elie(e dou!t need
reali0e suppose remem!er prefer
understand t$in.1 for&et mean
reco&ni0e ima&ine ant ''''%
e%&%2 I need a book. (Not2 I am needin& a !oo.%)
7. 3erbs o* e+otiona state
lo(e disli.e fear mind
li.e $ate en(" care#'%
appreciate
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e%&%2 I love her. (Not2 I am lo(in& $er%)
C. 3erbs o* $ossession
possess $a(e1 on !elon&#'%
e%&%2 I have a house. (Not2 I am $a(in& a $ouse%)
D. 3erbs o* e8isting states
appear1 exist contain consist of include#'
e%&%2 'ater consists of hydrogen and oxygen.
(Not2 'ater is consisting of hydrogen and oxygen%)
E. 9in:ing !erbs
seem sound taste* look* smell*, .
e%&%2 4he food tastes delicious. (Not6 4he food is tasting delicious.)
7ut2 I a! tasting the food (ordinar" (er!)%
-. 3erbs o* +easure+ent.
ei&$1 cost measure1
e%&% 2 4his book costs 9:,777 ;-*. (Not. 4his book is costing 9:,777 ;-*)
She weighs << kilos. (Not2 She is weighing << kilos.)
7ut2 4he receptionist is weighing !y box.
III. Present $er*ect
,. -or+ation. 1a!e01as % $ast $artici$e
2. 5ain usages
,se t$e present perfect tense to descri!e an action t$at $appened in t$e past# !ut
t$e time of t$e action ma" not necessaril" !e .non%
a) I have been to the 2nited States.
b) 4hey have !et !y parents.
c) .ohn has seen the !ovie twice.
d) I have ust finished the proect.
,se t$e present perfect tense to descri!e an action or a state t$at !e&an in t$e
past and continues to t$e present and ma" last to t$e future%
a) .ohnson has worked for this co!pany for three years.
b) He has lived here since =777.
c) 'e have been friends since we started at >ac Hong 2niversity.
d) 4hey have been !arried for a long ti!e.
Note. Present perfect (er!s are often used it$ once, twice, three times, ever, never,
finally, just, already, yet, recently, lately, so far,
I3. Present $er*ect $rogressi!e
,. -or+ation. 1a!e01as % been % 36ing
2. 5ain usage
,se present perfect pro&ressi(e (er!s to emp$asi0e t$e continuit" of actions t$at
!e&an in t$e past and continues to t$e present and ma" last to t$e future%
a) He has been calling her all !orning.
b) It's been raining here since we arrived.
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PAST TENSES
I. Si+$e $ast
,. -or+ation. (ordinar" (er!s)2 S % 3 %ed0 3 /C22
2. 5ain usages
8 ,se t$e simple past tense for an action t$at as finis$ed in t$e past at a specific
time% (it$ time expressions suc$ as )esterda); ast nig1t /#ee:; +ont1; )ear;
centur)2; a #ee: /+ont1; )ear;4 2 ago; in ,<<=; in Ju) 2==3;4.2
a) 'e went shopping yesterday.
b) ?olu!bus discovered &!erica in 9@A=.
c) I lent you fifty dollars two days ago.
8 ,se t$e simple past tense to express a series of actions t$at $appened one after
anot$er in t$e past2
e.g.: The thief broke into the house, opened the drawer, took the
money and ran away.
II. Past $rogressi!e
,. -or+ation. #as0#ere % 36ing
2. 5ain usages
,se t$e past pro&ressi(e tense to express actions $ic$ ere pro&ressin& at some
concrete time in t$e past suc$ as at 9. last night, at this time last week# '
a) I was watching 4.;. at 97.77 last night.
b) &t this ti!e last week, we were watching football.
8 ,se t$e past pro&ressi(e tense for an action t$at as in pro&ress $en a second
past action too. place (or $en a second past action as also in pro&ress%)
a) 'hen .ackie got there, Steve was waiting for her.
b) 'hile I was taking a bath, Sally was using the co!puter.
III. Past $er*ect
,. -or+ation. 1ad % $ast $artici$e
2. 5ain usage
8 ,se t$e past perfect tense for an action t$at occurred !efore a certain point of time
or anot$er action in t$e past%
a) She had bought the book before I !et her.
b) He had been to ,xford twice before I went there.
Note2 !efore can !e used in a simple past and past perfect sentence%
a) I cleaned the house before she visited.
(B I cleaned the house because I knew she would visit.)
b) I had cleaned the house before she visited.
(B I cleaned the house, and, by coincidence, she visited after I had cleaned.)
I3. Past $er*ect $rogressi!e
,. -or+ation. 1ad % been % 36ing
2. 5ain usage
,se t$e past perfect pro&ressi(e tense to emp$asi0e t$e duration or t$e continuous
nature of an action t$at as in pro&ress !efore anot$er action or a point of time in t$e
past%
a) He said he had been doing his ho!ework since six o/clock.
b) 4hey had been cleaning the roo! for an hour when I walked in.
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-UTURE TENSES
I. Si+$e *uture
,. -or+ation. S>A990?I99 % 3 /bare in*2 4 ("#ill$ is commonl" used for all
su!jects noada"s%)
2. 5ain usages
8 ,se t$e simple future tense for a statement of future fact% -$is can !e2
A% certain2
a) 4hey/ll be here on Saturday afternoon.
b) 4he ourney will take six hours.
)% uncertain2
a) I think it/ll rain to!orrow.
b) I/! not sure he/ll be there.
8 ,se t$e simple future tense for a sudden decision to do somet$in& (usuall" used
it$ I or ?e)
a) 'ait a !inute C I/ll open the door for you.
b) -o one/s offered to help3 I/ll do it for youD
Note2 Common expressions used in t$e simple future tense2 tomorro# next 6 ee.
/mont$/"ear# in 6 duration
a) He will attend the se!inar to!orrow.
b) 4he price will increase next year.
c) 4he !eeting will end in a few !inutes.
II. -uture $rogressi!e
,. -or+ation. S>A990?I99 % be % 36ing
2. 5ain usages
,se t$e future pro&ressi(e tense for an action t$at ill !e in pro&ress at a certain
time in t$e future%
a) 4hey will be watching football at 97.77 p.!. next Saturday.
b) &t this ti!e to!orrow, I will be working in the "nglish *epart!ent.
,se t$e future pro&ressi(e tense for an action t$at is pro&ressin& in t$e future $en
anot$er action comes (usuall" used it$ "when$)%
a) 4o!orrow evening, I will be waiting for you when you co!e.
b) 'hen you co!e, I will be cooking dinner.
III. -uture $er*ect
,. -or+ation. S>A990?I99 % 1a!e % $ast $artici$e
2. 5ain usage
,se t$e future perfect for an action t$at ill !e completed !efore a time or e(ent in
t$e future%
a) I/ll have read the article online before you find it in the newspaper.
b) I/ll have finished work by five o/clock tonight.
I3. -uture $er*ect $rogressi!e
,. -or+ation. S>A990?I99 % 1a!e % been % 36ing
2. 5ain usage
,se t$e future perfect pro&ressi(e tense to emp$asi0e an action t$at ill !e in
pro&ress !efore anot$er time or e(ent in t$e future%
a) 'e/ll have been living here for two years by next .uly.
b) I/ll have been sleeping for two hours by the ti!e he gets ho!e.
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AU@I9IARIES
,. Au8iiaries
a) I should do !y ho!ework now.
b) I can help you clean the car.
2. Se+i6au8iiaries
I a! able to dance very well.
Some common semi/auxiliaries2
be about to
4he plane is about to take off.
be a$t to
He/s apt to ask awkward )uestions.
be bound to
Erices are bound to go up this autu!n.
be certain to
4he !atch is certain to start on ti!e.
be due to
He/s due to arrive at any !o!ent.
be going to
'e/re going to need !ore staff here.
be iabe to
This machine is liable to break
down.
be sure to
He/s sure to be waiting outside.
be i:e) to
4hey/re likely to win by several
goals.
be +eant to
&re you !eant to work overti!e3
be su$$osed to
Were not supposed to smoke
in here.
3. Di**erences bet#een au8iiaries and ot1er !erbs
Auxiliar" (er!s are folloed !" t$e !asic form of a (er!% You !ust (clean%to
clean%cleans) your roo! now.
Auxiliar" (er!s are 89- used it$ to/infiniti(es%
I would like to (be able to % can) speak "nglish.
Auxiliar" (er!s do not a&ree it$ t$e su!ject in num!er%
.ohn (can % cans) swi! very well.
-o ne&ate an auxiliar" (er!# add FnotG after it%
I (will not % don't will) attend the !eeting.
It is possi!le to delete (er! p$rases after an auxiliar" $en t$e" are repeated%
a) .ohn will co!e to the party and so will $arta.
b) +eorge can play the guitar, but >arry can't.
". 5a:ing negati!e and interrogati!e sentences
Au8iiaries Negati!e sentences Interrogati!e sentences
can
ou&$t to
$ad !etter
$a(e to
!e &oin& to
used to
ould rat$er
cannot
ou&$t not to
$ad !etter not
do/does not $a(e to
!e not &oin& to
did not use to
ould rat$er not
Can "ou :;
9u&$t "ou to :;
///////////
*o "ou $a(e to :;
Are "ou &oin& to :;
*id "ou use to :;
<ould "ou rat$er :;
'. Use would and could instead o* will and can *or $ro$osas%
=
('ould%'ill) you like to have so!e coffee3
ACTI3E 3OICE AND PASSI3E 3OICE
I. Acti!e !s Passi!e Sentences
,. -or+ua
Acti!e. Su!ject 6 >er! 6 9!ject
Passi!e. Su!ject 6 )e 6 PP 6 Preposition 6 !" 9!ject (a&ent)
+% Use o* "by % nounH
<it$ passi(e# e can use "by % noun$ if e need to sa" $o does t$e action%
4he police caught hi!. & He was caught by the police.
Note. -$e p$rase b) % agent can !e omitted in t$e folloin& cases2
'hen the agent is unknown (e.g.6 by so!eone, by anyone, etc.)
'hen the agent is obvious or uni!portant (e.g.6 4he robbers finally got caught
by the police.)
'hen the agent is very general (e.g.6 His writings are now widely accepted by
the readers.)
'hen the agent is a personal pronoun (e.g.6 by hi!, by !e, by the!, etc.)
II. Detaied -or+s. ACTI3E 3OICE PASSI3E 3OICE
+%1% Present simple tense2 3 /bare in*03%s0es2 A(,is,ar% - .. (past
particip*%&
e%&%2 He does this exercise. 4his exercise is done by hi!.
+%+% Present continuous2 A+0is0are % 3%ing A+0is0are % being % PP
e%&%2 He is looking at her. She is being looked at by hi!.
+%3% Present perfect2 >a!e01as % PP >a!e01as % been % PP
e%&%2 She has finished her ho!ework. Her ho!ework has been finished by her.
+%4% Present perfect continuous2 /a)%,'as - #%%n - 0-ing /a)%,'as -
#%%n - #%ing - ..
e%&%2 4hey have been building this house for : !onths.
4his house has been being built for : !onths%
+%5% Past simple tense2 3%ed03/C22 ?as0#ere % PP
e%&%2 She helped !e last night. I was helped by her last night.
+%7% Past continuous2 ?as0#ere % 3%ing ?as0#ere % being % PP
e%&%2 She was doing her housework at I.77 last night.
Her housework was being done at I.77 last night.
+%=% Past perfect2 >ad % PP >ad % been % PP
e%&%2 She had finished her housework before A.77 last night.
?
Her housework had been finished before A.77 last night.
+%?% Past perfect continuous2 >ad % been % 3%ing >ad % been % being % PP
e%&%2 4hey had been teasing !e for hours when you ca!e.
I had been being teased for hours when you ca!e.
+%@% Auture simple2 S1a0#i % 3/bare in*2 S1a0#i % be % PP
e%&%2 4he police will catch hi! soon. He will be caught by the
police soon.
+%1B% Auture continuous2 S1a0#i % be % 3%ing S1a0#i % be % being % PP
e%&%2 4hey will be doing the test at A.77 a.!. to!orrow.
4he test will be being done at A.77 a.!. to!orrow.
+%11% Auture perfect2 S1a0#i % 1a!e % PP S'a**,+i** - 'a)% -
#%%n - ..
e%&%2 4hey will have finished the test before 976:7 to!orrow.
4he test will have been finished before 976:7 to!orrow.
+%1+% Auture perfect continuous2 S1a0#i 1a!e been %3%ing
S1a0#i 1a!e been being % PP
e%&%2 She will have been looking after hi! for three years by next *ece!ber.
He will have been being looked after for three years by next *ece!ber.
III. 5oda 3erbs
Acti!e !oice. Subject % 5oda 3erb % Ordinar) 3erb % Object
Passi!e !oice. Subject 5oda 3erb % 7e % PP b) Object /agent2
e%&%2 She can do this exercise. 4his exercise can be done by her.
I3. Aenera (e) Points
A% 9nl" transiti(e (er!s ma" !e c$an&ed to passi(e forms%
4he ship has been disappeared. (incorrect)
4he ship has disappeared. (correct)
"nglish is spoken here. (correct)
)% >er!s li.e make, tell, and ask are folloed !" a to6in*initi!e in passi(e sentences%
4he boys were !ade to work very hard.
4he girls were asked to stop laughing.
C% Perceptual (er!s li.e see, observe, and hear are folloed !" eit$er a to6in*initi!e
(for repeated or $a!itual actions) or an &ing form (for an action in pro&ress) in
passi(e sentences%
4he geese were observed to fly south every autu!n. (habitual)
4he geese were seen swi!!ing in the pond. (action in progress)
@
*% Complex (er!s t$at consist of (er! 6 preposition are treated as one unit $en !ein&
c$an&ed to passi(e%
4hey laughed at hi!. & He was laughed at (by the!).
-obody has slept in this roo!. & 4his roo! has not been slept in (by anybody).
E% )esides# t$e prepositions at and with ma" also !e used in passi(e sentences%
At2 !e alarmed at# !e surprised at# '
?it12 !e pleased it$# !e satisfied it$# !e co(ered it$# !e (pre)occupied it$# '
At or ?it12 !e deli&$ted at/it$# !e dis&usted at/it$# '
1B
NEAATION AND IN3ERSION
I. Negation
,. Use BnoC as an adjecti!e%
a) I have no e)uip!ent for !ountain cli!bing.
b) 4here are no bottles of uice in the fridge.
2. Use BnotC as an ad!erb%
BNotC can !e used after auxiliaries and !efore main (er!s%
a) She does not gather enough berries.
b) You should not walk on the grass.
c) I do not find this !ovie very interesting.
d) She is not working in the garden.
3. Put a negati!e #ord be*ore non6*inite !erbs. to6in*initi!es; gerunds; and
$artici$es.
a) 'e decided not to study Jrench.
b) I enoy not waking up early in the !orning.
c) In order not to park downtown, he took a bus.
". Ne!er D not e!er
a) He never parks his car on the street.
b) 4hey can never pick enough apples.
-$e position of "never$ c$an&es t$e meanin& of t$e sentence%
a) 'e decided never to cli!b $t. "verest.
b) 'e never decided to cli!b $t. "verest.
c) I enoy never waking up early in the !orning.
d) I never enoy waking up early in the !orning.
'. Redundanc) in Negation
A(oid dou!le ne&ati(es%
a) I did not find no treasure. (Incorrect) (no & any)
b) I found no treasure. (?orrect)
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*o not use a ne&ati(e ord alon& it$ an" ad(er!s of ne&ati(e suc$ as
hardly seldo! rarely scarcely barely never
a) 'e could not hardly walk through the crowd. (Incorrect) 'mit "not$
b) 'e could hardly walk through the crowd. (?orrect)
II. In!ersion
In(ersion in(ol(es placin& an auxiliar" !efore t$e su!ject of a sentence%
,. In(ersion is o!li&ator" $en e place a ne&ati(e ad(er! or ad(er!ial p$rase !efore
t$e su!ject of a sentence%
a) He is never happy. K -ever is he happy.
b) He can hardly do it. K Hardly can he do it.
-$e folloin& is a list of ne&ati(e ad(er!s# ad(er!ial p$rases# and ad(er!ial clauses
t$at are commonl" used in En&lis$2
Negati!e ad!erbs.
never seldo! little hardly scarcely barely
Negati!e ad!erbia $1rases.
at no ti!e by no !eans under no circu!stances
in no way on no account not only
2. In(ersion is also o!li&ator" in t$e "so(such that$ structure# as in2
a) He is so nice that I like hi!.
B So nice is he that I like hi!.
b) She did such a good ob that she won our praise.
B Such a good ob did she do that she won our praise.
3. -$e folloin& s$ort responses also in(ol(e t$e use of in(ersion%
In a ne&ati(e sentence# e use t$e conjunction nor or t$e ne&ati(e ad(er! neither#
as in2
He can/t sing, nor can I.
B He can/t sing, and neither can I.
B He can/t sing, and I can/t, either.
In a positi(e sentence# e use t$e ad(er! so# as in2
She is beautiful, and so are you.
B She is beautiful, and you are, too.
1+
AERUNDS AND IN-INITI3ES
I. Aerunds /36ing2
Cerunds are deri(ed from (er! forms $ic$ end in Din&% -$e" are called (er!al
nouns !ecause t$e" act li.e nouns%
,. -or+
)ase (er! 6 /in&
(>/in&)
$ope D $opin&
stud" D stud"in&
die D d"in&
stop D stoppin&
pla" D pla"in&
prefer D preferrin&
2. Use
2se an )ing for! after the following verbs
admit a(oid consider discuss
enjo" feel li.e finis$ &i(e up
mind postpone su&&est
4hey finished eating.
$aor structures followed by ;Ling
!e accustomed to !e/ !ecome used to canEt $elp canEt stand
loo. forard to o!ject to
I/! looking forward to hearing fro! you.
II. In*initi!es
Infiniti(es are (er! forms t$at s$o no person or tense% -$e" usuall" refer to actions
and e(ents in a more &eneral a"% )asicall"# infiniti(es $ic$ are used it$ t$e mar.er to
are called full infiniti(es or to/infiniti(es% <it$out to# t$e" are called F!are infiniti(es%G
,. -or+
to 6 )ase (er!
(to/infiniti(e)
go D to &o eat D to eat #or: D to or. get D to &et
2. Use
2se a to*infinitive after the following verbs
afford a&ree decide expect need plan
refuse $ope ant is$
He expects to leave to!orrow.
2se a to*infinitive after the following verbs plus their obect
ad(ise as. allo cause expect force
permit tell remind request require
4he boss wants $r. 4ang to leave to!orrow.
2se an infinitive without FtoH after the following verbs plus their obect
$a(e let ma.e feel see
$ear smell find
>et 4o! do it.
Note+ ,hoosing !etween -nfinitives and .erunds
-$e folloin& (er!s allo !ot$ a to6in*initi!e form and an &ing form2
for&et remem!er re&ret stop tr" mean
I forgot to turn the light off. (B I didn/t turn it off. I forgot to do it.)
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I forgot turning the light off. (B I actually turned it off. I forgot that I had done that.)
AAREE5ENT
I. Subject63erb Agree+ent
Sin&ular su!jects must &o it$ sin&ular (er!sH plural su!jects must &o it$ plural (er!s%
4hey want to develop a new ventilation syste!.
She wants to get a ob in !arketing.
Note2
1% Iodifiers do not affect t$e num!er of t$e (er!%
4he teacher, along with his students, wants to play soccer.
+% Expressions of ti+e# distance# $rice# and #eig1t need a sin&ular (er!%
4en dollars is too !uch for a lunch.
3% In case of fractions or t$eir equi(alents# t$e noun in t$e of*phrase determines t$e
num!er of t$e (er!%
4woLthirds of the land has been sold.
4woLthirds of the students in that class are !ale.
4% -$e num!er of t$e (er! is determined !" $at is next to it in sentences it$ either
/ or !, or neither / nor !.
"ither he or his pupils are going to help us.
"ither his pupils or he is going to help us.
II. Deter+iner and Noun Agree+ent
Iodifiers and nouns modified !" t$em a&ree in num!er%
Noun 5odi*iers E8a+$es
Sin&ular
a/an# e(er"# eac$#
anot$er
every% each employee is another problem was
muc$# less# (a) little !uch competition is little information was
Plural
man"# se(eral# (a)
fe# ot$er# a (ariet" of
!any% several students are
a variety of skills are
few employees were
other employees were
Eit$er
some# an"# no# most
(of)# a lot of
so!e students are
!ost problems are
so!e information is
!ost of the e0uipment
is
Note2 E(er"/ Anot$er 6 num!er (J1) 6 plural noun
every day%!ile every two days%!iles another week%!ile another two weeks%!iles
another !an% another five !en another dollar% another fifty dollars
14
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS
,. Countabe nouns /co++on nouns; coecti!e nouns2. Use a(an *or singuar
*or+s and add s(es *or $ura *or+s.
'e have an orange cat.
>ook at the cars on the street.
2. Uncountabe nouns /+ateria nouns; $ro$er nouns; abstract nouns2
cannot be used #it1 a(an or as a $ura *or+.
4he horse needs food and water.
I need ten sheets of paper.
3. T1e *oo#ing are uncountabe nouns. furniture, luggage, baggage, news,
information, mail, advice,
'e bought a lot of furniture for our new house.
How !any pieces of baggage do you have3
1. 2ouns can act as subjects, complements, and objects.
$ichael works for a co!puter co!pany.
>ucy is a travel agent.
"veryone is looking for the lost child.
'. Persona $ronouns
Possessi(e
adjecti(e
9!jecti(e
pronoun
Possessi(e
pronoun
Reflexi(e/
emp$atic
pronoun
1
st
person
Sin&ular
plural
I
e
m"
our
me
us
mine
ours
m"self
oursel(es
+
nd
person Sin&ular
plural
"ou
"ou
"our
"our
"ou
"ou
"ours
"ours
"ourself
"oursel(es
3
rd
person
Sin&ular
Sin&ular
Sin&ular
Sin&ular
$e
s$e
it
t$e"
$is
$er
its
t$eir
$im
$er
it
t$em
$is
$ers
its
t$eirs
$imself
$erself
itself
t$emsel(es
E. Ot1er $ronouns
(1) Eit$er/ 8eit$er and )ot$
(eit$er) A or ) (!ot$) A and )
neit$er A nor ) not onl" A !ut (also) )
not A !ut ) not onl" A !ut ) ' as ell
'e accept applications either by fax or !ail.
2either eating nor drinking is allowed in the warehouse%
(+) Anot$er/ ot$ers/ t$e ot$er/ t$e ot$ers
One 0 T1e ot1er. ,sed $en t$ere are to t$in&s/people# etc%
,f the two pens, one is red, and the other is white.
One 0 Anot1er 0 T1e ot1er. ,sed $en t$ere are t$ree t$in&s/people# etc%
15
He has three brothers: one is a doctor, another is a professor, and
the other is a singer.
One 0 Anot1er 0 T1e ot1ers. ,sed $en t$ere are more t$an t$ree t$in&s/people# etc%
'e have five dogs6 one is fro! Scotland, another is fro! +er!any, and the
others are fro! Spain.
17
RE9ATI3E C9AUSES
I. Reati!e Pronouns
1% #ho, which, that
#ho is used $en t$e antecedent is a person# $ile which is used $en t$e antecedent
is not a person% Koe(er# that as a relati(e pronoun can replace eit$er who or which#
and it is preferred especiall" after all, everything, nothing, the only#, and superlati(es%
4he wo!an is a singer. She lives next door. (B 4he wo!an who%that lives next
door is a singer.)
+% 8otice t$at #1ic1 can refer to t$e entire precedin& clause%
.ohn didn/t pass the test, which (-,4 that or what) disappointed his father.
3% Possessi(e of t$e relati(e pronouns
Possessi(e can !e expressed !" whose, $et$er or not t$e antecedent is a person%
<$en t$e antecedent is not a person# of which#ma" also !e used%
4he !an is !y uncle. His car broke down. (B 4he !an whose car broke down is
!y uncle.)
4% ?1at (L t$e t$in& $ic$)
-$e relati(e pronoun what is different from t$e ot$er relati(e pronouns in t$at it is not
preceded !" a noun%
He believes what he hears. (B He believes the thing that%which he hears.)
II. Reati!e Ad!erbs
#hen, #here, 3ow, #hy
t$e da"/mont$/"ear/time etc% 6 $en2
I re!e!ber the day (when) we !et.
t$e $otel/par./place etc% 6 in $ic$ 9R $ere2
Is this the park in which you two !et3 (BIs this the park where you two !et3)
t$e a" and $o2
4his is the way he did it. (B 4his is how he did it.)
Note2 4he way and how cannot be used together.
t$e reason 6 $"2
4his is the reason (why) he got upset.
1=
ADJECTI3ES AND AD3ER7S
,. Adjecti!es
adj 6 t$at
I'! glad that you ca!e.
It's i!portant that we work together.
adj 6 to
'e are happy to be here.
I was shocked to see hi!.
adj 6 >/in&
)us"# foolis$# ort$# ort$$ile# '
She was foolish lending hi! a lot of !oney.
adj 6 prep 6>/in&
She is good at playing tennis.
I'! tired of listening to this !usic.
Superlati(e form 6 to
She was the last to arrive.
He's the oldest athlete to win a gold !edal.
Adjecti(al suffixes
/a!le considera!le relia!le /ic realistic specific
/i(e effecti(e impressi(e /ous famous spacious
/ful successful respectful /ant//ent si&nificant con(enient
/al exceptional intentional /ate pri(ate moderate
/" necessar" ris." /l" costl" timel"
2. Ad!erbs
Ad(er!s can modif" (er!s# adjecti(es# ot$er ad(er!s and clauses%
She speaks "nglish fluently and correctly.
You are entirely wrong.
He worked really hard.
I nearly fell over his feet.
2nluckily, she did not pass her graduation exa!.
Ad(er!s of frequenc" (always, usually, fre)uently, generally, often,
occasionally, so!eti!es, seldo!, rarely, hardly, never,#) come after an auxiliar"
(er! and !efore a main (er!%
She can rarely drive to work in less than an hour.
You should always brush your teeth after eating.
1?
Note+ 'nly partial negation occurs when "not$ is used with all, both, every,
whole, entirely, always, necessarily, or completely.
I couldn't solve all the proble!s. So!e of the! were too difficult.
You don't necessarily have to attend the !eeting.
1@
CO5PARISONS
I. Reguar co+$arison
1% <$en comparin& t$in&s# s$orts adjecti(es end in Der%Lest%
dark C darker C the darkest hot C hotter C the hottest
happy C happier C the happiest scary C scarier C the scariest
+% Aor lon& adjecti(es (to or more s"lla!les) used in comparisons# place !ore, !ost,
less, or least !efore t$e adjecti(e%
beautiful C !ore beautiful C the !ost beautiful
expensive C less expensive C the least expensive
II. Irreguar Co+$arison
A fe adjecti(es and ad(er!s $a(e comparati(e and superlati(e forms t$at are different
from t$eir re&ular forms%
good%well C better C the best M bad%badly C worse C the worst
!uch%!any C !ore C the !ost M little C less C the least
far C farther%further C the farthest%furthest
Note2 Jurther is used for !ot$ &reater distance and more of somet$in&# $ile farther is
onl" used for &reater distance%
III. As & As co+$arati!es
9nl" t$e re&ular form of an adjecti(e or ad(er! comes !eteen as and asH for example#
He is as old as I a!.(for!al)
He speaks "nglish as fluently as his brother does.
Note.
5odification of ,omparatives
Comparati(es can !e modified !" t$e folloin& ords2 !uch, very !uch, far, a little, a
bit, a lot, any, no, even, still, !ut 89- too, very, and so.
He is a bit taller than !e.
4his is even worse than that one.
She is so taller than I a!. ('N,-+)
,hoosing !etween ,omparatives and 6uperlatives
1% C$oose a comparati(e form if than appears in t$e sentence%
He is taller than his brother.
+% -$e presence of ever# (of) all, possible, in the world, # is a stron& su&&estion t$at a
superlati(e is needed%
4his is the highest building I have ever seen.
,f all the girls over there, >y is the tallest.
+B
CONDITIONA9S
I. Patterns
Present
condition2
Aactual If 6 S 6 >(simple present)# S 6 > (simple present)
If you heat water to 977
7
?, it boils.
-"pe 12 Pro!a!le If 6 S 6 >(simple present)#
6 S 6s$all/ ill/can/must/ma"' 6 !ase (er!
6 Imperati(e (*o/*onEt 6 !ase (er!)
If you stay, I will stay, too.
-"pe +2 ,nreal at t$e
present or in t$e
future
If 6 S 6 > 6 ed/>
C+
/ere (simple past tense)#
S 6 s$ould/ould/could/mi&$t' 6 !ase (er!
If you stayed, I would stay, too.
-"pe 32 ,nreal in t$e past If 6 S 6 $ad 6 P%P (past participle)#
S 6 s$ould/ould/could/mi&$t $a(e 6 P%P%
If you had stayed, I would have stayed, too.
II. 5eanings F Usages
1% Present condition2 ala"s true
If oil is !ixed with water, it floats. B 'hen oil is !ixed with water, it floats.
+% -"pe 12 statin& a future e(ent
If you co!plete this course, you will get a great ob.
If you are not studious, you will not pass the exa!inations.
B 2nless you are studious, you will not pass the exa!inations.
3% -"pe +2 contrastin& it$ a present e(ent
If I were a billionaire, I would travel around the world.
B 'ere I a billionaire, I would travel around the world.
4% -"pe 32 contrastin& it$ a past e(ent
If we had known the proble!, we could have done so!ething.
B Had we known the proble!, we could have done so!ething.
5% S$ould 6 S 6 > (!are inf%)2 in place of FIfG in 0ero# first and second t"pes of
conditional sentences
If he co!es, please call !e.
B Should he co!e, please call !e.
+1