306 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999

ACI Materials Journal, V. 96, No. 3, May-June 1999.

Received April 7, 1997, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright
1999, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless
permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including
authors closure, if any, will be published in the March-April 2000 ACI Materials Journal if
the discussion is received by December 1, 1999.
ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER
This is the second of a two-part paper covering research into chlo-
ride-induced steel corrosion in concrete. Work described in this
paper focused on relationships between electrochemical data on
chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion and gravimetric steel
weight losses. Data were collected on a series of reinforced
concrete slabs that were partially immersed in 3% NaCl solution
for a period of 5 years. Reinforced concrete slabs investigated
were made with a range of water-binder ratios (w/b) with portland
cements having high and low C3A contents, slag-blended cement,
or fly ash-blended cement. Data in this paper focus on measurements
over time of concrete resistivity, corrosion rates, and gravimetric
weight losses of steel taken at the end of the exposure period.
Rates of corrosion of steel in concrete were measured using
potentiodynamic anodic procedures. An analysis of estimated
corrosion currents I
c
, and the area under the I
c
versus time enve-
lope A
cr
for reinforcement within concrete slabs used in the investi-
gation, is described. Measurements of weight loss of steel through
corrosion in concrete are analyzed and related back to the electro-
chemical measurements taken. It was found that concrete w/b
highly influenced the corrosion rate of steel in concrete. Quantita-
tive links between steel weight loss, the electrochemical data, and
concrete resistivity, have been found.
Under high-chloride conditions, the blended cement concretes
having low w/b were found to perform better than other concretes
investigated in this study. The data suggest that such concretes had
higher resistivity characteristics, lower corrosion rate characteris-
tics, and were likely to result in lower reinforcement weight losses
when compared with equivalent portland cement concretes.
Reinforced concrete performance under high-chloride conditions
did not reflect concrete strength data for the materials considered.
The results serve to provide some guidelines for the design of
concrete structures for insuring durability.
Keywords: blast furnace slag; chlorides; corrosion; marine atmospheres.
INTRODUCTION
Performance measurements on reinforced concrete
relating to corrosion of embedded steel may be conveniently
divided into those relating to reinforcement type and condi-
tion, thickness, type and condition of concrete cover-to-rein-
forcement, properties of paste, mortar, and concrete, and
electrochemical conditions of the reinforcement in contact
with solution, paste, mortar, or concrete. Issues relating to
reinforcement type have been extensively discussed in the
literature,
1-3
as have the use of galvanized steel, stainless
steel, or coated reinforcement in preventing chloride-induced
steel corrosion in concrete.
4-7
Cover-to-reinforcement is
considered of prime importance by some workers, while
others believe that concrete type is more important than
cover.
8
Cracking has been noted to increase the likelihood of
damage to reinforced concrete, and much has been written
on the subject.
9-12
Further information on concrete cover-to-
reinforcement, its modification, cracking, and delamination
can be found in the literature.
13-15
A review of the literature
16-28
reveals that a series of electro-
chemical techniques can be used for measuring the corrosion of
steel in concrete. These are summarized in Table 1. The
methods have been divided into two streamsthose using
direct current principles, and those using alternating current
principles. The focus of much of this research has been to
develop methodologies to enable nondestructive assessment of
the rate of reinforcement corrosion in concrete, and thereby
enable the ongoing measurement of performance of structural
elements more accurately.
This paper presents some results of a major research
project into corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete. The
focus of the work was the corrosion of steel in concrete slabs
exposed to high-chloride conditions. Data in this paper focus
on measurements of corrosion of steel in concrete that
describe the performance of a range of concrete types in a
simulated marine environment. In Table 2, assessment
procedures and measurement methods used in this research
program are detailed. A wealth of data have been generated
from these measurements on corrosion of steel embedded
within a range of portland and blended cement concretes. A
summary of where particular data have been published is
included in Table 2. Data on chloride-ion concentration,
chloride-ion penetration, and resistivity have been published
elsewhere by the authors.
29,30,33
Corrosion-potential data
from the study have also been published previously,
30,33
as
have interim data on corrosion rates of steel in concrete
determined using potentiodynamic anodic polarization
procedures.
31
Data on polarization resistance, electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy, and carbonation-related corrosion
of steel will be the subject of future publications.
The focus in the current series of papers (Part 1 and 2) is to
critically analyze chloride-induced steel corrosion in concrete.
Title no. 96-M38
Chloride-Induced Steel Corrosion in Concrete: Part 2
Gravimetric and Electrochemical Comparisons
by Daksh Baweja, Harold Roper, and Vute Sirivivatnanon
Table 1Techniques used to measure corrosion of
steel
DC methods AC methods
Potentiodynamic anodic and
cathodic polarization
Electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy
Polarization resistance Harmonic analysis
Macrocell corrosion monitoring Galvanostatic pulse methods
Electrochemical noise
Potentiostatic and galvanostatic
polarization
Corrosion potential
307 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999
Specifically, Part I considered corrosion rate, electrochemical
corrosion activity and attack area data, and the associated
inter-relationships. In this paper, concrete performance with
respect to corrosion of reinforcement was measured by
concrete resistivity, potentiodynamic anodic polarization of
reinforcement within concrete, and gravimetric reinforcement
weight losses taken at final stages of the project.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
This paper considers the performance of a range of portland
and blended cement concretes exposed to high-chloride
conditions in terms of corrosion of embedded reinforcement.
Performance has been measured by gravimetric measurements
of steel weight loss through corrosion and by continuous
electrochemical monitoring of reinforcement throughout the
5-year specimen exposure to high-chloride conditions. An
analysis of two specifically developed parameters, estimated
corrosion currents I
c
, and the area under the I
c
versus time-
of-exposure envelope A
cr
for reinforcement within concrete
slabs, has been previously described in detail in Part 1. Grav-
imetric measurements of reinforcement corrosion are
analyzed and related to the electrochemical measurements
taken. Such data are critical to the provision of economical
reinforced concrete construction solutions for marine and
other high-chloride applications. Only by understanding the
observed deterioration data in detail can design of such
structures be undertaken with greater confidence. Data
obtained are also important in determining appropriate main-
tenance strategies for existing infrastructure. In addition, the
research provides an insight into the corrosion rate characteris-
tics of steel in a range of portland and blended cement concrete.
The development of relationships resulting from this research
work will serve to provide a basis for the specification of tech-
nically superior and cost-effective options for the construction
of marine environment infrastructure.
MATERIALS USED
Concretes were prepared using four cementitious mate-
rials, a high-C
3
A ordinary portland cement (OPC) (C1), a
low-C
3
A OPC (C2), a slag-blended cement containing 35%
ground granulated blast furnace slag from Port Kembla in
New South Wales, Australia (C3), and a fly ash-blended
cement containing 25% low-calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash
from Tarong Power Station in Queensland, Australia (C4). A
set of concretes was also cast, using the C4 binder together
with a water-reducing and an air-entraining admixture (C4e).
The major oxide analyses of the four binder materials used in
this study are presented in Table 3. Hypothetical chemical
compositions (C1 and C2 binders), specific surface area, and
median particle size data (all binders) are presented in Table 4.
Mixture proportions for the concretes used are presented
in Table 5. All concretes were designed such that the slump
was between 75 and 90 mm. Concretes were cast at nominated
water-cement ratios (w/c) of 0.36, 0.45, 0.55, and 0.65, and
were all moist-cured for 2 days prior to partial immersion in
the 3% NaCl solution. A set of concrete slabs was also cast
using the C1 and C2 binders at a water-binder ratio (w/b) of
0.85. Figure 1 shows 28-day strength and w/b data for each
binder type considered. Reported compressive strengths are
averages of three individual results. Generally, the C1, C2,
and C3 binder concretes developed similar strengths at a
given w/b. For comparisons made at equal w/b, the C4 binder
ACI member Daksh Baweja is Business Development Manager for CSR Construction
Materials. He received his MS and PhD from the University of Sydney, Sydney, Aus-
tralia. His research interests include steel corrosion, concrete durability, mineral
additives, high- performance concretes, and technical marketing activities relating to
in situ concrete, precast concrete, and construction services businesses.
ACI member Harold Roper is Research Associate in the School of Civil and Mining
Engineering at the University of Sydney. He is also a principal of Harold Roper and
Associates. His research interests include materials for use in reinforced and pre-
stressed concrete structures, and properties of aggregates, cements, and concretes.
Vute Sirivivatnanon is Principal Research Scientist with the CSIRO Division of
Building, Construction, and Engineering, North Ryde, Australia. His research inter-
ests include cement and concrete technology, mineral additives for high-performance
concrete, supplementary cementitious materials for use in concrete, and quality assur-
ance of concrete cover.
Table 2Summary of assessments and
measurement methods used in research program
Assessment Measurement method Data location
Reinforcement condition
Gravimetric methods Part 2
Corroded area Reference 32
Paste, mortar, or
concrete
Chloride ion concentration Reference 30
Chloride ion penetration Reference 29
Carbonation Reference 32
Resistivity Reference 29
Reinforcement in contact
with solution, paste,
mortar, or concrete
Corrosion potential Reference 30
Potentiodynamic anodic
polarization
Reference 31
Polarization resistance Reference 32
Electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy
Reference 32
Table 3Major oxide analyses of binder materials,
percent
Composition Binder C1 Binder C2 Binder C3 Binder C4
SiO
2
21.2 20.3 23.5 29.9
Al
2
O
3
4.89 3.78 7.80 8.73
TiO
2
0.16 0.24 0.41 0.53
Fe
2
O
3
2.20 4.82 2.30 2.60
CaO 62.8 61.7 53.4 48.1
MgO 1.45 1.30 2.65 0.87
SO
3
2.06 1.42 2.42 1.64
K
2
O 0.99 0.30 0.51 0.21
Fig. 1w/b versus 28-day strength for concretes used
(compressive strength of C4e concrete having w/b of 0.36
was 55 MPa).
308 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999
concretes showed lower 28-day strengths than those of the
other concretes.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Reinforced concrete slab details
Reinforced concrete slabs measuring 300 x 300 x 56 mm
were cast flat with mesh reinforcing placed centrally within
(Fig. 2). The slab design provided a minimum cover-to-
reinforcement of 20 mm. An F81 (8 mm bars at 100 mm
centers) mesh was used as reinforcement in the slabs. They
were cast horizontally in molds such that the obverse surface
of the reinforcing mesh faced the top of the mold (upward).
After casting and curing for 2 days, all slabs were partially
immersed to a depth of 40 mm in a 3% NaCl solution (simu-
lated seawater solution) and were kept under standard labora-
tory conditions of 23 2 C and 50 5% relative humidity
(RH). Chloride-ion ingress into the concrete was mainly
achieved by inward and upward diffusion via the capillary
pores. This process occurs commonly in marine structures
located in the tidal zone.
Steel reinforcement used within each slab was sand-blast
cleaned prior to inclusion into concrete. Blast cleaning was
carried out to firstly provide, as effectively as possible, a
uniform metal surface, and secondly, to remove all traces of
rust and other impurities from the steel surface. After
cleaning, reinforcement meshes were weighed to the nearest
0.01 g. This provided a reference for later experimentation
on reinforcement weight loss through corrosion of steel. It is
known that mill scales will impact on corrosion of steel in
such concretes. That issue was not considered in this study
and needs to form part of a separate study.
Potentiodynamic anodic polarization scan
methodology
General descriptions of the methodology used in
conducting potentiodynamic anodic polarization measure-
ments can be found in ASTM G5-8234. Potentiodynamic
anodic polarization scans were carried out with a saturated
calomel reference electrode located on the concrete surface at
Point 3A (Fig. 2). The cell consisted of a working electrode
(the reinforcing mesh) and two graphite counter electrodes
connected to a potentiostat. Slabs were partially immersed in
the 3% NaCl solution (Fig. 2) and sponge material was used to
cover the slab surface to maximize moisture retention during
scan recording. A pump circulated solution onto the surface of
the sponge, keeping the slab surface continuously moist,
particularly in the region of the reference electrode, to
minimize resistivity influences. Scans were conducted
between 50 mV versus SCE cathodic of the rest potential
E
corr
, to a value of 800 mV versus SCE insuring passage
through the rest potential of the reinforcement. Calculated
scan rates typically ranged between 0.4 and 0.7 mV/s.
A potentiostat was used for conducting potentiodynamic
anodic polarization scans and data were digitized and stored
on disk by using a laboratory instrument controller. Scans
were conducted on specimens at regular intervals over the
total period of partial immersion in 3% NaCl solution.
Effects of conducting polarization scans on reinforcement
corrosion activity were found to dissipate almost completely
within 24 hours.
30
Table 5Mixture proportions of concretes used
*
Mixture
constituent
w/b

=
0.45 C1
to C4
w/b =
0.55 C1
to C4
w/b =
0.65 C1
to C4
w/b =
0.85 C1
and C2
w/b =
0.36
C4e
w/b =
0.45
C4e
w/b =
0.55
C4e
Cement 420 325 270 250 440 335 280
Total
water
190 180 175 213 160 150 155
10-mm
aggregate
440 460 470 450 450 460 460
20-mm
aggregate
630 655 670 675 635 660 675
Coarse
sand
580 605 620 600 585 610 600
Fine sand 135 140 145 165 130 140 145
*
All values in kg/m
3
.

w/b = water-binder ratio.

Note: Water-reducing admixture and air-entraining admixture were added to C4e
concretes only. Admixture dose rate = 0.5 L/100 kg of binder.
Fig. 2Schematic diagram of concrete slab and setup for
electrochemical monitoring (all dimensions in mm).
Table 4Hypothetical compound compositions,
specific surface, and median particle size for
binders used
Hypothetical compound/
fineness index Binder C1 Binder C2 Binder C3 Binder C4
C
3
S content, percent 55.0 62.0 N/A N/A
C
2
S content, percent 20.0 14.0 N/A N/A
C
3
A content, percent 9.4 1.6 N/A N/A
C
4
AF content, percent 8.0 17.0 N/A N/A
Specific surface area, m
2
/kg 320 330 385 380
Median particle size, microns 15.9 13.9 11.2 14.0
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999 309
The electrochemical data obtained from the polarization
scans were imported into spreadsheets. A series of macro-
programs calculated E
corr
(the rest potential of the reinforce-
ment mesh) and the estimated corrosion current I
c
described
in Fig. 3. The I
c
value for each scan was calculated by
selecting its maximum slope and extrapolating its tangent to
the E
corr
value. The programs also calculated A
cr
, the area
under the I
c
versus exposure-time envelope, which was a
parameter developed specifically to fingerprint the charac-
teristics of I
c
with exposure time. Details of procedures used
have been described in detail elsewhere in the literature.
31
Methodology to determine weight of corrosion
product over reinforcement surface
Procedures described in Section 7.7.3 of ASTM G1-88
(Standard Practice for Preparing, Cleaning, and Evaluating
Corrosion Test Specimens)
34
were used to determine mesh
reinforcement weight losses attributable to corrosion. Rust on
the steel surface was removed by immersion of meshes in a
cleaning solution of sulfuric acid, glycerol, and water. The
temperature of the cleaning solution was maintained at 50 C.
After cleaning, the individual steel meshes were washed,
dried, and weighed. The process of cleaning, washing, drying,
and weighing was repeated every 2 min until only a small
difference in steel weight loss was recorded. Records of mesh
weights against time in cleaning solution were obtained for
each mesh analyzed.
In Fig. 3, data for reinforcement weight loss as a function
of cumulative times in the cleaning solution are presented.
Results for four corroded meshes and one unoxidized mesh
are shown. The gravimetric weight loss of steel due to
corrosion was calculated by determining the line of best fit
for all data obtained after 6 min of cleaning. The y-intercept
of this line was taken as the gravimetric weight loss of steel
(Fig. 3). For the slab reinforcement considered in this
study, lines of best fit for the determination of steel weight
loss were all significant at the 95% confidence level, and
most were significant at the 99% level.
RESULTS
Concrete resistivity data
Wenner Bridge resistivity data for the slabs considered
have been discussed in detail in other publications.
33,35
These
data are reviewed in this paper to highlight general differ-
ences between portland and blended cement concretes
considered in this study. This information is used in later anal-
yses, and its relation to measured electrochemical and gravi-
metric data is presented. Resistivity versus time data for
concrete slabs made with the C1, C2, C3, and C4 binders are
presented in Fig. 4 and have been considered in detail in other
papers.
29,32,35
The differences in magnitude between the C1
and C2 concrete set and the C3 and C4 set have been previ-
ously discussed.
35
The C4e concretes had similar resistivity-
time trends to those of the C4 concretes.
It is noted that all blended cement concretes had high-
resistivity characteristics, except for the C3 concretes cast at
a w/b of 0.65. The data suggest that, in some cases, it is
possible to have blended cement concretes that have low-
resistivity characteristics when these are cast at a high w/b.
Reinforcement weight loss as influenced by w/b
and concrete strength
Weight losses through corrosion were measured on rein-
forcement embedded within the concrete slabs considered in
this study. In Fig. 5, the influence of concrete w/b on weight
loss of reinforcement is presented for data measured after
approximately 5 years of exposure. A line of best fit to all the
data is shown. This trend was found to be significant at the
99% confidence level. The trend line indicates that decreasing
the concrete w/b results in decreases in the weight loss of rein-
forcement through corrosion. For concretes cast without
chemical admixture additions (C1, C2, C3, and C4), the
results indicate that lowering the w/b generally corresponds to
a decrease in gravimetric weight loss of steel. There are,
however, some trend variations for concretes made with the
different binder materials in the presented information.
Comparing the C4 and the C4e concretes, the latter showed
a significantly higher mesh weight loss at a w/b of 0.55. The
weight loss of reinforcement for the C4e concrete cast at a w/b
of 0.36 was similar to that of the C4 concrete cast at a w/b of
0.45. Weight loss data for the C4e concrete set generally
reflect the relatively low binder levels of this group when
compared with the other concretes investigated (Table 5).
The influence of 28-day compressive strengths of
concretes on the weight loss of steel through corrosion is also
presented in Fig. 5. The weight losses of steel decrease with
increasing compressive strengths, though some scatter in
results at particular strength levels, was found. The C4 and
C4e concretes generally showed lower weight losses than the
other concretes when equivalent strength comparisons are
made, consistent with other observations on corrosion
performance.
29,30,33,35
Reinforcement weight loss as influenced by
resistivity
Data on I
c
versus time and A
cr
versus time for the concretes
considered have been presented in Part 1 of this study, and
also in the literature.
33
The peak concrete resistivity for each
concrete slab was selected from data presented in Fig. 4. In
Fig. 6, these peak concrete resistivities have been plotted
against reinforcement weight losses measured after 5 years
of exposure of the concrete slabs to the 3% NaCl solution.
Two trends were foundone for low-resistivity concretes,
and the other for the high-resistivity concretes. High-resis-
tivity concretes are defined as those having a peak resistivity
higher than 8000 ohm/cm. In both cases, decreases in the
peak concrete resistivity correspond to increases in the
weight loss of steel through corrosion.
Fig. 3Weight loss versus time in cleaning solution; four
corroded meshes and one unoxidized mesh.
310 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999
The concrete resistivity measured immediately prior to
reinforcement weight loss measurement (termed the final
concrete resistivity) was also determined for each slab
considered in this study. The final concrete resistivity is also
plotted against the weight loss of steel through corrosion in
Fig. 6. Similar trends to those found for the peak concrete
resistivity were again found to relate to gravimetric weight
loss. Again, the data were divided into two distinguishable
setsone for low-resistivity concretes, and the other for
high-resistivity concretes. For each data set (low-resistivity
concretes and high-resistivity concretes), higher resistivities
correspond to lower weight losses.
In Fig. 7, individual areas under the resistivity-time envelope,
as presented in Fig. 4, were calculated. These data were
plotted against the corresponding gravimetric weight losses
of reinforcement. This analysis was done to insure that
resistivity measurements reflected changes within the
Fig. 6Influence of peak and final concrete resistivity
(determined from Fig. 4) on weight loss of steel reinforce-
ment through corrosion, taken after 5 years of exposure to
3% NaCl solution.
Fig. 5Influence of concrete w/ b and 28-day compressive
strength on weight loss of reinforcement through corrosion.
Fig. 4Mean resistivity versus time date for concretes investigated.
Fig. 7Influence of area under resistivity-time envelope
(Fig. 4) on weight loss of steel reinforcement through corrosion
taken after 5 years of exposure to 3% NaCl solution.
ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999 311
concrete, as measured by gravimetric weight loss of reinforce-
ment throughout the corrosion period.
Reinforcement weight loss as influenced by A
cr
Gravimetric weight loss of steel versus A
cr
data are
presented in Fig. 8 for all slabs considered in this study. Two
charts are shown: one for an A
cr
versus weight loss plot; and
the other for the reciprocal of A
cr
versus weight loss plot. In
each chart in this figure, data for low- and high-resistivity
concretes have been highlighted. Lines of best fit have been
drawn through the low-resistivity concretes (predominantly
C1 and C2) and the high-resistivity concretes (C3, C4, and
C4e). Regression analyses were carried out on both trend
lines presented, and descriptions of the investigated relation-
ships and significance levels are given in Table 6. Trend
lines were significant at the 99% confidence level.
Observations of information presented in Fig. 8 suggest
that the two previously defined sets, low- and high-resistivity
concretes, appear separate and unique. The two data sets are
further distinguishable when the chart showing weight loss
versus the reciprocal of A
cr
is considered. The low-resistivity
concretes follow a hyperbolic trend to an A
cr
value of
1000 ohm/cm. At this point, the trend line becomes exponen-
tial, as described in Table 6 (Data Set 1). The high-resistivity
data follow a hyperbolic trend described in Table 6 (Data Set
2). Extrapolation of the trend lines suggests that they
converge at high weight losses. It is thought that A
cr
versus
gravimetric weight loss trends for both data sets would be
similar at high weight loss levels where corrosion rates
would be extremely rapid.
The results show that, for the same A
cr
value, higher
gravimetric weight losses are found in the higher-resistivity
concretes than those for the lower-resistivity concretes. Low
w/b concretes, in all cases, showed low reinforcement weight
losses after 5 years of exposure. It is important to note that
typically, at equal w/b and periods of exposure, low-resis-
tivity concretes achieved higher A
cr
values when compared
with those of the high-resistivity concretes. This indicates
that corrosion rates in the high-resistivity concretes were
lower than those found in the low-resistivity concretes.
In Fig. 9, a plot is presented of the estimated electrochemical
weight losses, calculated by using the equations in Table 6,
versus the gravimetric weight losses for the full set of data
collected. Calculations of estimated weight losses were
based on considering the low- and high-resistivity concretes
separately, then applying the corresponding equations given
in Table 6 (for Data Set 1 and 2). It was found that correla-
tions between estimated weight loss, calculated using A
cr
data, and the gravimetric weight loss were good. Regression
analyses on the data showed the correlation coefficient R
2
=
0.94, with the trend significant at the 99% confidence level.
Theoretical estimation of weight losses with time
from A
cr
data
A
cr
measurements were taken at regular intervals over a 5-
year period on reinforcement within each slab investigated in
this study. These data have been published in Part 1 of this
paper and in the literature.
32
Based on the A
cr
-versus-time
data and the equations presented in Table 6, estimates of
electrochemical weight losses were derived. Electrochem-
ical weight losses were calculated by again separating data
into low- and high-resistivity concrete sets, then applying the
relevant equations from Table 6. Data were grouped into
concretes cast at w/b of 0.45, 0.55, and 0.65. It was thus
possible to obtain progressive estimates of weight loss
versus time reinforcement within each slab investigated.
In Fig. 10, a plot of estimated electrochemical weight
losses versus time of slab immersion in chloride solution is
presented. The data show that lower water-binder-ratio
concretes are more durable than those having higher w/b. At
high w/b (0.65), the lowest weight loss through corrosion
was found for reinforcement within the C3 concrete slab. At
w/b of 0.45 and 0.55, lower weight losses were found for
reinforcement within the C3 and C4 concrete slabs when
compared with those within the C1 and C2 concretes. It is
important to again state that, at equal w/b, the C4 concretes
were consistently lower in strength when compared with
other concretes investigated.
Fig. 9Estimated electrochemical weight loss versus
gravimetric weight loss for reinforcement within slabs
investigated.
Table 6Regression analysis results for trends
shown in Fig. 8
Data
set Description Trend
*
R
2
Confidence
level, percent
1
Low
resistivity
Wt = 0.0337A
cr
0.549
for
A
cr
< 1000 mA days
Wt = 0.694e
0.000805 Acr
for
A
cr
1000 mA days
0.94 99
2
High
resistivity
Wt = 0.00915A
cr
0.903
0.97 99
*
Wt is gravimetric weight loss of steel (g) and A
cr
is the area under I
c
-time envelope
(mA) days.
Fig. 8Weight loss of steel reinforcement versus A
cr
for
slabs partially immersed in 3% NaCl solution.
312 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999
For specification of concrete in high-chloride or marine
environments, the data in Fig. 10 suggest that, as would be
expected, low water-binder-ratio concretes offer advantages
under such aggressive conditions. Importantly, however, the
benefit of using blended cement concretes having high-resis-
tivity characteristics is also highlighted. Although data have
been presented for concretes having w/b of 0.55 and 0.65,
these are not recommended for application under marine
conditions.
DISCUSSION
Results published earlier (Part 1) indicated that, for low w/b
concretes at equal periods of exposure to chlorides, rein-
forcement within the blended cement concrete slabs had
lower A
cr
values than did reinforcement within the portland
cement concrete slabs. Correlations between A
cr
and the
percentage-corroded area of reinforcement were different for
the portland cement concretes and the blended cement
concretes investigated. At equal A
cr
values, larger attack
areas were found for reinforcement within the blended
cement concrete slabs than for reinforcement within the port-
land cement concrete slabs. The resistivities of the blended
cement concretes investigated were found to be higher than
those of the portland cement concretes. This factor appeared
to have resulted in a greater spread of anodic sites (a greater
anodic area) over the reinforcement surface in the blended
cement concretes.
Strong correlations were found between A
cr
and steel
weight loss, where concretes were classified into those
having low concrete resistivity, and those having high
concrete resistivity. Typically, high-resistivity concretes
were those having peak measured concrete resistivities in
higher than 8000 ohm/cm. Correlations between A
cr
and
steel weight loss were all significant at the 99% confidence
level. The high resistivity of the blended cement concretes,
particularly at the high w/b, may cause an increase in the
spread of anodic sites over the reinforcement surface,
thereby increasing weight loss for this concrete group.
It could be argued that the higher gravimetric weight
losses of the high-resistivity concrete set, compared with
the low-resistivity concretes at equal measured electro-
chemical corrosion activity A
cr
may not necessarily result in
increased damage to concrete. Dissolution of corrosion prod-
ucts over a wider area in the high-resistivity concretes may be
more easily accommodated. Importantly, however, results
focus on the need for specification of concretes having low w/
b, as this would reduce corroded areas and weight loss of steel
through corrosion. Importantly, the data strongly suggest the
need for concretes having low w/b and high-resistivity char-
acteristics as optimum solutions for marine applications.
In summary, electrochemical measurements of steel in
concrete exposed to 3% NaCl solution were found to predict
reinforcement weight losses with a high degree of accuracy.
Such methods offer significant advantages in assessing
performance over techniques used to measure concrete
performance alone. Performance data and assessments on
reinforcement within concrete is of critical importance in
engineering design. In general, data showed that, after
approximately 5 years of exposure to chlorides, steel weight
loss increases with increasing concrete w/b, as would be
expected. At a w/b of 0.45, predicted performance in terms
of steel weight losses were superior for the blended cement
concrete having high-resistivity characteristics than for the
portland cement concretes having low-resistivity character-
istics. It can be concluded that, where w/b are low, there are
advantages in using blended cement concretes under high-
chloride and marine conditions based on the corrosion-rate,
gravimetric, and resistivity data presented. The differences
in performance of the two sets appear to be linked to their
resistivity characteristics.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of the specifically developed parameters obtained
from potentiodynamic anodic polarization measurements,
the estimated corrosion current I
c
, and the area under the I
c
-
time envelope A
cr
, correlated well with the steel corroded
area and gravimetric weight loss data. Quantitative rela-
tionships between A
cr
and gravimetric weight loss data were
significant at the 99% confidence level.
Fig. 10Estimated electrochemical weight loss of steel reinforcement versus time of
partial immersion in 3% NaCl solution for concretes investigated.
313 ACI Materials Journal/May-June 1999
Concrete w/b significantly influenced A
cr
values for
reinforcement within slabs partially immersed in 3%
NaCl solution. The binder type also influenced the A
cr
values, and concretes having high-resistivity characteristics are
recommended for use in marine and other high-chloride
environments. This confirms observations made on the
corrosion potential data taken from the same slab set
published elsewhere.
The data indicated that optimum solutions for reinforced
concrete in marine environments lie with the specification of
low water-binder ratio blended cement concretes that have
high-resistivity characteristics. High-resistivity concretes
have been defined as those achieving higher than 8000 ohm/cm
in the exposure condition modeled. Data suggest that reinforce-
ment within such concretes consistently show low corrosion
rates, low steel corroded areas, and low steel weight losses
after extended periods of exposure to chlorides. In higher w/b,
or lower strength concretes, increases in reinforcement
corrosion attack areas, corrosion rates, and steel weight
losses were found when compared with those for low w/b or
higher-strength concretes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Work described in this paper was carried out at the CSIRO Division of
Building, Construction, and Engineering in North Ryde, Australia. Much of
the analysis work was carried out at the University of Sydney and presented
in a PhD thesis written by D. Baweja. Thanks are expressed to the Cement
and Concrete Association of Australia for supporting this work. In particular,
thanks are expressed to individual members of the research advisory
committee for their help and interest. Sincere thanks also go to Michael
William Farr, who was responsible for running day-to-day tests on specimens
and aiding in the laboratory work.
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