1

Protection to Transformer

Transformer, being the costliest equipment in any sub-station, should be
well protected. The transformer is to be protected from external fault (through
fault) and internal fault.

The best protection technique now and for more than 50 years for fault
with in the Power transformer is known as differential protection. The differential
relays are triple pole high speed biased designed to protect large three phase
power transformers against internal faults (Below 40 m sec). Biased differential
relay is extremely stable during through faults and provides high speed operation
on heavy internal fault. (Below 20 m sec). The relays utilize harmonic restraint to
prevent operation by magnetizing in-rush current during the transformer is
energized. In addition, the relays employ fifth harmonics restraint to avoid
possible malfunction under overexcited conditions.

The minimum operating time of Buchholz relay is about 100 millisecond
and an average time is 200 millisecond which is somewhat slow. On the
other hand, electrical relays (viz differential relays) can be used for heavy faults
where high speed (20 40 m sec.) is necessary.

Differential relay designs vary with different manufacturers and are
constantly changing, especially as microprocessor technology impacts this area.
However, protective relaying applications remain basically the same; relatively
independent of design and their trends.

In this booklet, the testing of individual differential relay, connecting in the
protective circuit and testing of the entire differential scheme are discussed. The
various connections that lead to malfunction, nonoperation, and sluggish
operation are also brought-out for the testing engineers reference.

I hope this booklet will be a supplement to the ones already brought out on
this subject.

2. TERMINOLOGY

2.1 Differential Relay :

A relay which, by its design, is intended to respond to differential current.

2

2.2 Biased (or Percentage) Differential Relay :

A differential relay in which the designed response is modified by a
restraint current.


2.3 Differential Current :

In a differential relay, a current which is the phasor difference between
specified incoming and outgoing currents.

2.4 Restraint Current :

In a differential relay, the combination of incoming and outgoing currents,
which restraints operation of the relay.

2.5 Restraint Percentage :

The ratio, expressed as a percentage, between the differential current and
the restraint current (s) up to which the relay does not operate.

2.6 Through Current :

In a differential relay, that portion of the total incoming current which is
also present in the outgoing current.



3. WORKING PRINCIPLE






3

Figure shows an explanatory diagram illustrating the principle of the
circulating current system. If the two current transformers have the same ratio,
and are properly connected, their secondary current will merely circulate between
the two C.Ts as shown by arrows and no current will flow through the differential
relay for external faults.


For the internal faults, the operating current through the differential relay
will be proportional to the vectorial difference between the currents entering and
leaving the protected circuit, and if the differential current exceeds the relays
pickup value, the relay will operate.

4. DIFFERENTIAL RELAY INPUT SOURCES:-

Input sources are

1) Auxiliary DC supply
2) C.Ts secondary currents

4.1. Auxiliary Supply


Check the relays rated auxiliary voltage on the front panel and connect a
suitable D.C. supply (or) station battery supply to relay terminal. The connection
should be correct and tight. Tightness is very important to avoid non-tripping due
to considerable voltage drop at this point of connection.


4
4.2. C.T. Secondary Currents

The C.T. secondary and relay have 1 Ampere rating as per the present
standard practice. The secondary currents in the pilot wire from the two groups
of current transformer may have the same magnitude. The pilot wires are
connected to relay as per schematic diagram showing internal connection.

Full Load Condition :




Differential Relay: Does not operate


Before we discuss the bias setting of the differential relay, the polarities
and interconnection of Transformer winding & C.T. secondary associated with
phase displacement are to be understood. This has already been discussed in
the booklet of PRACTICAL GUIDE TO DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTIVE SCHEME
TO POWER TRANSFORMER By Er. A.S. KANDASWAMY, M.E., Rtd., CE/
TRANSMISSION.

As per standardization the bushing C.Ts of the power transformers can be
used for differential protection without the need for any interposing auxiliary CTs.

Where C.T.s are not available in the power transformer bushings, external
C.T.s may be provided (with suitable auxiliary interposing CTs if required) for
differential protection.


DYn 11

5
4.3. Typical calculations of C.T. requirements for differential protection :

Transformer particulars
Rating - 10 MVA
Voltage Ratio - 110 KV / 11 KV
% impedance - 8.46
Vector Group - Dyn 11

110 KV Side

Bushing C.T. ratio - 60 /1 A
10 x 10
3

110 KIV rated current = ----------- = 52.5 A
110 x 3

C.T. secondary pilot 52.5
Current = -------- = 0.875 A
60

11 KV Side

If there is no bushing C.T. L.V. breaker C.T. ratio = 600 / 1A
can be used.
10 x 10
3

Rated current = ----------- = 525.5 A
11 x 3

525.5
CT Secondary Current = -------- = 0.875A
600

If connected in delta, the pilot current
in the relay circuit is = 0.875 x 3 = 1.516 A


Since the current is more than the rated current of the relay by 50%, ratio
matching (interposing) current transformers are required. When interposing
C.T.s are used, connect main C.Ts in star, interposing primary in star and
secondary in delta.

Ratio of interposing C.T.s Primary - 1A
Secondary - 1/3 (or) 0.577A

Actual Current on Secondary = 0.875/ 3 = 0.505 A

Pilot current in relay circuit = 0.505 x 3 = 0.875A


The Pilot current in relay circuits both on H.V. and L.V. sides are 0.875A


6


Differential Operation during External Fault (Phase to Ground):






























Differential Relay : Does not operate
120 A
2 A
2A
2 A
120 A
120 A
2 A

2 A
2 A
2 A

2 A
2 A
2 A
60/1
600/0.577A
2078 A

Current in Pr. Tr.

Current in CT
Secondary
Pr. Tr.
110/11kV
b
c

a
Differential Connection with ICT

DYn 11
ICT

7







During External Fault (Phase to Phase) :


























Differential Relay : Does not operate

2 A

2 A

2 A

120 A
2 A


2 A

2 A

2 A

2 A

60/1A
600/0.577A
2078 A

Current in Pr. Tr.

Current in CT Secondary
Pr. Tr. 110/11kV
10MVA
b
c

a
2078 A
2078 A
120 A
120 A
120 A
240 A
4 A


2 A


2 A


4 A


4 A


4 A


8









During Internal Fault (Phase to Ground) :

























Differential Relay : Operates


2 A

2 A

2 A

120 A
2 A

2 A

60/1A
600/0.577A

Current in Pr. Tr.

Current in CT Secondary
Pr. Tr. 110/11kV
10MVA
b
c

a
2078 A
120 A
120 A
120 A
2 A

2 A

2 A


9

During Internal Fault (Phase to Phase) :

























Differential Relay : Operates

2 A

2 A

2 A

120 A
2 A

2 A

60/1A
600/0.577A

Current in Pr. Tr.

Current in CT Secondary
Pr. Tr. 110/11kV
10MVA
b
c

a
2078 A
2078 A
120 A
120 A
120 A
240 A
4 A


4 A

2 A

2 A

2 A

4 A


10
4.4. C.T. Requirement:

Class PS C.T.s are used in differential protection and the C.Ts are
usually provided in the transformer bushing itself with the required ratio based on
the power transformer voltage and power rating. C.T.s associated with
differential relay should be of low reactance type as per IS 2705 Part IV. In
addition, C.T.s should develop knee point voltage as given below.

V
k
> 2 I
f
(R
CT
+ 2 R
L
) for star connected CTs

2 I
f

> ------- (R
CT
+ 3 R
L
) for Delta connected CTs
3
Where,
I
f
= Maximum through fault current referred to secondary
Winding of star connected C.T. with a 3 phase system
Fault.
R
CT
= Secondary winding resistance of C.T.
R
L
= One way lead resistance between C.T. terminals and
the relay terminals.
(or) V
k
= 40 I (R
CT
+ 2 R
L
)
I = Relay rated current

At the knee point, the C.T becomes saturated and the magnetizing current
is less than 0.03 x I at V
k
/ 4. The C.T. output being unsymmetrical in the
positive and negative half cycles generate second harmonic content. Unless
extremely large C.T. cores are used this problem cannot be overcome totally.
The relay will be sluggish during heavy internal faults with moderately sized
C.T.s.

Please refer manual on pre-commissioning and periodical testing of
electrical installation TNEB and the The practical guide to differential protective
scheme to power transformer by Er. A.S. Kandasamy M.E., Rtd., Chief Engineer
/ Transmission for testing of bushing CTs in detail.


5. PERCENTAGE (OR) BIASED DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS

In the differential protection for transformers, there will be two groups of
C.Ts each consisting of 3 Nos, one group connected in star with secondary rating
1 A and other group connected in delta with secondary rating 0.577A. The
transformer differential relay compares the currents in the windings of the
transformer through the medium of C.Ts whose ratios are such as to make their
secondary currents normally equal except for the core magnetizing currents of
the transformer which are relatively small. Even under normal operating
conditions, small unbalance current in milli amps (spill current) may appear.


11
At high through fault current, the unbalance between C.Ts secondary
increases with increase of through currents which is sufficient to actuate the
differential relay. Bias relay is used to overcome this problem for external faults.
The spill current required to operate the relay is usually expressed as a
percentage of the through currents in the restraining coils and the ratio is
generally termed as percentage slope.

The purpose of % slope characteristics is to prevent undesired relay operation
because of unbalance between C.T. s during external fault arising from an
accumulation of unbalances for the following reasons.

1) Tap changing in the power transformer
2) The difference between the errors of the C.Ts on either side of the
power transformer.
3) Possible mismatch of ratio among different current transformers.
4) Phase displacement between primary and secondary current.
5) The difference in the magnetizing characteristic of H.V. & L.V. Side
C.Ts

These unbalances are in the same direction to get the total maximum
unbalance. The slope of this line is approximately the total percentage
mismatch. Then add at least 5% to this value, and the new total is the minimum
percentage slope that should be used. The bias setting will be ensured to avoid
unwanted operation due to spill current at through fault and yet maintain high
sensitivity for internal fault.


12
6. RELAY TEST SETUP

6.1 Relay Test Setup:

a) 500 V megger - 1 No.
b) Supply extension box with RCCB - 1 No.
c) DPST Switch - 1 No.
d) Variable Voltage Transformer (Variac) - 1 No.
e) Rheostart (Non-inductive) 40, 5A - 2 Nos.
f) A.C Ammeter range (0 5A) - 1 No.
g) A.C Milli Ammeter range (0 1000) - 1 No.
h) Diode IN 4007 / 5 Amps - 1 No.
i) A.C. Ammeter range (0 20 A) - 1 No.
j) D.C. Ammeter range (0 1A) - 1 No.
k) Time interval meter (Digital) - 1 No.
l) Digital multimeter - 1 No.

6.2 Insulation Test:

Before testing of individual relays, the following items are to be measured
with a 500V megger.

a) IR values of D.C. Circuit to earth.
b) IR values of main current transformer secondary circuit to earth.
c) IR values of main current transformer secondary circuit to D.C. Circuit.
d) IR values between main current transformer secondary circuits.

The insulation resistance value has relation to the type of wiring and it is to
be considered for getting satisfactory results. However, the values of insulation
resistances are to be noted in pre - commissioning test report and measured
from time to time to check deterioration of insulation during operation.


7. TESTING OF THE BIASED DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

The individual relay may be tested for the following characteristics in
accordance with the manufactures testing manual.

Pickup test and operating time measurement test
Bias characteristic test
2nd Harmonic Restraint test
5
th
Harmonic Restraint test
High set test


13
7.1 Pickup test and operating time measurement test:

Circuit Diagram:

Ammeter Range - 0 to 500 mA HV - HV C.T. Current Input Terminal
RCCB Rating - In 16A, In 30 mA LV - LV C.T. Current Input Terminal
Spill Unbalanced Current Terminal

The Pick up Value indicates the minimum current in terms of percentage
of rated current of the relay at which the relay would operate.

Actual Relay Pick-up
(Amps) Phase
Relay
Pick-up
set at
HV LV




A Phase





B Phase





C Phase



Testing Procedure

Pickup Test:

1) Connect over current test set to any one H.V. C.T. input and operating
winding terminals.
2) Connect the 230V mains to over current test set.
Bias Coil s
Operating
Coil

14
3) Switch on Auxiliary Supply
4) Keep pick-up setting at minimum position (20%) if variable pickup is
available (or) fixed pickup setting.
E.g.: 15% for EE make
20% for ER make
5) Switch on over current test set and slowly increase current value till the
relay operates.
6) Note down current value, it must be equal to pickup setting (or) within the
manufacturers tolerance.
7) Switch off the over current test set
8) Reset the relay
9) Repeat procedure for other HV and LV C.T. inputs.
10) Repeat procedure for different pickup setting if available.

Operating Time Measurement Test:

1) Connect over current test set to any one HV C.T. input.
2) Connect trip contact to stop terminal of timer
3) Switch on Auxiliary Supply.
4) Keep pickup setting on minimum position
5) Switch on over current test set and adjust the current value as per
manufacturer recommendation ie. 2.0 x In or 3.0 x In.
where In - rated current.
6) Switch off the over current test set and reset timer.
7) Switch on the over current test and measure relay timing.
8) Timing must be less than or equal to manufacturer specification.


7.2 Bias Characteristic Test:

Circuit Diagram:









I
b
Ammeter Range - 0 to 4 Amps
I
d
Ammeter Range - 0 to 2 Amps

I
b
Bias Current (Circulate Around the Balancing Loop)
I
d
- Differential Current (Out of Balance Current flow through operating coil)

Operating
Coil
BiasCoil s

15
Testing Procedure

1) Connect test set up as shown in circuit diagram.
2) Switch on Auxiliary supply.
3) Keep bias set switch on required percent position.
4) Keep pickup setting at minimum position.
5) Adjust bias current I
b
= 1 Amp by adjusting the resistance R
b
.
6) Slowly increase the differential current Id by decreasing resistor R
d

until relay operate and note the value at which it operates.
7) Calculate bias by using formula (or) compare the I
d
current limits as
specified by the manufacturer.
8) It must be equal or with in the tolerance as specified by the
manufacturer.
9) Repeat procedure for other bias setting and all other phases.
10) After completion of testing, the bias current Vs differential current
curve may be plotted and recorded for future reference.


I
d

% BIAS = ----------------- x 100
I
b
+ (0.5 I
d
)


Setting Phase
Operating Current
Measured I
d

(Amps)
Calculated
% Bias
I
d
Limits
A
B
I
b
:
C
A
B
% Bias : 20%
I
b
:
C
A
B
I
b
:
C
A
B
% Bias : 30%
I
b
:
C
A
B
I
b
:
C
A
B
% Bias 40%
I
b
:
C



16
7.3 2
nd
Harmonic Restraint Test:

For conducting this test at site, the circuit with rectifier can be made use of
as shown circuit below. In this circuit, the relay is connected to receive both A.C
and half-wave rectified D.C. current. The percentage of second harmonics
current component generated in this circuitry is given in the formula.


0.212 I
2

= -------------------- x 100
0.45 I
1
+ 0.5 I
2

< 20%


Circuit Diagram:



A - A.C. Ammeter Range 0 5 Amps
D.C. Ammeter Range 0 1 Amps
D - Diode IN 4007 / 5 Amps.

Phase
I
DC
Set I
2

(Amps)
I
AC
measured
I
1
(Amps)
% Restraint
calculated
HV
A Phase
LV
HV
B Phase
LV
HV
C Phase
LV


Testing Procedure:

1) Connect test setup as shown in Circuit Diagram
2) Switch on Auxiliary Supply
3) Keep I
2
(D.C. Current through the test rectifier) 0.467 or 0.8 amps D.C.
constant for 1 Amp and 2.335 Amp for 5 Amps rated relay.
4) Observe, the relay should not operate.
Bias Coil s
Operating
Coil

1
2

17
5) Slowly increase the current I
1
(Ac current fed onto differential circuit) by
adjusting the resistor Rd until the relay operate. secord the value of
current I
1
.
6) Calculate Harmonic bias by using formula
7) It must be less than or equal to manufacturers specification.
8) Repeat procedure for all the three phase and both H.V. and L.V. inputs.


Calculate % restraint of 2
nd
harmonics by

Using formula, for I
2
= 0.467amps DC

0.212 x I
2

= ----------------- x 100 = 14 -18%
0.45 I
1
+ 0.5 I
2



Using formula, for I
2
= 0.8 amps DC

0.472 x I
2

= ----------------- x 100 < 20%
I
1
+ (1.11 I
2
)

7.4 5
th
Harmonic Restraint Test:

The protection will restrain when the 5
th
harmonic is more than about 38%
of the fundamental. In practice the 5
th
harmonic restraint can only be tested if a
fifth harmonic pure sinusoidal current source is available. This test is therefore
not included here. Normally all relays employ fifth harmonic restraint, in some
design the 5
th
harmonics is also filtered out and used for biasing against relay
operation, while certain other design employ the technique of by passing the
filtered out 5
th
harmonic from the operating circuit of the relay. In zero cross over
technique, it detects duration of gap at Zero crossing and gives signal to tripping
logic to avoid mal operation under over excited condition.

Power transformer with grain oriented steel cores usually has a high flux
density which is proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to
the frequency. Thus with slight excursion in voltage (upward) or frequency
(downward) the core is driven in to saturation resulting in a higher excitation
current which could be sufficient to cause relay mal-operation.
At 125% rated voltage, the excitation current is 10% of the rated current.
At 143% rated voltage, the excitation current is 100% of the rated current.

Over voltage would normally occur only when the load on the transformer
is suddenly thrown off, and when a transformer is connected to the bus at the
end of a long transmission line. Bench mark of harmonic content in the inrush

18
current may be measured by using power quality analyzer and recorded for
each power transformer for future reference.


7.5 High Set Test:

The differential relays are provided with a set instantaneous element for
high speed protection against internal faults in the transformers.

Circuit Diagram:

A - A.C. Ammeter Range 0 20 Amps


Actual Relay Pick-up
(Amps)
Phase
Relay
Pick-up
set at HV LV




A Phase





B Phase





C Phase

Testing Procedure

1) Connect test set up as shown in circuit diagram
2) Switch on Auxiliary Supply.
3) Keep High set at required position.
Bias Coil s
Operating
Coil

19
4) Switch on over current set and slowly increase current value till relay
operates.
5) Note down current value it must be equal to within +/- 10%
6) Repeat procedure for all the three phases any one input.


Operating time measurement test:

1) Switch on over current test set and adjust the current value to 2 times
of High set value.
2) Switch off the over current test set and reset timer.
3) Switch on the over current test set and measure relay timing.
4) Timing must be less than 20 milli seconds.


8. CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS AND THEIR TECHNICAL DATA

8.1 Classification of Relays :

Before we discuss the salient features of relays, what are the relays
available in board and their technical data are to be studied first.
Static relays were mostly used in TNEB. The advanced microprocessor based
static relays are also nowadays utilized.

The following make relays are available in board.

Hindustan brown boveri
Easun Reyrolle
Asea brown boveri
Ashida
English Electric
Duobias-M (ER-Make)

All the above relays are classified in the categories of static and
microprocessors based. Duobias-M relay is latest numerical version for
transformer protection suitable for 2 & 3 winding.

20
1
3 5 7 9
11 13
2
4 6 8
10 12 14
1
3 5 7 9 11 13
2
4 6 8 10 12 14
A
B
HINDUSTAN BROWN BOVERI





















EASUN REYROLLE












TESTI NG TERMINALS (For Single Element)

HV
A
: 9

LV
A
: 10

Spill A : 7

Loop

HV
B
: 9

LV
B
: 10

Spill B : 7

5 & 14
HV
C
: 9

LV
C
: 10

Spill C : 7

6 & 15


TESTI NG TERMINALS

HV
A
: A
1
LV
A
: A
4
Spill A : A
2
&

A
3
Aux DC Ter minal
HV
B
: A
5
LV
B
: A
8
Spill B : A
6
&

A
7
+Ve : B
7

HV
C
: A
9
LV
C
: A
12
Spill C : A
10
&A
11
- Ve : B
8


Relay Terminals (Back Side)
9
4C21
9
9
9 9 9
9 10
6 5
15 7 14
Relay Terminals (Back Side)

21
ASHIDA

















ENGLISH ELECTRIC









TESTI NG TERMINALS

HV
A
: 11

LV
A
: 14

Spill A : 12 Aux DC Terminal


HV
B
: 15

LV
B
: 18

Spill B : 16 +Ve : 19

HV
C
: 7

LV
C
: 10

Spill C : 8

-Ve

: 20


FOR HIGH SET

Short PCB Ter minal
5 & 6 of respective
phase boards
(ZG0395)
20 18 16 14 12
19
17 15 13 11
10 8 6 4 2
9
7 5 3 1
Relay Terminals (Back Side)

22
8.2 Comparison of Technical Data:

S.No Description EE HBB ER ABB Ashida Duobias-M
1. Current Rating 1 or 5A 1 or 5A
1,1.73,
5A
1 or 5 A
1 or 5
Amp.
1 or 5 Amp.
Bias Setting 15 45% 10 50% 20 -40% 20 - 50% 20 45%
10 70%
(in steps of
5%)
Pickup Setting 15 % Fixed 20 50%
20 %
Fixed
20 - 50% 20 -100%
10 50%
(in steps of
5%)
2.
High Set
Setting
10 In Fixed - Optional
8,13,20
In
2 20 In 4 to 25 In
3.
Operating
Time
45
m sec.
30 60
m sec.
50
m sec.
30
m sec.
< 35
m sec.
30 m sec.
4. Burden 0.39 VA 0.3 VA 1 VA 0.02 VA < 0.2 VA < 0.05VA
5.
Aux. supply
D.C.
30, 110
205 V
48, 110,
250 V
30 V
24 55 V
110-250V
18 40V
85 250V
24 to 135V
88 to 280V
6.
Over loading
capacity
2 In
continuously
40 In 3 sec
5 x In
Continuo
usly
80 x In
1 sec
-
10 x In
contino
usly

40 x In
normal
current
3 x In Conti
nuously
250 x In
1 sec
7. Insulation Test
2 KV
50 Hz for
1 min
2 KV
50 Hz
For
1 min
2 KV
50 Hz
For
1 min
2.5 KV
50 Hz
For
1 min
2.0 KV
50 Hz
For
1 min
2.0 KV
50 Hz
For
1 min
8.
Impulse
Voltage Test
5.0 KV / 1.2
/ 50 s
5 KV
1.2/50 s
-
5.0 KV
1.2/50s
5.0 KV
5.0 KV
1.2 / 50 s
9.
Temperature
Range
-
- 20C to
+ 60 c
-
- 25C to
+ 55C
-
-10
o
to
+ 55
o
C


10.
Operational
Indicator
Flag LED Flag LED LED LED
11.
High Set
Indication
Nil Nil Nil LED LED LED
12.
ICT
requirement
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Nil


23
8.3 Typical Block Diagrams and Connections:

English Electric
Ashida Relay



24
9. COMPARISION OF OLD AND NEW VERSION RELAYS

9.1 Principle and Operation of Old Make ER 4C21 Relay

Schematic Diagram

C.T. Secondary currents circulate through the primary winding of the bias
transformer, the rectified output of which is applied to the bias windings of the
transductor via the shunt resistor. Spill current (or) out-of-balance current flows
from the centre top of the primary winding of the bias transformer energizing the
tranductor input winding and the harmonic bias unit.


Normal Condition / Through Fault Condition

As long as the power transformer is healthy, the transductor bias-winding
is energized by full-wave rectified current which is proportional to the load (or)
through fault current, this bias current saturates the transductor. The small
amount of out-of-balance currents in the transductor input winding i.e., operating
m.m.f does not exceed the bias m.m.f., resulting change in working flux density is
small and consequently the output to the relay is negligible.

25
Internal Fault Condition

If there is an internal fault, the operating m.m.f. produced by the
secondary fault current in the transductor input winding exceeds the bias m.m.f.
resulting in a large change in working flux density. This produces a
correspondingly large voltage across the relay winding; the resultant current
operates the relay.

Magnetizing in-rush conditions

The harmonic bias unit is a simple tuned circuit which responds to the
second harmonic component of the magnetizing current. When magnetizing in-
rush current flows through the relay operating circuit, the rectified output of the
harmonic bias unit is injected into the transductor bias winding and restrains the
relay.


9.2 New Version A.B.B. Make RADSB Type

Principles and Operations

Schematic Diagram


The output voltage from biased transformer T1 is rectified and obtained
regulated Negative voltage U
t
after passing through non-linear circuit. The
transformer T2 has two secondary winding with suitable adapted load resistors.
One of the winding provides the voltage that initiates operation at internal fault.

26
The voltage passes through a low-pass filter and then rectified in an ideal
rectifier. Finally the positive voltage U
d
is obtained. Another winding provides
the voltage to restraint the operation at inrush. The voltage passes through two
band-pass filters tuned for 2
nd
and 5
th
harmonics and provides after an ideal
rectifier a negative voltage U
h
is obtained. The bias voltage U
t
, harmonics
Negative voltage U
h
and differential voltage U
d
are summed and supplied to level
detector. The resultant voltage U
s
is compared with reference voltage U
r
which is
selectable in front of Relay panel. The output voltage U
a
is constant amplitude
and the time is proportional to variation of voltage with reference voltage. The
voltage pulses U
a
are integrated (U
b
) and compared permanently set reference
value U
z
of the level detector. If U
b
exceeds U
z
, relay drive output trips relay.


Magnetising in-rush Condition: The harmonic voltage U
h
is opposite to the
voltage U
d
and prevents operation.

Internal Fault Condition: The voltage U
h
will be lower than voltage U
d
, the
differential relay will therefore operate.

Normal Condition : The voltage U
t
opposite to U
d
, the restraint the relay
operation small at small through currents and large at large through currents.


9.3 NUMERICAL VERSION RELAY :

Duo Bias M (ER Make):


Duo Bias - M is an integrated multi microprocessor relay capable of
providing all the transformer protection and alarm function for a 2 or 3 winding
power transformers. The protection function provided are current differential

27
protection with load bias and second harmonic bias, differential high set over
current and restricted earth fault for each transformer winding. For a transformer
differential protection it is necessary to correct the phase relationship and
magnitude of the C.T. secondary currents resulting from the arrangement of the
primary and secondary power transformer winding. Previously this was
accomplished using a complicated combination of interposing C.T. s and star /
delta arrangements to the current circuit. Duobias M eliminates this for almost
all application.

The relay includes internal vector group compensation and current
amplitude correction for each transformer winding. Duo Bias M includes a
powerful storage facility of HV and LV waveforms, indication and the status of
each d.c. plant input and each output relay. The LCD on the front of the relay
shows values for operate and restraint currents, and those following amplitude
and vector correction. This feature greatly simplifies commissioning and enables
the rapid verification of data.

The input I
1
represents the current on the HV side of the protected
transformer after any necessary phase shifts and amplitude modification has
been applied, and I
2
represents the equivalent current on the protected
transformer LV side. The Algorithm calculates the functions I
1
, I
2
and these two
signals are processed to form the operate and restraint signals respectively.
Both signals are digitally filtered to remove any unwanted DC and the filtered
signals are converted to RMS value calculated over the previous cycle before
comparison. Second harmonic quantities are calculated from the signal I
1
I
2
to
provide an inhibit signal to prevent the protection operating for magnetizing
inrush conditions. The high set protection operates when the RMS value of the
signal I
1
I
2
is greater than a Pre set value which can be varied. All settings on
the characteristic are under software control and characteristic has been made
flexible to cover the wide range of application encountered in transformer
protection.

Typical Connections Diagram :

28

9.4 COMPARISION OF OLD AND NEW RELAYS

S.No. Old Version New Version
1.
Static circuiting is employed
Microprocessors based circuiting is
employed.
2.
5
th
harmonic by pass circuit is
employed.
5
th
harmonic restraint circuit is
employed.
3.
Fixed pickup only Variable pick up is possible.
4.
Bias range is limited Wide bias range is possible.
5.
Only one trip indication for all
phases
Individual phase has separate
indication for trip.
6.
No separate indication for High Set
trip.
There is separate indication for
High Set.
7.
High set is fixed High set is selectable
8.
Limited Auxiliary supply range Wide range is available.
9.
Operating time is large Operating time is lesser
10.
Burden is high Burden is minimum
11.
Mechanical checking is necessary to
flag indicator and output armature
pickup relay for free from dust.
There is no need for mechanical
checking because of separate
enclosure for dust proof.
12.
No Data Storage Facility
Data Storage facility is available
for pre-fault and post fault
information.
13.
Self Monitoring Facility is not
available
Self Monitoring Facility is available
14.
ICT maybe required ICT is not required
15.
External auxiliary relays are required
for other protection like Buchholz, oil
and winding temperature etc.,
Auxiliary relays function is also
provided in a single unit of
Differential relay.



29
9.5 TYPICAL TEST RESULTS - I

Tamilnadu Electricity Board
Gobi Electricity Distribution Circle, Gobi
Sub Division: MRT
Date: 19-01-05
Name of the SS : Chennampatty 110/22KVSS
Relay Make : ABB
Type : RADSB
Art No. : IN7454 3344 CE
Serial No. : 807062
Current Rating : 1A
Voltage Rating : 110V

(I
sr
) Bias Setting Available : 0.2, 0.25, 0.35 & 0.5 I
n
Adopted: 0.35 I
n

(I
su
) High Set Available : 8, 13 & 20 I
n
Adopted: 13 I
n

Flag Operation : LED

Connections

Phase Injection Terminals RADSB Aux-supply terminal

A H.V. 3
L.V. 6
Spill 12
RXTUG2H
B H.V. 4 T.B. Terminal
L.V. 7 +ve 116
Spill 13 -ve 118

C H.V. 5
L.V. 8
Spill 14


IR Values:-

i) D.C. Circuit to Earth : 40 M ohm
ii) C.T. Circuit to Earth : 50 M ohm
iii) C.T. Circuit to D.C. Circuit : 40 M ohm
iv) Main C.T. to ICT Circuit : 70 M ohm

30
Pick Up Test


Actual Relay Pick-
up (Amps)
Phase
Relay
Pick-up
set I
sr
HV LV
Manufacturer
Limit
A Phase 0.35 0.33 0.33
B Phase 0.35 0.33 0.33
C Phase 0.35 0.33 0.33
+ 10% of set
Current


Bias Characteristic:


Setting Phase
Operating Current
Measured I
d

(Amps)
Manufacturer
I
d
Limits
(Amps)
A 0.78
B 0.75
I
b
: 1.5A
C 0.74
0.65 to 0.95A
A 1.78
B 1.78
I
sr
set at
0.35 In
I
b
: 3.0A
C 1.73
1.6 to 2.2A

2
nd
Harmonics Test :


0.472 I
2

% Restraint = ---------------------- x 100
I
1
+ 1.11 I
2


Keep I
2
= 0.8A DC Constant for 1 A relay

Phase
I
DC
Set I
2

(Amps)
I
AC
measured
I
1
(Amps)
% Restraint
calculated
Manufacturer
Limits of I
1

HV
0.8
1.52 15.6
A Phase
LV
0.8
1.59 15.2
HV
0.8
1.67 14.7
B Phase
LV
0.8
1.68 14.6
HV
0.8
1.69 14.6
C Phase
LV
0.8
1.68 14.6
14% to 18%
(1.2 to 1.8A)



31
High Set Test :

Actual Relay Pick-
up (Amps) Phase
Relay
Pick-up
set I
su

HV LV
Manuf acturer
Limits of set
current
A Phase 13A 12.7 12.7
B Phase 13A 12.3 12.3
C Phase 13A 12.6 12.6
+ 10%


Operating Time Measurement

Manufacturer Data :

3 I
sr
= approx 30 m sec.


I
sr
= 0.35A


3 I
sr
= 0.35 X 3 = 1.05 A

Operating time measured for 3I
sr
= 27 m sec.

High Set Operating Data : 2 I
su
= 10 to 20 m sec.
I
su
= 13 Amps
2 I
su
= 13x2 = 26 Amps

Operating time measured for 2 I
su
= 12 m sec.


BIAS SLOPE CURVE

















32
9.6 TYPICAL TEST RESULTS - II

Tamilnadu Electricity Board
Gobi Electricity Distribution Circle, Gobi
Sub Division: MRT
Date : 26.05.05
Name of the SS : Nambiyur 110 / 11 KVSS
Relay Make : EE
Type : DTH31
Art No. : DTH31FF8011A (m)
Serial No. : m432840
Current Rating : 1A
Voltage Rating : 30V
Pickup Setting Available : 15% Fixed
% Bias setting Available : 15, 30 and 45 Adopted : 30%
High set Available : 10 Amps Fixed Adopted : -
Flag Operation : Flag

Connections

Phase Injection Terminals DTH31 Aux-supply terminal

A H.V. 11
L.V. 14
Spill 12


B H.V. 15 T.B. Terminal
L.V. 18 +ve 19
Spill 16 -ve 20

C H.V. 7
L.V. 10
Spill 8


IR Values:-

i) D.C. Circuit to Earth : 30 M ohm
ii) C.T. Circuit to Earth : 40 M ohm
iii) C.T. Circuit to D.C. Circuit : 30 M ohm
iv) Main C.T. to ICT Circuit : -

33
Pick Up Test


Actual Relay Pick-
up (Amps) Phase
Relay
Pick-up
Fixed HV LV
Manufacturer
Limit
A Phase 0.15 0.15 0.15
B Phase 0.15 0.15 0.15
C Phase 0.15 0.17 0.17
12% to 18%
of rated
current


Bias Characteristic:
I
d

% Bias = --------------- x 100
I
b
+ (0.5 I
d
)


Setting Phase
Operating
Current
Measured I
d

(Amps)
Calculated %
Bias
Manufacturer
Limits
A 0.34 29%
B 0.34 29%
I
b
:
1.0A
C 0.36 30.5%
A 0.68 29%
B 0.68 29%
% Bias :
30%
I
b
:
2.0A
C 0.69 29.4%
+ 10% of
Bias Setting
(%)

2
nd
Harmonics Test:


0.212 I
2

% Restraint = ---------------------- x 100
0.45 I
1
+ 0.5 I
2


Keep I
2
= 0.467A DC Constant for 1 A relay

Phase
I
DC
Set I
2

(Amps)
I
AC
measured
I
1
(Amps)
% Restraint
calculated
Manufacturer
Limits
HV
0.467
0.99 14.5%
A Phase
LV
0.467
0.97 14.7%
HV
0.467
1.11 13.5%
B Phase
LV
0.467
1.11 13.5%
HV
0.467
1.07 13.8%
C Phase
LV
0.467
1.07 13.8%
12% to 20%


34
High Set Test :

Actual Relay Pick-
up (Amps) Phase
Relay
Pick-up
Fixed
HV LV
Manuf acturer
Limits of set
current
A Phase 10A 9.2 9.2
B Phase 10A 9.4 9.4
C Phase 10A 9.5 9.5
+ 10%


Operating Time Measurement

Manufacturer Data :

45 m sec at 2 times Setting Current
Set Current I
d
= 0.15 Amps

Operating time measured for 2 I
d
= 46 m sec.


Bias Slope Curve :





35
10. ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENTIAL PICKUP FEATURE

A series of tests have been done with the object of confirming that the
relay is capable of differentiating between the harmonic content of a magnetizing
surge and harmonics present in the output current of a heavily saturated C.T.
under internal fault conditions.

The relay is extremely stable during through faults and provides high
speed operation on internal faults.

In addition, fifth harmonic restraint to avoid mal operation under over-
excited condition.

While conducting the test, the following problems are associated with the
application of differential relay.

10.1 Pickup Test:

An object of confirming that, the relay required minimum current in
operating coil to cause operation.

a) What is the setting of bias at pickup test?

During the test, the current is passed through one half of the bias winding
and the operating winding.

The pickup value of operating coil is independent of the bias setting.
Therefore, keep the bias setting at the lowest value.

b) How to select pickup setting?

In old relays, the biased differential element has a fixed setting of the rated
current. It indicates the minimum current in terms of percentage of the rated
current of the relay at which it would operate.

In practice there will always be some differential current flowing due to
C.T. errors, ratio mismatch and tap changing. Therefore, the differential current is
required to be a certain percentage of the mean through current before the relay
will operate. To prevent the relay operating on the steady state magnetizing
current of the transformer, a fixed setting is incorporated of 15% (or) 20% of the
relay rated current. Initial pickup is continued with bias slope characteristic.

36



The following conditions should be considered in addition, while selecting
a proper pickup setting.

a) The interconnecting leads of the main CTs are of the same length
(or) different length on each side of the relay.
b) Interpose C.T.s are connected on one side of the differential relay.
c) The prior loading of the current transformer meant for the differential
relay is in series with breaker over current relays.
d) Whether main current transformers are of different rating, their over-
current factors and their accuracy class.

Conclusion:

Normal setting of pickup for Power Transformer

Differential relay
is 20% of rated current.

At any time, the pickup setting should not exceed 50% of rated current.


11. ANALYSIS OF BIAS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE

An object of confirming that the relay is capable of differentiating between
the faults is external or internal. The relay is extremely stable during through
fault and high speed operation on internal fault and yet maintains high sensitivity
for internal faults when the differential current may be relatively small.



Setting
Range
( 0.1-0.5 )

37
a) What is the setting of pickup at Bias characteristic test?

Selected pickup as per previous discussion may be adopted. If the relay
is tested for the first time, conduct bias slope characteristic with minimum pickup
and then conduct with selected pick up as per our requirement. The two slope
characteristics may be plotted and recorded for Bench Marking.

b) What is the effect of bias slope characteristic at higher pickup?

If higher pickup is adopted inadvertently, the bias slope characteristic of
the relay not followed set bias characteristic initially. The through fault current
exceeds the 200% of rated current then it followed set bias characteristic.


Test Example: 1

Name of the SS : Thalavaipettai 110/22KV SS
Relay Make : Ashida, 1 Amp, 110V
Type : ACDF31HA
S.No. : 2KBDF005
Date : 25-08-2005

Setting

I
b

Phase
Operating Current
Measured I
d

(Amps)
Calculated
% Bias
0.5 A 0.20 33.33
1.0 A 0.34 29.06
1.5 A 0.52 29.54
2.0 A 0.69 30.53
2.5 A 0.87 29.64
% Bias : 30%
Pickup : 20%
3.0 A 1.06 30.03
0.5 A 0.59 74.21
1.0 A 0.59 45.55
1.5 A 0.60 33.33
2.0 A 0.67 28.69
2.5 A 0.86 29.35
% Bias : 30%
Pickup : 60%
3.0 A 1.04 29.54





38

The fig. has shows that, the Relay operating bias characteristic if selected
higher pickup of 0.6 x In instead of 0.2 x In, it is clear that, the relay is sluggish at
low incipient fault because of non-operating region increases at low through fault.

c) What is the exact bias slope?

The differential current (I
d
) Vs through fault current (I
b
) gi ves the bias slope
characteristic. The relationship between % bias, differential current and the
through fault current is,

I
d

% Bias = ------------------------- x 100
I
b
+ (0.5 I
d
)

The operating current I
d
at various through fault current I
b
is given below.

Bias
Current
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
20% 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66
25% 0.14 0.29 0.43 0.57 0.71 0.86
30% 0.18 0.35 0.53 0.71 0.89 1.1
35% 0.21 0.42 0.64 0.85 1.06 1.27
40% 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5
45% 0.29 0.58 0.87 1.16 1.45 1.74

Id limit is + 10% Therefore % bias limit is + 2%

39
Bias Slop Curve:

d) What is difference between bias feature in terms of percentage and in
terms of rated current?

The bias feature provided in the differential relay in terms of % selection,
while certain other design employ % bias feature in terms of rated current
ie. 0.20 In, 0.25 In, 0.30 In etc.,

The relays EE, HBB and Ashida employ bias feature in terms of %
selection i.e. 20%, 30%, 40% .. Some design like ABB and MBCH
relays employ the technique bias feature in terms of rated current, which gives
bias slope various % slope at various through fault current.



40
Bias Slope Curve

For Example,

Test Example : 2

Name of the SS : Kolappalur 110/11KV SS
Relay Make : ABB, 1 Amp, 110V
Type : RADSB
S.No. : 407093
Date : 27-08-2005



Setting

I
b

Phase
Operating Current
Measured I
d

(Amps)
Calculated
% Bias
0.5 A 0.34 50.74
1.0 A 0.53 41.89
1.5 A 0.69 37.39
2.0 A 0.94 38.05
2.5 A 1.39 43.50
3.0 A 1.84 46.93
3.5 A 2.32 49.78
0.35 I
n

4.0 A 2.75 51.16

It is clear that, the various bias at various through current (I
b
). The % bias
is high at First and Last. The % bias is low at Middle as compared with other.

ie. 0.35 x I
n
gives 50% bias at First and last.
0.35 x I
n
gives 40% bias at middle.

Hence the Protection Engineer has to select particular bias feature for
particular power transformer carefully.

% Bias Vs I
b


41
4) How to decide the healthiness of relay if slightly beyond the limits of
test results?

If the test results are beyond the limit as per manufacture prescribed
settings and instruction, the relay may not be declared as defective immediately.
The Protection Engineer has to analyze what are the options available in the
relay for re-use effectively and to avoid procurement of new relay at a heavy cost
and revenue loss due to interruption.

Hence the following steps should be carried out and desired.

1) Conduct the bias test at various bias current.
Ie. I
b
= 0.5 ,1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5 and 4.0 Amps.

2) Bias curve plotted from the test reading.
3) The drawn curve is to be compared with the slope curve mentioned in
company manufacturer.

4) In case of major deviation during comparison, the particular relay should
not be allowed for commissioning.


5) If there is a small deviation from manufacturer bias slope, the deviation
region is to be considered as,

1
st
region, I
b
= 0 to 1 A, I
d
required to operate relay is 0.5 I
n
.
2
nd
region, I
b
= 1 to 2.5A, I
d
required to operate relay is 1 I
n
.
3
rd
region, I
b
= 2.5 A and above, I
d
required to operate relay is above 1.5

Permissible Limits
I
st
Region :

The relay is sensitive up to differential current 0.5 I
n
at 100% through fault
current. Hence, deviation may be allowed differential current up to 0.5 In.

2
nd
Region :

This region is very important due to presence of incipient fault. The
deviation in that region may be allowed + 2% only.

3
rd
Region :

The through fault stability is desired in that region at 250% and above
through fault current. The slope of bias may be deviated up to 80% is
permissible.
(or)


If you select either lower (or) higher bias settings to achieve the required
bias slope for particular power transformer.

42
12. ANALYSIS OF 2
ND
HARMONICS RESTRAINT FEATURES :

Test has been made to verify that the relay will remain inoperative under
magnetizing in rush current up to 30 times the C.T. rating when the transformer
is energized. In addition, confirming that the relay is capable of differentiating
between the inrush current and fault currents.

1) What is inrush? How will affect the differential relay?

During power transformer charging, an instantaneous change in flux
linkage in a power transformer will cause abnormally large magnetizing
(2
nd
harmonics) current to flow and has no counterpart on the secondary winding
side. Consequently there is a spill current in the differential circuit which can
cause the differential relay to mal operate.

2) What is the purpose of diode in the 2
nd
harmonics restraint test circuit?

The second harmonic restraint is effective to block the relay operation
when the second harmonic current content of the differential current exceeds
about 20% of the fundamental. For testing this circuit at site, whenever
arrangements to generate second harmonic current is not available, an alternate
circuit with test rectifier can be made use of in this circuit the relay is connected
to receive both AC and half-wave rectified D.C. current.





43
The percentage of second harmonic current component generated in this
circuitry is given in the formula.

0.2 1 2 I
2
------------------------------ x 100 < 20%
0.45 I
1
+ 0.5 I
2

I
1
= A.C. Current I
2
= D.C. Current at constant value of 0.467 A

Another method to derive the % 2
nd
harmonics restraint particularly ABB
relay recommends the following setting and the formula is given below.

Set I
2
D.C. Current at constant value of 0.8A
Therefore, 2
nd
Harmonic restraint calculated from the formula,

0.472 x I
2

------------------ x 100 = 14 to 18%
I
1
+ (1.11 x I
2
)


The comparison of I
2
settings (0.467 and 0.8A) :

Test Example : 3

Name of the SS : Kolappalur 110/11KV SS
Relay Make : ABB, 1 Amp, 110V
Type : RADSB
S.No. : 407093
Date : 27-08-2005

Setting

I
2
Phase
Operating Current
Measured I
1

(Amps)
Calculated
% Restraint
0.8 A 1.53 15.61
0.8 B 1.54 15.55
I
sr
Setting
0.35 I
n
%

0.8 C 1.59 15.23
0.467 A 1.0 14.48
0.467 B 1.0 14.48
I
sr
Setting
0.35 I
n
%

0.467 C 0.98 14.47

The variation of the percentage restraint of the above two DC constants
are very small for the same relay at the same settings.

3) What is the Bias setting at harmonic restraint test?

The harmonic restraint values are independent of bias and pickup setting.
Hence the bias and pickup settings are kept at selected rating.

44
Test Example:
Name of the SS : Thalavaipettai 110/22KV SS
Relay Make : Ashida, 1 Amp, 110V
Type : ACDF31HA
S.No. : 2KBDF005
Date : 25-08-2005


Bias
Setting
Pickup
Setting

I
2

Phase
Operating Current
Measured I
1

(Amps)
Calculated
% Restraint
20% 20% 0.467 A 0.49 21.8
45% 20% 0.467 A 0.49 21.8
20% 60% 0.467 A 0.5 21.59
45% 60% 0.467 A 0.5 21.59


4) How to decide the healthiness of relay, if the 2
nd
harmonics % restraint
exceeds slightly more than 20%?

Before we decide the healthiness of relay, we should understand the
inrush phenomena when the transformer is energized.

If the transformer is re-energized at the instant the voltage wave form
corresponds to the residual magnetic density within the core, there would be a
smooth density within the core, there would be smooth continuation of the
previous operation with no magnetic transient.


1


45
In practice, however, the instant when switching takes place in rush current
cannot be controlled and a magnetizing transient is practically unavoidable. If
however, it is assumed that the circuit is re-energized at the instant when the flux
would normally be at its negative maximum value (- max) the residual flux
would have a positive value. Since magnetic flux can neither be created nor
destroyed instantly, the flux wave, will start with the residual (
R
) and trace the
curve (
1
).


Since power transformers operate near the knee of the saturation curve, a flux
demand of 2
m
drives the transformer core deep into saturation, causing it to
draw a very large magnetizing current with a peaky non-sinusoidal waveform.
Such non-sinusoidal or distorted waveform is known as harmonics. The
magnetizing current is, therefore, very high, of the order of 8 to 30 times the full-
lode current. This current is known as inrush current. The inrush current
decays rapidly for the first few cycles and then very slowly. Sometimes they take
4 to 6 seconds to subside.

The inrush wave form is predominantly 2
nd
Harmonic content, whereas,
the internal fault current consists of only of the fundamental. Thus, we can
develop additional restraint based on harmonic content of the inrush current.

46
The Percentage second harmonic restraint value should be less than
20%. Even if the Percentage restraint exceeds slightly more than 20%, the relay
is considered to be healthy if the differential relay does not actuate for inrush
current for ten operations of power transformer without load.


In recent years improvements in core steel and design has resulted in less
inrush current harmonics with possibilities of the second harmonics being as low
as 7%. Now a days power quality analyzer instruments are available to study
actual harmonic present in the current wave while transformer energized without
load. Record the values for benchmark with future comparison.


5) What is the working principle of zero crossing detection method
and how it will effectively utilize 2
nd
harmonic & 5
th
harmonic restraint in
new differential relays?

This method, does not involve harmonic filter circuit and their associated
delay. A different approach, working on the direction of zero crossing in the
current wave form, was therefore evolved to distinguish between genuine fault
conditions and conditions of inrush and over fluxing.

An examination of the wave form reveals there is a substantial period of
the half cycle when the current remains zero (or) near zero, unlike in a fault
current wave form passes through zero current quickly. It can be seen that the
gap detecting method as shown can distinguish between fault condition and
other by looking at the duration of the gap produced. This basically comprises
two timers. Their operation in conjunction with the differential comparator (the
heart of the relay).








In simple terms, the arrangement is such that timer 2 is set to trip after a
certain time while timer 1 is set to inhibit timer 2 after its operating time, unless
it itself is prevented from doing so by the comparator. The latter does not inhibit
timer 1 unless the current magnitude is above the set threshold. The threshold
level is varied by the current setting on the front of the relay.
Differential
Comparator

Timer 1

Timer 2
Trip
Bias
Diff erential
Threshold
Inhibit
Inhibit

47



48
Circuit Diagram

D=Diode (IN4007 / 5 Amps)


Relay Operation
Phases S1
S2 Closed S2 Open
HV Closed
A Phase
LV Closed
HV Closed
B Phase
LV Closed
HV Closed
C Phase
LV Closed


Testing Procedure:

1) Connect test setup as shown in circuit diagram.
2) Switch on Auxiliary supply.
3) Close Switch S
1
and S
2
and set the current equal to rated current of relay,
check that the relay operates.
4) Open Switch S
2
, Close Switch S
1
and check that relay does not operate.


In this test, % 2
nd
harmonics restraint could not be measured. The
manufacturer has recommended energizing transformer 10 times without load
and checking that the relay does not mal - operating. If the % 2
nd
harmonics
restraint value is required, the routine 2
nd
harmonic bias test will be conducted
and record the % value for future comparison.



49
13. ANALYSIS OF HIGH SET FEATURE

The differential relays are provided with a set instantaneous element for
high speed protection against internal faults in the transformers. Such fault
involves very high fault currents and this causes the C.Ts to go into partial
saturation and the resulting harmonics slow down relay operation. To take care
of such a contingency, the differential relay is provided with an unrestrained high
set element. A setting of at least ten times rated current is usual to prevent
operation of this element during transformer inrush.

High set is determined by the magnitude of the inrush current to the power
transformer and thus affected by the rating and the connection of the power
transformer. High set should be set as low as possible but not less than the
maximum 3 phases through current and not less than maximum magnetizing
current. If the power transformer connection is Dy and the rating between 10 to
100 MVA, the recommend high set value is around 13 I
n
. If below 10 MVA, the
high set value will be around 20 I
n
. The operating time of high set will be always
less than 20 milli seconds. When the differential relay is also to provide bus
protection, the setting (20 I
n
) should be chosen to ensure stability for through bus
bar faults. To ensure still better through fault stability this element has also an
auto ranging setting feature whereby it is caused to increase in the through
current. Hence optimum performance is ensured at all times.

50
Under heavy internal fault condition, inadequate rated C.Ts can go into
partial saturation due to short circuit current is offset. Unless extremely large
C.T. cores are used the problem of second harmonic content in C.T. output being
unsymmetrical cannot be overcome totally. The relay to be sluggish during
heavy internal faults with moderately sized C.Ts. C.T. requirement has been
made possible to improve stability.

14. CHECKING THE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTIVE SCHEME AS WHOLE

14.1 Relay Installation :

The relay suitable for indoor mounting and should be installed in a place
free from damp, jerk, dust, corrosive vapors and the like. Ensure that the earth
connection to a local earth bar.

Check that the auxiliary power supply rating and connections are in order.
It is very important to avoid non-tripping of differential relay due to auxiliary
supply considerable voltage dip during operation.

All the relay fi xing and terminals connections must be tight.


14.2 Wiring check :

Check whether terminal number indicated in the schematic diagram and
connections to the relay are as per the wiring diagram. The power circuit ratings
and the trip circuit connections are also to be carefully checked. The
connections should make good contacts and connecting lead sizes should be
sufficient to keep circuit impedance as low as possible.


Cable Size and Requirement

C.T. Circuit 4 sq. mm copper cable, armoured

D.C. Circuit 4 sq. mm copper cable, armoured

To ensure that the above minimum standard is adopted with out fail, the
cables laid by the G.C.C. wing at erecting stage itself may be checked and
proper standards ensured instead of leaving it to the stage of commissioning. It
must also be checked and ensured that the cable armour is given earth
connectivity at one end only, to avoid electromagnetic interference and owing to
flow of large ground fault current due to parallel with the ground mat.

The drop in the D.C. control and protection circuits, particularly the trip
circuit must be well with in 5% of rated D.C. Voltage. The total loop burdens of
C.T. cable are to be preferably around 1 ohm ref. 9 (a).

51
Voltage drop e = 2 x R x I

(or)

e = 2 x L x I / (K x q)

Where,

e = Voltage drop in volts
R = Resistance in ohm (Lead One Way)
I = Line current in Amps
L = Length in meter (Lead One Way)
q = Conductor cross section in sq.mm.
K = Conductivity (for Cu = 56, Al = 35)

14.3 Secondary Current Injection:

Open intentionally two pilot wire terminals at the C.Ts secondary terminals
and inject current just above the pickup value and ensure D relay picks up and
tripping command is sent from the D relay to the master relay. This can be
done on either sides H.V. as well as L.V. and on all three phases. After the
above test, ensure that all the pilot wires are properly connected to the terminals
with adequate tightness, and test the connections by primary current injection.
Do not open circuit the secondary circuit of a current transformer under load
conditions since the high voltage produced may be lethal and could damage
insulation.


14.4 Testing the Protective Scheme by Injecting Three Phase Primary
Current:


This method is mainly applied to check the differential protections to
ensure that the current transformer connections have been made according to
the vector group. Possible errors on the diagram or in the actual secondary
wiring are,

a) C.T. s starred on wrong side.
b) Wrong delta connection used on C.T.
c) Pilots between C.T.s crossed over.
d) C.T. polarities are interchanged.

52

Figure shows the test circuit set up for checking a differential protection
scheme of a power transformer. The transformer is solidly shorted on the low
voltage side by means of a set of temporary test short circuit conductors and
three phase supply from 400V test main is applied to high voltage winding.

The through currents measured at relay terminals both H.V. and L.V. side
will be in milli amps. The operating current measured should be negligible if the
relay is connected correctly to the current transformers and if the C.T. polarities
are correct.


14.5. The possibilities of secondary wrong connections :

The possibilities of secondary wrong connections of power
transformer bushing C.Ts and the corresponding spill currents at
differential relay end were taken at

THALAVAIPETTAI 110/22 KV Sub-Station
Power transformer ANDREW YULE make 10 MVA
Tested date : 10-06-2004

53
1. Correct Connection:



















2. Wrong Connection:

B and C phase pilot wire transposed on H.V. Side










Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.6 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.2 ma (I)
HVc : 42.7 ma (I)
LVa

:

42.3 ma (I)
LVb

:

41.8 ma (I)
LVc : 41.7 ma (I)
Spill A : 0.3 ma
Spill B : 0.3 ma
Spill C : 0.5 ma
HVN : 0.1 ma

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.8 ma (I)
HV
B
: 41.9 ma (I)
HVc : 43.0 ma (I)
LVa
:
42.5 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.9 ma (I)
LVc : 41.8 ma (I)
Spill A : 0.3 ma
Spill B : 72.7 ma ( 3I)
Spill C : 70.4 ma ( 3I)
HVN : 0.1 ma


54
3. Wrong Connection:
C phase C.T. reversed on H.V. Side




















4. Wrong Connection :

B & C Phase C.T. Reversed on H.V. Side














Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.8 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.3 ma (I)
HVc : 42.6 ma (I)
LVa
:
42.6 ma (I)
LVb
:
42.6 ma (I)
LVc : 42.0 ma (I)
Spill A : 0.4 ma
Spill B : 0.6 ma
Spill C : 84.1 ma (2I)
HVN : 84.7 ma (2I)

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.7 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.3 ma (I)
HVc : 42.3 ma (I)
LVa
:
42.5 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.9 ma (I)
LVc : 41.5 ma (I)
Spill A : 0.5 ma
Spill B : 84.5 ma (2I)
Spill C : 83.4 ma (2I)
HVN : 85.5 ma (2I)


55
5. Wrong Connection:
S
1
Star on H.V. Side


















6. Wrong Connection:
B & C Phase transposed and A Phase C.T. Reversed on H.V. Side


Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.3 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.0 ma (I)
HVc : 42.0 ma (I)
LVa
:
42.6 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.5 ma (I)
LVc : 41.6 ma (I)
Spill A : 84.4 ma (2I)
Spill B : 84.0 ma (2I)
Spill C : 83.4 ma (2I)
HVN : 0.6 ma

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.3 ma (I)
HV
B
: 39.3 ma (I)
HVc : 43.0 ma (I)
LVa
:
42.0 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.5 ma (I)
LVc : 41.7 ma (I)
Spill A : 84.2 ma (2I)
Spill B : 72.5 ma ( 3I)
Spill C : 72.4 ma ( 3I)
HVN : 84.5 ma (2I)


56
7. Wrong Connection:
S
1
- out on LV Side




















8. Wrong Connection:
Reverse Delta, S
2
- out on LV Side








Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 43.0 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.5 ma (I)
HVc : 42.9 ma (I)
LVa
:
41.6 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.3 ma (I)
LVc : 42.6 ma (I)
Spill A : 72.6 ma ( 3I)
Spill B : 72.6 ma ( 3I)
Spill C : 73.0 ma ( 3I)
HVN : 0.4 ma

Current measured at the
Differential Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.1 ma (I)
HV
B
: 41.8 ma (I)
HVc : 42.8 ma (I)
LVa
:
42.0 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.8 ma (I)
LVc : 43.2 ma (I)
Spill A : 40.8 ma (I)
Spill B : 42.5 ma (I)
Spill C : 41.6 ma (I)
HVN : 0.4 ma


57
9. Wrong Connection:
Reverse Delta, S
1
- out on LV Side



















10. Wrong Connection:
a & c Phase

Pilot Wire transposed on LV Side





Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.5 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.9 ma (I)
HVc : 42.6 ma (I)
LVa
:
42.2 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.6 ma (I)
LVc : 41.6 ma (I)
Spill A : 83.8 ma (2I)
Spill B : 84.6 ma (2I)
Spill C : 83.6 ma (2I)
HVN : 0.5 ma

Current measured at the
Differential Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.0 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.3 ma (I)
HVc : 42.8 ma (I)
LVa
:
41.2 ma (I)
LVb
:
41.7 ma (I)
LVc : 42.4 ma (I)
Spill A : 71.3 ma ( 3I)
Spill B : 0.6 ma
Spill C : 72.5 ma ( 3I)
HVN : 0.4 ma


58
11. Wrong Connection:
c Phase CT Reversed on LV Side




















12. Wrong Connection:
b &c phase CT reversed on LV Side

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 41.5 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.4 ma (I)
HVc : 42.3 ma (I)
LVa
:
23.8 ma (I/ 3)
LVb
:
41.5 ma (I)
LVc : 24.0 ma (I/ 3)
Spill A : 47.7 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill B : 0.4 ma
Spill C : 48.0 ma (2I/ 3)
HVN : 0.2 ma

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.0 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.3 ma (I)
HVc : 42.4 ma (I)
LVa
:
24.0 ma (I/ 3)
LVb
:
23.7 ma (I/ 3)
LVc : 41.5 ma (I)
Spill A : 47.7 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill B : 47.8 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill C : 83.2 ma (2I)
HVN : 0.7 ma


59
13. Wrong Connection:
a & c phase Pilot Wire Transposed and c phase CT reversed on LV Side





















14. Wrong Connection:
a & c phase Pilot wire Transposed and b & c phase CT reversed on LV side


Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.2 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.4 ma (I)
HVc : 42.6 ma (I)
LVa
:
24.6 ma (I/ 3)
LVb
:
41.9 ma (I)
LVc : 24.2 ma (I/ 3)
Spill A : 23.7 ma (I/ 3)
Spill B : 0.5 ma
Spill C : 23.8 ma (I/ 3)
HVN : 0.1 ma

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.9 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.9 ma (I)
HVc : 42.7 ma (I)
LVa
:
41.3 ma (I)
LVb
:
23.7 ma (I/ 3)
LVc : 24.1 ma (I/ 3)
Spill A : 40.5 ma (I)
Spill B : 47.9 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill C : 24.0 ma (I/ 3I)
HVN : 0.2 ma
LV

60
15. Wrong Connection:
C phase CT reversed on HV Side and a phase CT reversed on LV side




















16. Wrong Connection:
C phase CT reversed on HV side, a & b phase CT reversed on LV side



Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.1 ma (I)
HV
B
: 41.7 ma (I)
HVc : 42.4 ma (I)
LVa
:
23.4 ma (I/ 3)
LVb
:
23.9 ma (I/ 3)
LVc : 41.6 ma (I)
Spill A : 47.7 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill B : 48.8 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill C : 83.2 ma (2I)
HVN : 85.2 ma (2I)

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.4 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.8 ma (I)
HVc : 42.6 ma (I)
LVa
:
23.5 ma (I/ 3)
LVb
:
41.3 ma (I)
LVc : 24.2 ma (I/ 3)
Spill A : 47.9 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill B : 84.0 ma (2I)
Spill C : 48.3 ma (2I/ 3)
HVN : 84.6 ma (2I)


61
17. Wrong Connection
B & C phase CT reversed on HV side and a phase CT reversed on LV side





















18. Wrong Connection
A & B phase CT reversed on HV side and b & c phase CT reversed on LV side

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.3 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.1 ma (I)
HVc : 42.7 ma (I)
LVa
:
23.6 ma (I/ 3)
LVb
:
23.8 ma (I/ 3)
LVc : 41.7 ma (I)
Spill A : 47.7 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill B : 48.3 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill C : 84.4 ma (2I)
HVN : 86.9 ma (2I)

Current measured at the Di fferential
Relay Terminals:-

HV
A
: 42.7 ma (I)
HV
B
: 42.4 ma (I)
HVc : 42.6 ma (I)
LVa
:
23.7 ma (I/ 3)
LVb
:
24.1 ma (I/ 3)
LVc : 41.5 ma (I)
Spill A : 48.1 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill B : 48.8 ma (2I/ 3)
Spill C : 83.6 ma (2I)
HVN : 84.8 ma (2I)


62
CONCLUSION:

H.V. Side C.T. reverse reflects in common neutral (H.V.N) and Spill.
H.V. Side Pilot transposed reflects in spill.
L.V. Pilot transposed reflects in spill.
L.V. Side Pilot taping at positive junction (S
1
out) reflects in spill.
L.V. Side C.T. DELTA B connection (reverse delta) reflects in spill.
L.V. Side C.T. reverse reflects in spill and L.V. pilots.
H.V. and L.V. side C.T. reverse reflects in common neutral (H.V.N), L.V.
Pilots and spill.

NOTE: Any transposition in pilot wires of HV & LV side of differential relays is
found out by injecting current at C.T. terminals of power transformer.

14.6. Tripping and Inter Tripping Tests :

Connect the auxiliary supplies to relay. Operate relay by hand (test
provision) and see that circuit breakers operate only when the appropriate links
are inserted and that the indicators operate correctly.

14.7. Before Putting In To Service :

a) See that trip supply is connected.
b) See that all relays are reset.
c) Restore alarm link and trip link normal position.

14.8. Magnetising Surge Tests :

Perform ten switching operations of the power transformer with out load,
the relay should not operate.

14.9. Tests When Power Transformer Is Energized and In Load Service :

a) Current measurement should be made at relay terminals with the help of
digital clip on millimeter of suitable range.
b) This spill current when expressed as a percentage of the load current
used in the test, indicates the minimum amount of bias necessary on the
relay to maintain stability on through faults. It is advisable to measure the
spill current through the relay operating coil during load test with tap
changer set on its maximum and minimum tap.

The transient condition cause unequal C.T. saturation and spill which can
play with the differential relay stability. C.T. requirement has been made possible
to improve stability.


63
Under through fault conditions, the protection is stable with fault current
equivalent to 25 times rated current with up to 30% mismatch of the line current
transformer and the content of the third harmonics can be up to approximately
60% of the fundamental.

Max. Through fault current beyond whi ch scheme (mal) operates
Stabili ty rati o = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Min. Internal fault current required for tri pping


The higher the stability ratio, the better is the ability of the system to
discriminate between external and internal faults. Ensure whether the adopted %
bias setting is adequate. (This can be ensured during through fault condition, if
necessary raise the % bias).

14.10. Maintenance :

The following test should be performed yearly and recorded.
a) General check of connections
b) Relay calibration
c) IR value measurement
d) Tests using load current

14.11. Relay requirement :

The biased (%) differential relay meet requirement as per IEC 255-13.


15. TROUBLE SHOOTING AND REMEDIES

It is not very uncommon to have certain unexplainable operation of relays
in spite of very careful selection of relay settings. In many such cases definite
faults were found to exist outside the sphere normally scrutinized by the
protection engineer. It is therefore, necessary that engineer should proceed with
an open mind to investigate such apparent mal operations. The following
occurrence is an example.

15.1 Bushing C.T. terminal loose connection :

At one sub station, the transformer was tripped by differential relay. The
test on transformer and relay were found normal. Repeated tests on transformer
and relays were in vain. Finally the wiring and connections were checked from
relay to power transformer and found that bushing C.T. terminal connection was
loose. After tightness, the power transformer was put back into service and
found normal.


64
In another sub station, the differential relay was commissioned after
enhancement of power transformer from 10 MVA to 16 MVA. During
commissioning, the Differential relay B Phase on HV side did not pickup while
secondary injections to confirm the pilot wire co-ordination. After through
examination, it was confirmed that there was a loose contact at relay panel T.B.
After tightening the terminal, the relay was found correct.

15.2. 110 KV Line Fault:

At one sub station, the transformer was tripped by differential relay. The
test on transformer and relays were found also normal. The tripping time was
analyzed and found that there was 110 KV line fault and it tripped at sending
end. The new differential relays were capable of sensing 110 KV line fault up to
some extent. The single line earth fault causes the current flow to earth in
healthy phases through transformer winding when the fault is near to sub-station.

15.3. 110 KV LAS failure:

The single line to earth fault at 110 KV LAS failure create spill current in
differential more due to current flow to earth through healthy phases of
transformer winding. The relays operate for external fault at some occasions.

15.4. Poor earthing of Power Transformer Neutral :

The power transformer neutral and EHV LAS individual earth pit
resistance should be minimum otherwise the fault current flow through shortest
path of earth mat reaches transformer neutral. During large fault current flow in
the earth mat, the differential relay either damage or cause mal-operation due to
raise in touch potential.

15.5. Poor earthing of Relay Chassis:

The static relay will misbehave if its chassis is not earthed properly. The
relay uses components which could be affected by electro static discharges.
When handling the withdrawn module care should be taken to avoid contact with
components and connections. When removed from the case for storage or
testing, the module should be placed in an electrically conducting anti-static bag.

15.6. Grounding of secondary of differential connected C.Ts :

The neutral of C.Ts secondary especially in differential relay circuit must
be grounded at only one location, preferably at the relay panel. This philosophy
of grounding the C.T. Secondary neutral at a single point applies to all types of
protections that may involve a single set of C.Ts or different circuits as in
differential protection. However, where there is galvanic separation between the

65
C.Ts and relay as when ICTs are introduced the circuit connection to the primary
and secondary sides of the ICTs will be considered as different domains for
grounding the neutral circuit. The intent is to emphasize that all neutral circuits in
the protection have an earth reference but one and only a single earth reference.

The reason why the ground should be made at only one point is to avoid
improper relay operation and cause damage to the C.T. interconnections. If
grounds are made at two or more locations circulating current may be caused to
flow in the differential circuit because of difference of potential between the
grounding points owing to the flow of large ground fault current.

A ground in the yard and another in the switch house put the secondary
wiring in parallel with the ground mat so that part of the heavy fault current can
flow in the secondary winding directly to either damage or cause mal-operation.
Only one ground in the circuit is sufficient to minimize any electrostatic potential
ref. 9 (b).

15.7. Effect of Ambient Temperature:

The relay is suitable for indoor mounting and should be installed in a place
free from damp, dust, corrosive vapors and the like. There must also be a free
circulation of air around the relay. The operation of relay may be nuisance if
ambient temperature limits is exceeded.


-----------------