H22 IS3 : Transport Infrastructure

Faculty of Engineering
& Computer Science
DEPARTMENT OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING
The University of
Nottingham
Malaysia Campus
Dr. SONG KI IL
IR. Yeong Tuk Way
Assistant Professor
Assistant Professor
Transport Infrastructure
Highway
Airfield
Tunnel
H22 IS3 : Transport Infrastructure
Topic 1, Introduction to Highway Engineering
Topic 2, Highway Planning (Stages, Traffic, Safety & Services)
Topic 3, Highway Planning (Alignment & Pavement Design)
Topic 4, Highway Construction (Programme)
Topic 5, Highway Construction (Road Pavement)
Topic 6, Pavement Management (Evaluation)
Topic 7, Pavement Management (Maintenance)
Topic 8, Pavement Management Systems (PMS)
Topic 9, Environmental Aspects
Topic 10, Recycling, Noise & Dangerous Chemicals
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways
Part I, Ancient Roads
Part II, Later European Development
Aims of Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Structural Component
Flexible Pavement
Rigid Pavement
Modes of Pavement Failure
Cross-Sectional Layout of a Highway
What is a Road Worth ?
What are the alternatives ?
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part I , Ancient Roads
The origin of roads dates back to the
period before the advent of recorded
history. With the desire to hunt animals for
food, the ancient man began to form
pathways & tracks to facilitate the
movements.
As civilization advanced, the growth of
agriculture took place & human
settlements began to be formed.
From 1 settlement to another, tracks were
formed. These tracks might have been the
skeletal framework of the modern
highways.
Man soon learnt to domesticate animals &
used them as beats of burden. These
moved on the tracks on which men used to
travel.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part I , Ancient Roads
The next major event to revolutionaries transport was the
invention of the wheel (approximate 3500 5000 BC) in
Mesopotamia.
Man soon saw the advantages of an axle joining 2 wheels &
began to build 2-wheeled & 4-wheeled carts & chariots.
The art of road building soon began with the need to provide
a hard durable surface to withstand the abrading effect of
wheels.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part I , Ancient Roads
The Roman Civilization is well-known for good
road system it built. The Roman Empire
extended over vast regions. The 100,000 km
road network served military & administrative
purposes.
Some of the modern highways of Europe are
aligned generally along the routes of the
Roman Era.
Rome was the focus point from where 29
major roads radiated in all directions. (All
Roads Lead to Rome).
The main features of Roman roads were direct
alignment, good drainage, good level & good
pavement structure.
A good alignment was sought since this
provides the most direct route & since the risk
of ambush in hostile territory is reduced.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part I , Ancient Roads
It was for this reason that
the surface of the road was
often elevated a metre or
more above the local ground
level to provide a clear
view of the surrounding
countryside; hence the
modern term of Highway.
The top layers of the
pavement consisted of flat
stones. Lime mortar was
used to cement the stones.
With the decline of the Roman Empire, road building received
a set-back in Europe.
Roman Pavement Structure
Near Radstock, England
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part I , Ancient Roads
Typical Section of Roman Road
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part I , Ancient Roads
The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road
connecting the city of Rome to the
southern parts of Italy, remains usable
even today.
A Roman road in
Pompeii
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part I , Ancient Roads
The Persians, under King Darius I, who ruled in the 15th
century BC, built the Royal Persian Road, traversing from
Turkey to the Persian Gulf. This road served both trade &
military purposes.
The Chinese civilization is also known to have practiced
the art of road building on a large scale.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
History of Highways : Part II, Later European Development
Interest in the art of road building was revived in Europe in
the late 18th century, due the growth of steam vehicles.
During this period, Pierre Marie Jrme Trsaguet (1716
1796) (Father of Modern Highway Engineering), a noted
French engineer, advocated a method of road construction
utilizing a broken stone base covered with smaller stones.
The regime of Napoleon in France (18001814) gave a great
impetus to road construction, chiefly for military purposes, &
lead to the establishment of a national system of highway in
France.
Steam Powered Vehicle of
the mid 19th century
Introduction to Highway Engineering
At about the same time in England, 2
Scottish engineers, Thomas Telford
(17571834) & John Loundon McAdam
(17561836), developed similar types of
construction.
Telford urged the use of large pieces of
ledge stone to form a base with smaller
stones for the wearing surface.
McAdam advocated the use of smaller
broken stone throughout.
This later type of construction is still in
extensive use, being the forerunner of
various types of modern macadam bases
& pavements.
Thomas Telford
John Loudon Macadam
History of Highways : Part II, Later European Development
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Cross-section of Early roads
History of Highways : Part II, Later European Development
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Aims of Highway Engineering
Roads provide a key element of the
infrastructure whose function is to
promote economic activity & improve the
standard of living of the population.
Highway engineering is the process of
design & construction of efficient & safe
highway & roads.
Highway engineering is concerned with
the best use of resources to ensure that
a suitable network is provided to satisfy
this need of an economically
sophisticated society.
The highway engineer is concerned with
the provision of a safe, stable & durable
surface over which traffic may move.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Flexible Pavement
Rigid Pavement
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Basically, all hard surfaced pavement types can be
categorized into Flexible & Rigid Pavements.
Flexible pavements
These are asphalt pavements (sometimes called
bituminous pavements), which may or may not
incorporate underlying layers of stabilized or
unstabilized granular materials on a prepared subgrade.
Wearing surface of flexible pavement is usually
constructed of bituminous materials such that they
remain in contact with the underlying material even
when minor irregularities occur.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
These types of pavements are called "flexible" since the total
pavement structure bends (or flexes) to accommodate traffic
loads.
Flexible pavements usually consist of a bituminous surface
underlay with a layer of granular material (Base), & a layer
of a suitable mixture of coarse & fine materials (Subbase).
Structure of Flexible Pavement
http://www.aboutcivil.com/road-structure-cross-section.html
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Each layer receives the loads from the above layer, spreads
them out, & then passes on these loads to the next layer
below.
Thus, the further down in the pavement structure a particular
layer is, the less load (in terms of force per area) it must
carry.
Material layers are usually arranged in order of descending
load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity
material (& most expensive) on the top, & the lowest load
bearing capacity material (& least expensive) on the bottom.
Flexible pavements comprise about 98% of Malaysia paved
roads.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Rigid pavements
These are Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements,
which may or may not incorporate underlying layers of
stabilized or unstabilized granular materials.
Wearing surface of rigid pavement is constructed of
Portland Cement Concrete, which acts like a beam over
any irregularities in the underlying supporting material.
Structure of Rigid Pavement
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Such pavements are substantially "stiffer" than flexible
pavements due to the high modulus of elasticity of the PCC
material.
Further, these pavements can have reinforcing steel, which is
generally used to reduce or eliminate joints.
Rigid pavements have long service lives & are more
expensive to maintain than the flexible pavement.
Different types of joints are placed in concrete pavement to
limit the stress induced, & to facilitate the proper bonding of
2 adjacent sections of pavements when there is a time lapse
between their constructions.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Each of these pavement types distributes load over the
subgrade in a different fashion.
Flexible pavement uses more flexible surface course &
distributes loads over a smaller area. It relies on a
combination of layers for transmitting load to the subgrade.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Rigid pavement, because of PCC's high elastic modulus
(stiffness), tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide
area of subgrade. The concrete slab itself supplies most of a
rigid pavement's structural capacity.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Pavement Types
Another type of pavement, so called composite pavement,
are combination HMA & PCC pavements. Occasionally, they
are initially constructed as composite pavements, but more
frequently they are the result of pavement rehabilitation (e.g.,
HMA overlay of PCC pavement).
Composite Pavement. (This photo clearly shows the
underlying rigid pavement slabs & the HMA overlay)
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Subgrade (prepared road bed)
The uppermost part of soil, either natural or imported
(borrowed), supporting the load transmitted from overlying
layers.
It is necessary to treat the subgrade material to achieve
certain strength properties required for the type of
pavement being constructed.
Schematic of a
Flexible Pavement
Structural Components : Flexible Pavement
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Subbase Course
The layer of the specific material built up to the required
designed thickness immediately overlaying the subgrade.
The subbase course is between the base course & the
subgrade. The subbase course is not always needed or used.
The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials
than the base course but better than the subgrade soils.
It serves as an aid to disperse the load from the base
coarse before transmitting it to the subgrade.
It functions primarily as structural support but it can also:
1) Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into
the pavement structure.
2) Improve drainage.
3) Minimize frost action damage.
4) Provide a working platform for construction.
Structural Components : Flexible Pavement
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Base Course
The layer of specified material built up to the required
designed thickness normally overlying the subbase course.
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course.
This layer plays a prominent role in the support &
dispersion of the traffic load.
Besides, it provides additional load distribution, &
contributes to drainage & frost resistance.
Structural Components : Flexible Pavement
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Surface Course
Its the layer in contact with traffic loads & normally
contains the highest quality materials.
It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,
noise control, rut & shoving resistance, & drainage.
In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive
quantities of surface water into the underlying base,
subbase & subgrade.
This top structural layer of material is sometimes
subdivided into 2 layers;
1) Wearing Course (surface course)
2) Binder Course (intermediate)
Structural Components : Flexible Pavement
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Structural Components : Flexible Pavement
Wearing Course (surface course)
The topmost layer the surface course.
It is in the direct contact with the traffic & consequently it
must resist abrasion & prevent skidding.
Binder Course (Intermediate)
The bound layer overlying the base course.
Apart from supporting & dispersing the traffic load, it also
resists shear.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Structural Components : Rigid Pavement
A typical rigid pavement structure consists of the surface
course, & the underlying base & subbase courses (if used).
The surface course (made of PCC) is the stiffest (as measured
by resilient modulus) & provides the majority of strength.
The underlying layers are orders of magnitude less stiff but
still make important contributions to pavement strength as
well as drainage & frost protection.
Schematic of a
Rigid Pavement
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Structural Components : Rigid Pavement
Base Course
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course.
It provides:
1) Additional load distribution
2) Contributes to drainage & frost resistance
3) Uniform support to the pavement
4) A stable platform for construction equipment.
Bases also help prevent subgrade soil movement due to
slab pumping.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Structural Components : Rigid Pavement
Subbase Course
The subbase course is the portion of the pavement
structure between the base course & the subgrade.
It functions primarily as structural support but it can also:
1) Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into
the pavement structure.
2) Improve drainage.
3) Minimize frost action damage.
4) Provide a working platform for construction.
The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials
than the base course but better than the subgrade soils.
Appropriate materials are aggregate & high quality
structural fill.
A subbase course is not always needed or used.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Structural Components : Rigid Pavement
Surface Course
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads
& is made of PCC.
It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,
noise control & drainage.
In addition, it serves as a waterproofing layer to the
underlying base, subbase & subgrade.
The surface course can vary in thickness;
1) For light loading, 150 mm (6 inches)
2) For heavy loads & high traffic, 300 mm (12 inches)
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Modes of Pavement Failure
There are 2 types of pavement failure :
1) Functional failure
2) Structural failure
Functional failure occurs when the pavement cant perform its
function (e.g. when the accident risk, riding quality or comfort
is unacceptable for the road user).
This can be due to unacceptable rutting, skid resistance,
potholes, etc.
Functional failure is usually associated with the surfacing.
Failure of the surfacing may take the form of loss of surface
texture, loss of surface regularity or loss of impermeability.
In the assurance that such failure is not deep-seated, remedial
measures will consist of repairs to or replacement of the
surfacing only.
Such failures can often be prevented or greatly postponed by a
careful choice of surfacing materials.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Modes of Pavement Failure
Structural failure encompasses the failure of one or more of
the layers such that the pavement cant carry the applied load.
Its rather more difficult to diagnose & to remedy failure below
the surface.
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Cross-Sectional Layout of a Highway
The features to notice are:
Surfacing : Durable, skid resistance, impermeable
Roadbase : Strong, non-deformable
Subbase : Granular, free-draining, construction platform
Soil : The most important element; needs protecting to
avoid deformation
Typical Cross-Sectional of Highway
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Cross-Sectional Layout of a Highway
Drainage : Notice the crossfall, the gully at the edge, & the
sub-soil drain
Footways : Thin construction only; could be paving flags or
blocks
Services : Virtually every highway conceals a maze of
electricity ducts, telephone ducts, water mains, sewers, gas
pipes, etc
Furniture : Means lamp-posts, safety fences, post boxes, etc
Kerbs / Curbs : Provide a physical edge barrier
Introduction to Highway Engineering
Cross-Sectional Layout of a Highway
Other elements:
Embankments : Stable, little long term settlement
Cut slopes : Stable, suitably drained
Structures : Overbridges, underbridges, underpasses,
culverts, retaining walls
Gradients : Affect traffic flows, can cause construction
problems
Road markings : Need maintaining
Pedestrian crossing : Good anti-skid surface on approach
Junctions : Sight distances
Lay-bys
Bus stops : Often scene of damage
Manholes : A nuisance to users; cause damage to the road
Introduction to Highway Engineering
What is a Road Worth?
Benefits :
Easy movement of goods around the country
Healthy trade, boosts the economy
Consumer choice, lower prices
Convenience for the general public
Mobile workforce, can live some distance from work
Leisure opportunities increased
Introduction to Highway Engineering
What is a Road Worth?
Drawbacks :
Enormous changes to society
Increased danger to pedestrians, cyclists, children at
play, even motorists
Decreased social interaction
Severance of communities
Environmental problems
Pollution from vehicle exhausts causes ill health & is a
nuisance
Pollution also contributes significantly to the build up of
greenhouse gases
Noise from roads is a continuous part of life
The effect on wildlife is usually detrimental
Introduction to Highway Engineering
What are the alternatives ?
Rail : economic for goods at distances above 200 miles,
otherwise less convenient
Water : impractical in most of the UK except for the major
rivers
Air : a growth area but not an alternative for bulk transport or
short journeys
Or : give up those precious benefits
The End of Topic #1