Levels of Organization

Subatomic ParticlesAtomMoleculesOrganelleCell---
TissueOrgan--- Organ System--- OrganismPopulation
CommunityEcosystemBiosphere
Biomolecules- constitutes living cell (proteins, carbohydrates)
Organic vs. Inorganic- Organic has Carbon-Hydrogen
Cell- basic unit of life, Robert Hooke
Prokaryotic- no nucleus Eukaryotic- have nucleus
Cell types- somatic- body cells germ cell- sperm, egg
LIVING THINGS REPRODUCE
DNA omits oxygen vs RNA 1 codon- 3 nucleotides- 1 amino acid
DNA (replication)--- RNA (transcription)--- Protein (translation)

PARTS OF CELLS
Ribosomes- where RNA is translated into protein, makes
proteins, synthesizes proteins
Rough endoplasmic reticulum- w/ ribosomes, transportation
network for the cell, moves materials around the cell
Mitocondrion- main energy source of the cell. where energy
(ATP) is created, breaks down sugar molecules to release
energy
Cytoskeleton- gives support, shape to cell. made of proteins
moves organelles within the cell
Cell membrane- semi-permeable barrier, support, protection,
controls movement in, out of cell
Cytoplasm- medium for chemical reactions in the cell
supports, protects cell organelles
Nucleolus- produces ribosomes and rRNA
Chromatin
Nuclear pore- regulate the flow of material into, out of nucleus
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum w/o ribosomes
Golgi bodies packages the protetins made by the ribosomes
Nucleus- control center for all activity, DNA is kept, RNA is
transcribed
Lysosome- digestive system in the cell, breaks down molecules
into their base components

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion- breakdown of ingested food, absorption of nutrients
into the blood
Metabolism- production of cellular energy, constructive/
degradative cellular activities
2 main groups: Alimentary Canal/Gastrointestinal Tract
Accessory digestive organs
Alimentary Canal Organs: Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus,
Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine and Anus
Mouth Anatomy lips (labia) - protect the anterior opening
cheeks- form the lateral walls Hard palate-forms the
anterior/front roof soft palate- forms the posterior/back
roof uvula-fleshy projection of the soft palate
vestibule- space bet. lips externally and teeth, gums internally
Oral cavity- area contained by teeth Tongue- attached
at hyoid and styloid Tonsils- palatine (back of throat),
lingual (base of tongue)
Salivary Glands- parotid, submandibular, sublingual
Saliva/spit- contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
Components: water, mucus, salivary amylase, sodium
bicarbonate
Processes of the Mouth- mastication/chewing of food----
tongues mixes chewed up food with saliva (saliva contains
digestive enzymes, DIGESTION STARTS IN MOUTH)---- tongue
helps swallow the food---- tongue has papillae/bumps that
contain taste buds (allows sense of taste)
Pharynx Anatomy- Nasopharynx- posterior to nasal cavity
Oropharynx- posterior to oral cavity Laryngopharynx-
below the oropharynx and connected to esophagus
-THEY ARE NOT PART OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM!
Functions- serves as passageway for air and food food is
propelled to the esophagus by: longitudinal inner layer, circular
outer layer food movement by peristalsis- wavelike
contractions of the muscle layers
Esophagus- runs from pharynx to stomach through diaphragm
Propels food by peristalsis Passageway for food ONLY
Layers of AC organs- Mucosa- innermost layer (columnar
epithelium) Submucosa- thin layer of loose connective
tissue just beneath the columnar epithelium
Muscularis- smooth muscles layers Serosa- outermost layer

Stomach- left side of the abdominal cavity, hidden by liver,
diaphragm, food enters at the esophageal sphincter
Anatomy- cardia region, fundus, body, pylorus, food empties
into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter
Rugae- internal folds of the mucosa
Lesser omentum- attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
Greater omentum- attaches the greater curvature to the
posterior body wall
Functions- acts as a storage tank for food, site of food
breakdown, chemical breakdown of protein begins, delivers
chyme- processed food that looks like thick cream to the SI
Specialized cells- mucous neck cells gastric glands
chief cells parietal cells endocrine cells
Ulcer- sore, open painful wound. Peptic ulcers- ulcers that form
in the stomach or the upper part of the small intestine
Why? helicobacter pylori, overuse of non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (aspirin, ibuprofen), smoking, drinking
alcohol, uncontrolled stress
Symptoms- loss of appetite, stomach pains, nausea, frequent
burping, weight loss, vomiting, bloody, blackish bowel movement
Small Intestine- major site of nutrient absorption
extends from pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve
8-18 feet long 3 sections: duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Villi-fingerlike structure formed by mucosa
Microvilli- small projections of the plasma membrane
Peyers patches- collections of lymphatic tissue in ileum
Large Intestine- larger in diameter, shorter frames the internal
abdomen Cecum- saclike first part, appendix hangs
Colon- ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
Rectum Anus- external body opening
Functions: absorption of water, does not participate in digestion
goblet cells produce mucus act as lubricant, eliminates
indigestible food from the body (feces)
Accessory Organs-
Pancreas- produce digestive enzymes pancreatic
amylase- starch digestion trypsin- protein digestion lipases-
fat nucleases- nucleic acid
-produces hormones insulin glucagon
Insulin- secreted in response to high blood sugar
Diabetes Type 1- produce no insulin at all
Type 2- dont produce enough, or not working properly
Gestational- develop diabetes just during pregnancy
Glucagon- when blood glucose is low, cause liver to release
store glucose from its cells into the blood
Liver- largest GLAND in the body manufactures bile (breaks
fat into small globs for lipases)
Gall Bladder- small sac under liver, stores biles, gallstones

Physiology of DS- ingestion (food taken in), digestion
(breakdown of complex nutrients into simple nutrients) motility
(physically breaks down large chunks of food and moves food
along tract) secretion (chemical digestion)
2 types of digestion: Mechanical (churning, propelling food)
Mastication- chewing Deglutition- swallowing
Chemical- changes in chemical composition (result of hydrolysis
Saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, bile, intestinal juice
Defecation- act of expelling feces Constipation- extra water is
absorbed Diarrhea- decreased water absorption, electrolytes

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Dermatology- study of the structure, composition, functions skin
SKIN- largest organ, approx. 5 kg.
Functions- protects from injuries, barrier/regulates what
enters/leaves body, regulates body temp. synthesizes, sensory,
excretion, absorption
MAIN LAYERS- epidermis- outermost, thin, highly epithelial,
avascular dermis- true skin layer, thick, connective
/muscular/nervous, vascular hypodermis- subcutaneous
layers, relative, connective, vascular
Mucous Glands- secretes mucin Serous- secretes poisonous
alkaloids Photophores- light emitting
In land vertebrates- Mammary Glands- secretes milk Sweat-
sweat/perspiration Oil/Sebaceous- oil/sebum,
lubrication Uropygial (birds)- oil Ceruminous-cereumen
Zels- moist eyelashes Melbomian- eyelids
Types of Glands (Secretion)- Merocrine- release fluid
Holocrine- constitute secretion Aprocrine- develops scent,
stimulated when frightened, during pain, emotional upset
Eccrine- most common, secretion is mostly water w/ solutes
Epidermis- stratum corneum (outermost layer) lucidum,
granulosum (highly keratinized, dead cells, poor nutrient supply),
spinosum, basale (lowest layer) Melanocyte-melanin
Dermis- stratum papillarosum, reticularosum
Types of Hair-angora, definitive, lanugo
Nails- nail root, nail bed, lunula
Factors Skin Color- genetic info, amount of melanin
pigments, degree of oxygenation, hormones, exposure to
sunlight
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, associated ligaments, tendons, cartilages
Functions: Support, Protection, Movement, Reservoir for
minerals and adipose tissue, hematopoiesis (blood cell
formation) 206 bones 2 large groups: axial, appendicular
Axial- long axis, skull, vertebral column, rib cage, protection,
support carrying other body parts
Appendicular- limbs, locomotion, manipulation
Types of Bones- long, short, flat, irregular
Compose: bone tissue (osseous), fibrous connective tissue,
cartilage, vascular tissue, adipose tissue, nervous tissue
Compact bone- solid outer layer Spongy bone-trabeculae
Bone Cells: Osteoblasts- bone-building cells, calcification,
collagen fibers Osteocytes- mature bone cells, maintain tissu
Osteoclasts
Diaphysis- shaft Epiphyses- expanded ends
Diploe- internal spongy bone layer
Bone Marrow- soft tissue occupying the medullary cavity of a
long bone. 2 main types, red- blood cell forming tissue
(hematopoietic) yellow- Osteons/ haversian systems
Osteogenesis/ossification- process of bone tissue formation
Types of Fracture- open (compound)- bone ends penetrate the
skin closed/simple- bone end dont penetrate the skin
comminuted- bone fragments into 3 or more pieces greenstick-
bone breaks incompletely, bent, broken spiral- ragged break,
excessive twisting impacted
Wolffs law- bone will regrow in response to the forces placed
Clinical Conditions- Osteomalacia- soft bones,
inadequately mineralized Rickets- childrens form of latter
Osteomyelitis- bone marrow inflammation Osteoporosis-
bone resorption occurs faster than bone deposition
Gigantism- Acromegaly- overgrowth of bony areas
Pituitary dwarfism- growth hormone deficiency

EVOLUTION OF VERTEBRATE DIVERSITY
monotreme- egg-laying mammals
Ancestral chordate- brain, head, vertebral column, jaws,
lungs/derivatives, lobed fins, legs, amniotic egg, milk
Jaws- arose as modifications of skeletal supports of the anterior
pharyngeal gill slits Tetrapods- jawed vertebrates, limbs feet
Amphibians- first tetrapods able to move on land
Reptiles, birds, mammals are amniotes- amniotic egg, amnion,
private pond in which the embryo develops
Birds- two legged dinosaurs (theropods)
Mammals- endothermic amniotes- hair, mammary glands
Marupials- marsupium- pouch anthropoids- opposable thumbs
Homo Sapiens Homo habilis Homo ergaster Homo erectus
larger brains mark the evolution of HOMO
FOXP2 gene- linguistic ability

MITOSIS, MEIOSIS
Purpose Mitosis- cell division, products genetically identical,
growth of organism
Meiosis Function reduction division (23 chromosomes per
gamete reassortment of genes by: crossing over, independent
segregation of chromosomes