Social Intelligence of Undergraduate Students

IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME)
Volume 1, Issue 1 (Jan. Feb. 2013), PP 01-04

www.iosrjournals.org
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Social Intelligence of Undergraduate Students In Relation To
Their Gender and Subject Stream

* Dr. Sumanlata Saxena, ** Dr. Rajat Kumar Jain
*Assistant Professor, Education Department Kalyan Post Graduate College, Sector-7, Bhilai Nagar,
Chhattisgarh
**Assistant Professor, Education Department Shri Shankaracharya Mahavidyalya, Sector-6, Bhilai Nagar ,
Chhattisgarh

Abstract: Social Intelligence is of more importance in the present life style due to growing tensions stresses
and various complexities. It can be learned, developed and used as an effective life skill for managing personal
life, interpersonal relationships and achieving success in all the walks of life.
The present study was conducted to know the social intelligence of male and female undergraduate
students of science and Arts subject streams studying in various degree colleges of Bhilai city,Chhattisgarh. For
this purpose descriptive survey method was used. 60 male and 60 female undergraduate students were selected,
for the sample by adopting stratified disproportionate random sampling technique. The data was collected by
using Social Intelligence Scale (SIS) constructed and standardized by Chadda and Ganesan (2009). The data
was analyzed by usingt test.
The findings of gender analysis indicates that female students posses more social intelligence than
male students and analysis of stream indicates that arts students are having greater social intelligence than
students of other streams.
Key Words: Social Intelligence, Undergraduate Students, gender and subject streams.

I. Introduction
Thorndike (1920) studies Intelligence in its three facets, pertaining to understand & manage ideas
(abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence) and people (social intelligence). Social
intelligence is the persons ability to understand and manage other people and to engage in adaptive social
interactions (Thorndike, 1920). Social intelligence has two key constituents which are distinctly personal and
social in nature, one is intrapersonal intelligence and other is interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal
intelligence is the persons ability to gain access to his or her own internal, emotional life while interpersonal
intelligence is the individuals ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals.
Several definitions of social intelligence have been offered by theorists, but all share two common
components (a) the awareness of others (b) their response and adaptation to other and the social situations
(Goleman, 2006; Kobe, Rester-palmon and Rickcrs, 2001). Social intelligence is a mental ability distinct from
abstract and mechanical intelligence (Thorndike, 1920). Ford and Tisak(1983) defined social intelligence in
terms of behavioral outcomes and were successful in supporting a distinct domain of social intelligence. They
defined it as ones ability to accomplish relevant objectives in specific social settings. Marlowe(1986) equated
social intelligence to social competence. He defined it as the ability to understand the feelings, thoughts and
behaviors of persons, including one self, interpersonal situations and to act appropriately upon that
understanding. (1982, P-15)
It is difficult to lead a successful life in a society without social intelligence. Social intelligence helps
an individual to develop healthy co-existence with other people. Socially intelligent people behave tactfully and
prosper in life. Social intelligence is useful in solving the problems of social life and help in tackling various
social tasks. Thus social intelligence is an important developmental aspect of education. Several studies have
shown that social intelligence is multidimensional and distinguishable from general intelligence domains (Jones
and Day, 1997; Marlowe, 1986; Weis et al.). These concepts of social intelligence are incorporating internal &
external perceptions, social skills and other psychosocial variables, (Taylor,1990). Marlowes (1986) model of
social intelligence comprised five domains- personal attitude, social performance skills, empathetic ability,
emotional expressiveness and confidence. Pro-social attitude is indicated by having an interest and concern for
others, social performance skills is demonstrated in appropriate interaction with other, empathetic ability refers
to ones ability to identify with others, emotion expressiveness describes ones emotionality towards others and
confidence in social situations is based on ones comfort level in social situations Weis and Sub(2007) showed
that social undertaking and social knowledge were separate constructs of social intelligence. Willimann, fedlt
and Amelang (1997) viewed supporting harmony and restoring equilibrium between individuals as acts of being
socially intelligent.
Social Intelligence of Undergraduate Students in relation to their gender and subject stream.
The review of related literature on social intelligence reveals that the construct of social intelligence
has attracted many researchers. Success in academic performance of the students depends on their intelligence
(Panigrahi, 2005) and it is positively related to social intelligence (Brown & Anthony, 1990). Bailey (1968)
studied the assessment of social intelligence among the students of fifth grade using friendship rating which
revealed that social intelligence (pear acceptance) co-varies with academic achievement. Higher achievers score
more on social intelligence (Saxena & Panigrahi, 2009). Riggio, Messamer and Throkomorton (1991) revealed
that academic and social intelligence are conceptually distinct but overlapping constructs.
Singh (2007) found no significant difference in social intelligence between low creative & high
creative adolescents and between high creative boys and high creative girls. Kaur and Kalaramna (2004)
conducted the study to assess the existing levels of inter-relationship between home environments, social
intelligence and socio-economic status and found that socio-economic status and home environment affect
social intelligence. Vyrost and Kyselova (2006) investigated interconnections between social intelligence,
wisdom, values and interpersonal personality traits. The result revealed close mutual relations between social
intelligence and wisdom related knowledge. Chesnokova (2005) observed that the development of social
intelligence with age goes through stages. Gnanadevan (2007) concluded that the social intelligence scores of
the students differed significantly with respect to caste, mothers education and parents income but did not
differ significantly with respect to gender, fathers education, mothers occupation or fathers occupation.
Gakhar and Bains (2009) found that arts students are more socially intelligent than science students.
Various studies have been conducted on social intelligence in relation to academic achievements
(Bailey, 1968; Brown & Anthony, 1990; Riggio, Messamer & Throkomorton, 1991 and Saxena & Panigrahi,
2009). Effect of some other variables on social intelligence has also been studied such as creativity (Singh,
2007), home environment and socio-economic status (Kaur & Kalaramna, 2004), wisdom, values and
interpersonal personality traits (Vyrost & Kyselova, 2006), age (Chesnokova, 2005), caste, gender, parents and
parents occupation(Gnanadevan,2007). However, it was felt that it is necessary to study the effect of gender
and subject stream on social intelligence.
The review of literature reveals that this relationship has not been explored yet, hence the present
investigation was undertaken to find out the social intelligence of undergraduate students in relation to their
gender and subject streams.

Objectives of the Study: The objectives of the present study were as follow-
(1) To Study the social intelligence of undergraduate students in relation to their gender.
(2) To Study the social intelligence of undergraduate students in relation to their subject streams.
Hypotheses: The present study is based on the following hypotheses-
(1) There is no significant difference between social intelligence of undergraduate student on the basis of
their gender.
(2) There is no significant difference between social intelligence of undergraduate students on the basis of
their subject streams.

II. Methodology
Research Model-
Descriptive survey model was used in the present study.
Participants-
For the selection of sample stratified disproportionate random sampling technique was adopted. The
sample consisted of 120 first year college students comprising 60 male and 60 female belonging to research
science and arts subject from the degree college of Bhilai city, Chhattisgarh.

Measures-
Social intelligence scale (SIS) constructed and standardized by chadda and Ganeshan (2009) was used
to assess the social intelligence of undergraduate students. The scale has eight dimensions namely: Patience,
cooperativeness, confidence level, sensitivity, recognition of social environment, tactfulness, sense of humour
and Memory. The respondents were instructed to tick mark one out of the three choices as per applicability of
the response to them. The total social intelligence score was determined by summing up the scores of all the
dimensions.
Statistics used-
Mean, standard deviation andt ratio were used to analyze the date.

III. Result and Discussion
The table-1 indicates that there exists significant difference between male and female undergraduate
students on overall social intelligence. Out of eight dimension significant difference was observed in patience,
cooperativeness, sensitively and recognition of social environment between male and female students. However,
significant difference between male and female students was not observed in confidence level, Tactfulness,
sense of humour and memory dimensions. Table indicates that females are more socially intelligent than males.
Also, females have more patience and sensitivity, better cooperativeness and recognition of social environment
than their counterparts. At the same time confidence level, tactfulness, sense of humor and memory are the
dimensions in which males and females do not have any significant difference. This result is in contrast to the
observations made by Gnanadevan (2007) who did not found any gender differences.

Table-1 Values of Mean, SD and t-ratio to show the difference in social intelligence of undergraduate student in
relation to gender.
S.No. Variable Group M SD T-Ratio
1. Social Intelligence
Male 108.35 8.12
2.98**
Female 111.66 9.03
2. Patience
Male 21.13 1.81
3.49**
Female 22.10 2.45
3. Cooperativeness
Male 25.82 2.50
3.50**
Female 27.13 3.24
4. Confidence Level
Male 22.01 3.01
0.16
Female 22.07 2.76
5. Sensitivity
Male 20.28 2.64
3.69**
Female 21.63 3.05
6.
Recognition of Social
Environment
Male 0.91 0.68
3.77**
Female 1.25 0.73
7. Tactfulness
Male 4.05 1.17
1.25
Female 4.22 0.93
8. Sense of Humor
Male 3.98 1.42
1.61
Female 4.20 1.21
9. Memory
Male 10.28 1.40
1.81
Female 9.63 1.94
* = .01, ** = .05

Table-2 Values of means standard deviation and t-ratio to show the difference in social intelligence of
undergraduate students in relation to their subject streams.
S.No. Variable Group M SD T-Ratio
1. Social Intelligence
Science 107.06 7.82
2.46*
Arts 109.67 8.57
2. Patience
Science 20.37 2.21
2.29*
Arts 20.99 1.92
3. Cooperativeness
Science 25.87 2.30
4.25*
Arts 27.40 3.19
4. Confidence Level
Science 21.53 2.78
1.25
Arts 21.98 2.58
5. Sensitivity
Science 20.47 2.60
4.43*
Arts 22.02 2.70
6.
Recognition of Social
Environment
Science 0.93 0.57
4.44*
Arts 1.33 0.81
7. Tactfulness
Science 3.40 0.80
2.75*
Arts 3.73 1.06
8. Sense of Humour
Science 3.86 1.31
0.84
Arts 3.73 1.06
9. Memory
Science 9.80 1.27
4.0*
Arts 8.80 2.48

It is clear from the table no-02 that science and arts undergraduate students do differ in overall social
intelligence. Significant difference is also found in dimension-Patience, cooperativeness, sensitivity, recognition
of social environment, Tactfulness and Memory, but not in confidence level and sense of humor. It means that
arts undergraduate students are more socially intelligent than science students. Marlowe (1986) suggested that
individuals who are socially intelligent appear to experience a rich, meaningful life, as opposed to truncated
affective experiences. Furthermore, aspects of social intelligence have been found to be associated with
enhanced social problem-solving abilities (Jones & Day, 1991), experienced leadership (Kobeetal, 2001), and
positive interpersonal experience (Cheng et al.). At the same time they also possess better patience,
cooperativeness, sensitivity, recognition of social environment and tactfulness. However, science undergraduate
students seem to possess better memory power than their counterparts. At the same time no significant
difference is observed in their confidence level & sense of humour. Gakhar and Bains (2009) also found arts
students to be more socially intelligent than science stream student.

References
[1] Bailey, J.A(1968) Social intelligence, achievement and the elementary school child. www.eric.ed.gov
[2] Brown and Anthony (1990) Continuing the search for social intelligence.
[3] Personality and individual difference, 2(5) 463-470.
[4] Chadda, N.K. and Ganesan, U.(2009) Manual of social intelligence scale, Agra National Psychological cooperation.
[5] Chesnokova, O. (2005), Cunning and social intelligence in children. www.lancs.ac.uk
[6] Gakhar, S.C. and Bains, (2009) A study of social intelligence and achievement motivation of students of arts and science stream.
Journal of educational studies, 7(2) 56-59.
[7] Gnanadevan, R. (2007) Social intelligence of higher secondary students in relation to their socio-economic status, Journal of
Community Guidance and Research, 24(3) 340-346.
[8] Kaur, H and Kalaramna, A(2004) Study of interrelationship between home environment, social intelligence and socio-economic
status among male & female, Journal of Human Ecology, 16(2), 137-140.
[9] Panigrahi, M.R. (2005) Academic Achievement in relation to intelligence & socio-economic status of high school students.
Edutracks, 5(2), 26-27.
[10] Riggio, R.E. ; Messamer, J. and Throckmorton, B(1991) Social and academic intelligence: conceptually distinct but overlapping
contracts. Personality and Individual Differences, 695-700.
[11] Saxena S. and Panigrahi S.(2009) Social intelligence of high and low achieves undergraduate students. Journal of Educational
studies, 7(2), 31-34.
[12] Singh, S. (2007)Emotional intelligence, social intelligence, adjustment and personality differentials of adolescents with high &
low creativity Ph.D.Thesis P.U.Chamdigerth
[13] Vyrost, J. and Kyselova, M.(2006) Personality correlates of social intelligence. Studia Psychologica 48(3), 207-212.
[14] Weis, S. & Sub, H (2007) Reviving the search for social intelligence. A multi trait, multi method study of its structure and
construct validity personality and individual differences. 142, P-2, 3.
[15] Wong, C.T., Day, J.D, Maxwell, S.E. and Meara, M.M (1995) A multi trait multi method study of academic and social
intelligence in college students. Journal of educational psychology, 87(1), 117-133.
[16] Willmann, E., Feldt, K., and Amelang, M. (1997) Prototypical behavior pattern of social intelligence. An intercultural
comparison between Chinese and German subjects, international Journal of psychology, 32(5), 329-346.
[17] Taylor, E.H. (1990) The assessment of social intelligence, psychotherapy, 27(3), 445-457.
[18] Kobe, L.M., Reiter-palmon, R. and Rickers, J.D (2001) Self reported leadership experiences in relation to inventoried social and
emotional personality and social, 20(2), 154-163.
[19] Marlowe, H.A. (1986) Social intelligence: Evidence for multi dimensionality and construct independence, Journal of educational
psychology, 78(1), 52-58.
[20] Jones, K. and Day, J.D. (1997) Discrimination of two aspects of cognitive social intelligence from academic intelligence.
Journal of educational psychology, 89(3), 486-497.
[21] Cheng, C., Chiu, C, Hong, Y., and Cheung, J.S. (2001) Discriminative facility and its role in the perceived qualities
of interactional experiences, Journal of personality, 69(5), 765-786.
[22] Gereman, D. (2006) Social intelligence: The new science of humour relationship, Newyork: Bantam Books.
Volume 1, Issue 1 (Jan. Feb. 2013), PP 05-10

Relationship Between Teachers Educational Qualifications And
Students Achievement In Chemistry: A Case Study Of Owerri
West LGA

Unanma, A. O.
1
, Abugu, H. O.
2
, Dike, R. C.
3
and Umeobika U. C.
2

1
(Department of Educational psychology, Imo State University, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria)
2
(Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra) State, Nigeria
3
(Chemistry Department

Alvana Model Secondary School, Imo State, Nigeria)

Abstract: This study examined the relationship between Teachers academic qualifications and academic
achievement of Senior Secondary school Students in Chemistry. The area for the study was Owerri West LGA.
A case study of four secondary schools formed the research design. Teachers academic qualifications and the
SS I students third term result formed the data which was analysed using simple percentage and Pearson
Correlation. Three research questions were answered and the findings of the research reviewed that there is a
positive relationship between the teachers academic qualifications and students academic achievement. Since
teachers professional qualification influences students academic achievement in Chemistry, the government and
all stakeholders in education sector should endeavour to implement its policy on basic education for all and
thus, create an enlightened society in which every Chemistry teacher would be educated enough to have a
positive influence on their Chemistry students for better achievement in the subject.
Key words: relationship, academics, performance, achievement, teachers.
I. Introduction
The differential scholastic achievement of students in Nigeria has been and is still a source of concern
and research interest to educators, government and parents. This is so because of the great importance that
education has on the national development of the country. All over the country, there is a consensus of opinion
about the fallen standard of education in Nigeria (Adebule, 2004). Parents and government are in total
agreement that their huge investment on education is not yielding the desired dividend. Teachers also complain
of students low performance at both internal and external examinations. The annual releases of Senior
Secondary Certificate Examination results (SSCE) conducted by West African Examination Council (WAEC)
justified the problematic nature and generalization of poor secondary school students performance in different
school subjects. For instance, the percentage of failure compared with students who passed English and
Mathematics between 2004 to 2007 are shown in tables 1 and 2.
Poor academic performance according to Aremu (2003) is a performance that is adjudged by the
examinee/testee and some other significant as falling below an expected standard. Poor academic performance
has been observed in school subjects especially mathematics, chemistry and English language among secondary
school students (Adesemowo, 2005). Aremu (2000) stresses that academic failure is not only frustrating to the
students and the parents, its effects are equally grave on the society in terms of dearth of manpower in all
spheres of the economy and politics. Education at secondary school level is supposed to be the bedrock and the
foundation towards higher knowledge in tertiary institutions. It is an investment as well as an instrument that
can be used to achieve a more rapid economic, social, political, technological, scientific and cultural
development in the country. The National Policy on Education (2004) stipulated that secondary education is an
instrument for national development that fosters the worth and development of the individual for further
education and development, general development of the society and equality of educational opportunities to all
Nigerian children, irrespective of any real or marginal disabilities.
The role of secondary education is to lay the foundation for further education and if a good foundation
is laid at this level, there are likely to be no problem at subsequent levels. However, different people at different
times have passed the blame of poor performance in secondary school to students because of their low retention,
parental factors, association with wrong peers, low achievement, low retention, low achievement motivation and
the likes (Aremu & Sokan, 2003; Aremu & Oluwole 2001; Aremu, 2000).
Morakinyo (2003) believe that the falling level of academic achievement is attributable to teachers
non-use of verbal reinforcement strategy. Others found out that the attitude of some teachers to their job is
reflected in their poor attendance to lessons, lateness to school, unsavoury comments about students
performance that could damage their ego, poor method of teaching and the likes affect pupils academic
performance.
Relationship Between Teachers Educational Qualifications And Students Achievement In Chemistry:
The question therefore is what is the cause of this fallen standard and poor academic performance of
students? Is the fault entirely that of teachers or students or both of them? Is it that students of today are non-
achievers because they have low intelligent quotient and a good neutral mechanism to be able to act
purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with academic tasks? Or is it because teachers are no longer
putting in much commitment as before? Or is it in teachers method of teaching and interaction with pupils? Or
is the poor performance of students caused by parents neglect, separation and poverty? The present study
therefore sought to find out the relationship between teachers qualification and students academic achievement
in chemistry in Owerri West LGA.

II. Statement of the Problem
Based on this background, and the poor performance of students in external examinations as
exemplified in tables i and ii, the central problem of this study is that secondary school students perform poorly
in both internal and external examinations particularly in chemistry.

Table i: The West African Examinations Council (WAEC) Performance in the Senior School Certificate
Examinations: May/June, 2004-2007: Mathematics
YEAR TOTAL NO OF
CANDIDATE
CREDIT A1-C6 PASS P7-P8 FAIL F9
% % %
2004
2005
2006
2007
1019524
1054853
1149277
1249028
33.97
38.20
41.12
46.75
28.16
25.36
31.09
26.72
34.47
34.41
24.95
24.24
Source: Statistics Office, WAEC, Lagos, Nigeria. (2009)

Table ii: The West African Examinations Council (WAEC) Performance in the Senior School Certificate
Examinations: May/June, 2004-2007: English
YEAR CREDIT A1-C6 FAIL F9
% %
2004
2005
2006
2007
29.59
25.36
34.48
29.94
37.61
36.93
29.65
26.54
Source: Statistics Office, WAEC, Lagos, Nigeria. (2009)
This poor performance has generated a lot of concern amongst stakeholders in education business. As a result,
this study sought to investigate the extent to which teachers academic qualifications affect students academic
achievement in chemistry.

III. Purpose of the Study
The study sets out clearly among other things to find out, if there is a relationship between teachers
qualification and academic achievement of students in Owerri West LGA. Specifically this study will find out
1. The academic qualifications of chemistry teachers in Owerri west LGA Secondary Schools.
2. The level of academic achievement of students offering chemistry in senior secondary schools in Owerri West
LGA.
3. If there is a relationship between the academic qualifications of chemistry teachers and students academic
achievement in senior secondary schools in Owerri West LGA.

IV. Method
4.1 Research Design
A correlational research design which seeks to find out the relationship between the academic
qualification of teachers and academic achievement of students in Owerri West LGA was used in this study.

4.2 Area of the Study
The area of this study is Owerri West local Government area. The local government area is bounded by
Owerri North, Owerri Municipal and Mbaitoli LGA. Its dwellers are mostly civil servants, traders, farmers,
craftsmen and unskilled workers.

4.3 Population of the study
The population for this study comprises of all senior secondary school students (SSI) in Owerri West
LGA of Imo state, who have written their third term examination in chemistry. There are 11 Imo state owned
secondary school in Owerri West LGA, with a total population of 545 (five hundred and fourty five) SSI
students (SEMD, 2012). A total of 250 SS I students and 18 chemistry teachers from four secondary schools
were used for the study

4.4 Sampling and Sampling Techniques
A random sampling technique was used to select four schools out of the 12 secondary schools in
Owerri West LGA. The 12 schools were written in a small piece of papers with numbers assigned to each school
and the paper was folded to conceal the numbers and placed in a container. The container was shuffled and four
pieces of the paper was picked randomly to select four schools.

4.5 Instruments for Data Collection
In order to gather information needed for this study, the sources of the data was purely from checklist.
The data for this study consisted of grades of students in SSI Class and their chemistry teachers qualifications.
The results were collected from the respective offices of the principals of the above selected schools.

4.6 Methods of Data Analysis
In analysing data gathered for this study, the researcher employed a descriptive statistic by the use of
percentages and mean. The qualification of teachers from the various sampled schools will be shown according
to their type of certificate/degree while students academic achievements will be grades into pass or fail and
expressed in simple percentage. Students academic achievement is shown with percentages and mean. Pearson
product moment correlational coefficient was used to establish the relationship between teachers academic
qualification and students academic achievement in chemistry. Teachers qualification was graded and the
proportion of each grade worked out.

V. Result
Research Question 1: What are the academic qualifications of chemistry teachers in Owerri West LGA?
This research question is answered by Table 3, which gives the academic qualifications of chemistry teachers in
the sampled schools

Table iii: Qualification of Chemistry Teachers in the sampled Schools
Qualification and number of Chemistry
Teachers
S/n Name of School Ph.D. M.Sc (Ed) PGDE B.Sc (Ed) HND NCE
1 A - - - 2 - -
2 B - - - 2 - -
3 C. - - 1 2 - -
4 D - 3 - - - -

Table iii shows that chemistry teachers in the selected schools posses at least a minimum of first degree in
chemistry.
Research question 2: What is the academic achievement of chemistry students in Owerri West LGA?
This research question is answered by a table showing the percentage of pass or fail and the mean of the
academic achievement of chemistry students in the sampled schools

Table iv: Academic Achievements of School A
SS I Mean Score
S/N Score Range Grade Number of
Students
%

48.4
1 0 39 F 17 42.5
2 40 44 E 4 10.0
3 45 49 D 2 5.00
4 50 64 C 4 10.0
5 65 69 B 1 2.50
6 70 - 100 A 12 30.0
TOTAL 40 100%
Table v: Academic Achievements of School B
SS I Mean
Score
Students
%

46.3
1 0 39 F 15 30.61
2 40 44 E 7 14.29
3 45 49 D 5 10.20
4 50 64 C 3 6.12
5 65 69 B 5 10.20
6 70 - 100 A 14 28.57
TOTAL 49 100%

Table vi: Academic Achievements of School C
SS I Mean
Score
Students
%

57.3
1 0 39 F 0 0.00
2 40 44 E 10 16.13
3 45 49 D 11 17.74
4 50 64 C 10 16.13
5 65 69 B 18 29.03
6 70 - 100 A 13 20.97
TOTAL 62 100%

Table vii: Academic Achievements of School D
SS I Mean
Score
Students
%

65.2
1 0 39 F 2 2.02
2 40 44 E 15 15.15
3 45 49 D 18 18.18
4 50 64 C 14 14.14
5 65 69 B 20 20.20
6 70 - 100 A 30 30.30
TOTAL 99 100%

The summary of students achievement in tables iv, v, vi and vii shows that chemistry students in the sampled
schools had more than 50% and mean scores of 48.3, 46.3, 57.3 and 65.2 respectively.
Research question 3: Is there a relationship between teachers academic qualifications and students academic
achievement in chemistry? This is answered by a table which gives the product moment correlational coefficient
of teachers academic qualification and mean of students academic achievement in chemistry.

Table viii: Teachers Academic Qualification and Students Mean Academic Achievement in Chemistry
S/n Name of school Teacher qualification Grade Proportion Students
mean score
Product
Moment
Coefficient
1 A BSc(ed) 3 50 48.4

0.95
2 B BSc(ed) 3 50 46.3
3 C PGDE, BSc(ed) 3, 4 59 57.3
4 D MSc(ed) 5 83 65.2

Decision: if the coefficient is equal to (1), there is a perfect positive correlation, that is, a change in one variable
leads to a change in another variable (Akuezuilo and Agu, 2003).
Summarily therefore, there is a strong linear relation between teachers academic qualifications and students
academic achievement in chemistry in Owerri West LGA, Imo State.

VI. Discussion and Conclusion
The findings of this study revealed that chemistry teachers in Owerri West LGA had the required
professional qualifications to teach chemistry and there is a perfect positive relationship between teachers
qualification and students academic achievement in chemistry. This finding is in line with that of Asikhia (2010)
and Umar-ud-Din et al (2010) who in their study showed that teachers qualification influences students
academic performance. This is not in line with the findings of Dahar et al (2011) who observed in a similar
study that there is no much difference in teacher quality and student academic achievement in school subjects.
Teachers with higher qualification are in a better position to lead students to achieve more, as they are equipped
with the pedagogical content knowledge to teach their subjects. Also teachers who continually update their
knowledge by further degrees will be able to manipulate the learning environment and process to make learning
easier for their students.
This research also revealed that students achieve more when exposed to better learning conditions and
much more qualified teachers as shown in table 8. This is in line with the findings of Agyeman (1993) who
noted that teachers who do not have any of the academic and the professional teaching qualification would
certainly have a negative influence on the teaching and learning of their subject.

VII. Conclusion
The enormity and consequence of poor academic achievement call for a serious concern. The more
reason why scholars have not ceased to turn their research beam light on the subject matter. The learning of
chemistry depends on the way it is presented to the learner, the way the learner actively interacts with the
learning experiences presented to him and the environment within which the learning takes place. With the
current increase in scientific knowledge the world over, much demand is placed and emphasis is laid on the
teacher, the learner and the environment in the whole process of teaching and learning of chemistry.
The study found that professional qualification has a positive relationship with academic achievement of Senior
Secondary School students in Chemistry within Owerri West LGA.

References
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[6] O. A Aremu, & B. O. Sokan, A multi-causal evaluation of academic performance of Nigerian learners: issues and implications for
national development. Department of Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. 2003.
[7] O. A. Asikhia, Students and Teachers Perception of the Causes of Poor Academic Performance in Ogun State Secondary Schools
[Nigeria]: Implications for Counselling for National Development. European Journal of Social Science. 13, 2 (2010).
[8] Federal Republic of Nigeria National Policy on Education. (Revised Edition). Lagos: Federal Ministry of Education.
2004.Morakinyo, Relative efficacy of systematic desensitization, self statement monitoring and flooding on subjects test anxiety.
Unpublished Phd. Thesis. University of Ibadan. 2003
[9] Muhammad Arshad Dahar, Rashida Ahmad Dahar, Riffat Tahira Dahar, Fayyaz Ahmad Faize, Impact of Teacher Quality on the
Academic Achievement of Students at Secondary Stage in Punjab (Pakistan). European Journal of Social Sciences. 19, 1, 2011.
[10] State Education Management Board, Imo state Nigeria (2011).

APPENDIX 1
Calculation of Pearson Correlation
S/N Teachers Qualification
Grade (X)
Mean score
(Y)
XY X
2
Y
2

1 50 48.4 2420 2500 2343
2 50 46.3 2315 2500 2144
3 116 57.3 6647 13456 3283
4 83 65.2 5412 6889 4251
Total 299 217.2 16794 25345 12021

A = 3/6 x 100 = 50
B = 3/6 x 100 = 50
C = 7/6 x 100 = 116
D = 5/6 x 100 = 83
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) =

NXY -XY
[NX
2
(X)2][NY
2
(Y)
2
]
Where r = Pearson r
X = Sum of Grades of teachers Qualification
Y = Sum of Mean score of students
N = Number of schools

r = 4 x 16794 299 x 217.2
4 x 25345 (25345)
2
x 12021 (12021)
2

r = 0.677

e-ISSN: Applied. Volume 1, Issue 1 (Jan. Feb. 2013), PP 11-16

Perceived Impact of Library use on the Research Productivity of
Postgraduate Students at Babcock University, Nigeria

Onuoha, U.D., Ikonne, C. N & Madukoma, E.

Abstract: This study investigated the impact of library use on research productivity. The study was carried out
using the survey research method. The population was made up of 359 postgraduate students at Babcock
University, Ogun state. Sampling was enumerative as all members of the population were used for the study. A
self designed questionnaire was used for data collection. Results showed that library services are of utmost
importance to the research productivity of postgraduate students as all the respondents who were able to have
at least one publication within the last two years affirmed using the library. However, printed books were
ranked as the most important library service for research. Although personal assistance of library staff was
ranked very low in importance, suggestions made by the respondent for the training of library staff in order to
improve staff-user relationship show that the respondents value the assistance of library staff but may not be
happy with the way library staff relate to users presently.
Keywords: Research productivity; Postgraduate students; Library services; Library use; Babcock University.

I. Introduction
The main essence of having libraries in universities is to provide effective information services that
would enhance teaching, learning and research within the university community. Research is specifically
important within the university environment because it constitutes a major determinant of the educational
quality of an institution. Azad and Seyyed (2007) maintain that strong research profile adds to institutional
reputation, visibility, and recognition.
Despite the emphasis on research, several researchers have drawn attention to the falling standard of
education and low research output in Nigerian universities (Adeogun and Osifila 2010; Chiemeke, et al 2009).
Several reasons were found accountable for this such as: obsolete research facilities where libraries are more or
less archives of stale, archaic, and irrelevant materials; nonexistent research laboratories; low motivation for
research and high student enrollment. In as much as the university library cannot be held solely responsible for
the current status of education in Nigeria, it is worthwhile to access the role of the university library in aiding
research especially at the postgraduate level. Indeed Poll (2001), affirms that the best testimony for an academic
library's quality is the impact of the librarys services on the educational process and the research results in the
university.

Brief History of Babcock University Library
Babcock University has its roots in the Adventist College of West Africa (ACWA), established on
September 17, 1959. The school adopted the name Adventist Seminary of West Africa (ASWA) in 1975. It
became known as Babcock University by virtue of Decree 9, of 1993 when the government of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria in 1999 issued it the certificate of registration as a private university. Babcock University
Library is also a continuation of the Adventist Seminary of West Africa (ASWA) Library, which began at the
inception of ACWA in 1959. The library is made up of five service points, known as the Main library (M.L.),
Education and Humanities (E.A.H) library, Management and Social Sciences (M.S.S.) library, Science and
Technology (S.A.T) library and Law and Security Studies (L.S.S) library.

II. Statement of the Problem
University libraries are created with the major objective of supporting the information needs of those
within the university community. Literature however suggests that university libraries in Nigeria may not be
carrying out this objective satisfactorily with increasing reports on low research productivity and declining
quality of graduates which is often attributed to obsolete and irrelevant materials in libraries. It is on the basis of
this, that the present study investigates postgraduate students use of Babcock University library services with
the view of finding out the degree of its support to their research activities.

III. Objectives of the study
This study aims to accomplish the following objectives:
1 determine the extent to which postgraduate students utilize Babcock university library;
Perceived Impact of Library use on the Research Productivity of Postgraduate Students at Babcock
2 find out the degree of importance that postgraduate students attach to specific library services;
3 ascertain the research productivity of postgraduate students at Babcock University;
4 establish the link between the use of library services and postgraduate students research productivity.

IV. Review of Related Literature
Objectives of University Libraries
University libraries derive their mission from their parent organisations, thus the vision, mission and
strategies which are selected by universities as a guide for meeting the core functions of teaching, learning and
research form the foundation on which the university library is built. The objectives of university libraries can
therefore be as diverse as the institutions themselves. The Kothari Commission of Education in India as cited by
Rao (1993), while stipulating the functions of the university library, recommended that the library should:
provide resources necessary for research in fields of special interest to the university; aid the university teacher
in keeping abreast of developments in his field; provide library facilities and services necessary for the success
of all formal programmes of instruction; open borders of ones own field of specialization; bring books and
other information materials, students and scholars together under conditions which encourage reading for
pleasure, self discovery, personal growth and the sharpening of intellectual curiosity. Considering all these,
Buckland (1989), maintains that the major role of library services is facilitating access to documents. Every
other service rendered by the library is therefore considered as secondary. Obama (2005), however, summarizes
the essence of libraries by stating that the library represents the window to a larger world.

Postgraduate Students Use of University Libraries
Library use are those activities which occur primarily within the library and which reflects rather
traditional library functions such as circulating books and answering reference questions (Powell, 1988). A more
embracing definition of library use was given by Reitz (2004) who described library use as the extent to which
the facilities and resources of a library are actually used by its clientele. This definition seems more acceptable
considering the fact that users now make use of library resources without stepping into the physical library space
with the aid of technology.
Having obtained a first degree, it will not be out of place to assume that postgraduate students are not
novices when it comes to using the library as many of them would have used the library at one time or the other
in the course of obtaining a first degree. If this assumption is true, then postgraduate students are already
exposed to different library environments and services. In the opinion of Luzius and Webb (2002) the physical
library serves to provide access to technology, instruction to library use, a place to study among other things.
These considerations are no doubt important to postgraduate students even though postgraduate students may
not necessarily be frequent visitors to the physical library itself as indicated by a number of studies (Lawrence,
Rudner, Miller-Whitehead and Gellmann 2002; King and Montgomery, 2002).
While all aspects of library service may seem important to librarians in their quest to support research,
the case may not be the same with users, especially postgraduate students. In a study of user needs, satisfaction,
and library performance at the University of Washington Libraries, Hiller (2001) found out that respondents
placed increased importance on electronic resources. Anunobi, Nwakwuo and Ezejiofor (2010) also affirmed the
importance of serials (print or non print) to postgraduate research as they maintain that serials form the bedrock
of postgraduate research. In another study by Ikpaahindi (1985), findings revealed that majority of the
respondents do not have their most important information need satisfied by the library as only 18.7 percent of
the respondents in that study were nearly always successful in satisfying their most important information needs.

V. Library Use and Research Productivity
Although the research process may have many outcomes, the NBEET studies (1993, 1994) indicate that
publications within education, journal articles, books, conference presentations and chapters of books are highly
valued indicators of research performance.
Publications have been acknowledged to be the most valid, fair and direct measure of research
performance amongst academics (Grigg and Sheehan 1989; Hattie et al. 1991; Hattie et al. 1994). Indeed Fox
(1983) argues that research work only becomes 'a work' in the academic world when it takes on the
conventional, physical form of a published paper or its equivalent. Where such is the case, postgraduate
students research outputs can be measured in tangible formats such as: paper presentations made at
conferences, seminars or workshops, articles published in journals, or books published.
Few researchers have tried to look at the librarys role in enhancing research productivity, majority
however, concentrate on measuring library use and learning outcomes of which research productivity is a subset.
In an early work carried out by Barkey (1965), the study found a direct correlation between books borrowed
from the library by freshmen and their grade point averages. Hiscock (1986) investigated influence of library
use on academic performance, but was unable to establish a strong relationship between library usage and
academic performance. Qun and Onwuegbuzie (1997) in a study on reasons for university library usage, found
out that academic achievement, semester course load, number of earned credit hours, etc. have no significant
influence on how frequently students use the library. In a more recent study, Watson (2001) focused on how
students perceptions of the library could influence their educational outcomes, the study discovered among
other things, that students feel strongly that the library is a place to use technology but do not correlate this
function with their academic success or failure. Whitmire (2002), also examined the relationship between library
resources and services and students educational outcomes, the study revealed that library resources and services
had almost no influence over undergraduates use of library or their self reported gains in critical thinking
skills.
Among the few studies that looked directly at research productivity, Majid, Eisenschitz and Anwar
(1999), studied library use pattern of Malaysian agricultural scientists, the result of the study revealed that
majority of the respondents (88.4%) used the library extensively while writing research reports, 87.5% also
admitted using the library extensively while writing research proposals. This can be inferred to mean that there
is a relationship between library use and research outputs. Liu and Allmang (2008) assessed customer
satisfaction at the National Institute of Standards and Technology Research Library (NIST), findings revealed
that library services do have impact on research outputs as attested to by 71% of the respondents who affirmed
that library services were valuable to their publishing in refereed journals. Another 69% affirmed that it assisted
their presentations at a conference. Singh (2007) in another study of postgraduate students use of library
resources for research found out that the respondents were generally satisfied with the resources (books,
journals, databases, indexes, etc.) provided by the library and with the services (e.g. information skills classes,
inter-library loans, etc.) In general, the students felt that the library had been useful to them in their research.

VI. Methodology
The descriptive research approach was used for the study. The study consists of 359 postgraduate
students admitted as at May, 2010 (Babcock University, School of Postgraduate Studies, 2011). Enumerative
sampling method was employed as all members of the population were given opportunity of participating in the
study. A questionnaire titled Library use and research productivity questionnaire (LURPQ) was used for data
collection. Out of 359 copies of the questionnaire sent out, 116 were filled and returned successfully.

Presentation of findings
Majority of the respondents who filled the questionnaire were male 61(52.6%), while 55(47.4%) were
female. Most of the respondents were also pursuing doctoral degrees 67 (57.8%), a few were enrolled for Mphil
6 (5.2%) while the remaining 43 (37.1%) were enrolled for Masters degree. This gave an indication that more
doctoral students are enrolled in the postgraduate school.

Extent to which postgraduates students make use of the university library
Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they utilize library services. The findings are
presented in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Use of library services
10.30%
11.20%
39.70%
38.80%
Not at all To a little
extent
To a moderate
extent
To a large
extent
Findings from Fig. 1 indicates that most postgraduate students make use of library services as seen in the
number of respondents who use library services to a large and moderate extent.

Importance of library services for research
Respondents were asked to rate the degree of importance attached to library services for the purpose of
research. The result is presented in table 1.

Table 1: Importance of library services for research
Library services Very
important

Important

Moderately
important

Unimportan
t

Rank
Books (print) 96(82.8%) 20(17.2%) 1
st

Internet provision 89(76.7%) 27(23.3%) 2
nd

Electronic journals 81(69.8%) 29(25%) 6(5.2%) 3
rd

Opening hours 77(66.4%) 21(18.1%) 12(10.3%) 6(5.2%) 4
th

Reading spaces 76(65.5%) 18(15.5%) 16(13.8%) 6(5.2%) 5
th

Current awareness 68(58.6%) 24(20.7%) 12(10.3%) 12(10.3%) 6
th

Print journals 66(56.9%) 38(32.8%) 12(10.3%) 7
th

Bibliographies 66(56.9%) 32(27.6%) 12(10.3%) 6(5.2%) 7
th

Online public access catalogue 64(55.2%) 27(23.3%) 19(16.4% 6(5.2%) 8
th

Library website 62(53.4%) 48(41.4%) 6(5.2%) 9
th

User education/training in library use 61(52.6%) 42(36.2%) 6(5.2%) 7(6%) 10
th

Referral 61(52.5%) 23((19.8%) 26(22.4%) 6(5.2%) 10
th

CD-ROM search 54(46.6%) 34(29.3%) 22(19%) 6(5.2%) 11
th

Photocopying 45(38.8%) 43(37.1%) 28(24.1%) 12
th

Personal assistance of library staff 37(31.9%) 61(52.6%) 18(15.5%) 13
th

Inter library loan 32(27.6%) 38(32.8%) 33(28.4%) 13(11.2%) 14
th

Table 1 reveals a rank order of the degree of importance attached to library services. Books (print) is
placed the most important followed closely by internet provision and electronic journals while personal
assistance of library staff and inter library loan were ranked the least. The findings in this case indicate that
printed books are still very essential to the university community even in the face of electronic resources. The
findings agrees with that of Hiller (2001) whose study found out that respondents placed increased importance
on electronic resources. It also affirms the study of Anunobi, Nwakwuo and Ezejiofor (2010) which affirmed the
importance of serials (print or non print) to postgraduate research.

Research productivity of postgraduate students
Respondents were asked to state the number of publications they have had within the last two years in
order to ascertain their productivity level. Publication for the purpose of this study includes paper presentations
made at conferences, seminars or workshops, articles published in journals, or books published. The result is
shown in table 2.

Table 2: Publications within the last two years
Number of publications
Frequency
Percentag
e
1-2 39 33.6
3-4 26 22.4
5 & above 0 00.0
NONE 51 44
Total 116 100.0

The results revealed that 39(33.6%) of the respondents had 1or 2 publications within the last two years,
26(22.4%) had 3 to 4 publications, while 51(44%) were not able to come out with any publication. Considering
the fact that more than half of the respondents have had at least one publication within the last two years, one
can assume that the overall research productivity of postgraduate students at Babcock University is above
average.

Extent to which the library facilitated research productivity
In order to establish the role of the university library in facilitating the publications of postgraduate
students, the respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which materials cited in their publications were
gotten from the university library. The result is presented in table 3.

Table 3: Extent to which materials cited in publications were gotten using the university library
Statement Frequency Percent
To a great extent 53 45.7
To some extent 63 54.3
Total 116 100.0

Table 3 shows that 53(45.7%) of the respondents found the materials cited in their publication, using
the university library, to a great extent while 63(54.3%) found materials cited from the university library to
some extent. Although not at all was also an option, none of the respondents indicated it which implies that all
those who had at least one publication consulted the university library. As a means of ascertaining that the
university library was actually useful to achieving the publications, respondents were also asked to indicate if
they would have achieved a similar result without the use of library services. In response to this, 91 (78.4%) of
the respondents affirmed that they would not have achieved a similar result without the use of library services,
while 24 (21.6%) affirmed that they would have achieved similar result even without the use of the university
library services.
The finding supports the work of Majid, Eisenschitz and Anwar (1999), whose study found out that
majority of the respondents (88.4%) use the library extensively while writing research reports, 87.5% of the
respondents also admitted to using the library extensively while writing research proposals. It is also in
agreement with the work of Liu and Allmang (2008) whose findings revealed that library services do have
impact on research outputs as attested to by 71% of the respondents.

Recommendations for improving library services
As a means of proffering solutions to better the services of the university library, respondents were
asked to make suggestions to that effect. The result is shown in table 4.

Table 4: Suggestions for improving library services
Statement Frequency Percentage
Stable internet facility 33 28.4
Staff training to improve staff-user
relationship
22 19.0
Provision of current materials 18 15.5
Increase in the number of
computers
11 9.5
Provision of research consultancy 9 7.8
Not stated 20 17.2
Total 116 100.0

Table 4 shows that most of the respondents who made suggestions 33 (28.4%) want stable internet
facility which is an indication that the internet facility on ground may not be working so well. Another 22 (19.0)
want staff training for library staff to improve staff user relationship. Considering the ranking of importance
given to personal assistance of library staff, this suggestion does not come as a surprise. The least number of
respondents 9 (7.8%) made recommendation for research consultancy, 20 (17.2%), however, choose not to make
any suggestion.
VII. Conclusion and recommendations
This study has established that library services are of utmost importance to the research productivity of
postgraduate students as all the respondents who were able to have at least one publication within the last two
years affirmed using the library. The study also established that postgraduate students still cherish the provision
of printed books in the library as they ranked it as the most important service for research productivity.
Although personal assistance of library staff was ranked very low in importance, suggestions made for the
training of library staff to improve staff-user relationship show that the respondents value the assistance of
library staff but may not be happy with the way library staff relate to users presently.

Based on the findings, the study makes the following recommendations:
1 Babcock University library should carry out staff training to enhance staff user relationship. This is
necessary for enhancing staff assistance to users while also improving user perception of library staff
2 Considering the fact that books (print) were ranked highest in respect to importance to research, the
university library should not relent in providing current books.
3 The university library should also endeavour to provide stable internet facility to enhance research.

References
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e-ISSN: 23207388,p-ISSN: 2320737X Applied. Volume 1, Issue 1 (Jan. Feb. 2013), PP 17-20

Value-Based Education: Professional Development vital towards
effective integration

Dr. Ranjani Balaji Iyer

Abstract: Value-based education promotes a thought provoking and interactive environment for the students
through the values incorporated in the curriculum. It promotes quality education and holistic development of
each child for a bright future. Teachers play an important role in helping students imbibe the values.
Professional development is vital in integrating values in the classroom. Understanding the principles and aim
of values education enable teachers to create effective learning environment for values education. This article
suggests steps to construct a value based curriculum towards quality education. This also emphasizes the
importance and need for teacher training for better outcome on the topic, and also suggests a plan to prepare
teachers as values educators.

I. Need for Value-based Education
Value based education instills educational and cultural values among students and aims at achieving
multi-faceted development of a human being namely intellectual, physical, spiritual, and ethical development.
The values incorporated in a value-based curriculum may include cooperation, responsibility, happiness,
simplicity, unity, peace, respect, love, tolerance, honesty, humility, and freedom. The main purpose of holistic
education is to prepare students to meet the challenges of living as well as academics. Multiple studies have
reported that value based education is a holistic approach to students' education, one that provides complete
education of body and mind through innovative approaches and critical educational thinking.
Education can be considered as a means to impart general and specific information; teaching skills and
most importantly inculcate values. The present system of education is almost wholly geared to the first, a little
to the second and only marginally to the third (Burra, 2007). The neglect of ethical values, which should form
the substratum of any good education, has led to ineffectual, decadent, empty learning. Burra describes in the
article that it is the duty of every society to pass on the values enshrined in its scriptures and philosophical texts
to each generation, in order, that the spirit of its culture lives on. This can be achieved only when education is
value oriented. Education should be a process of acquiring true knowledge. In planning for good values and
objectives, the teacher and student will have to cooperate and work together. The purpose of education is to
strengthen character in the younger generation which is an answer to many of the problems that face people
today. It can bring about a widespread renewal of individual commitment to an active life of principle and this
renewal is imperative. Values like truth, right action, love, peace and non violence include in a balanced way the
profound moral insights of the great civilizations.

II. Linking Value-based education to teachers and teacher training
In the 21
st
century, it is vital to recognize that Value-Based education integrated into the school
curriculum promotes quality education and positive school environment. Initiatives in schools around the world
have stressed upon an all around development of the students by implementing Value-Based Education
programs. Yet it is a greatest challenge in education to teach how to imbibe values as it is different from
imparting knowledge of mathematics or science.
Teachers help student perceive information and transform it to knowledge and to wisdom. At the same
time, they help adolescent to develop love of knowledge and try to transform into a good citizen. More than
ever, now our young people need to have compassion, adaptability, moral courage, patience, and increased
tolerance. Cavazos (2002) noted that teaching values in our schools is a vital part of preparing children for the
inevitable challenge and occasional pain of real-life decision making. In the article the writer believes that
teaching values can enhance education. Values can be positive or negative, depending on circumstances, and
this author adds that a values-based education is an education in thinking, in weighing and making choices, in
exploring consequences, and in working through problems to find which approaches are helpful in reaching
positive, healthy solutions. In an attempt to balance academic achievement and character education, schools and
teachers must respect the primary role of the parents and family (Cavazos, 2002). Value-based programs help
schools and teachers go hand in hand with the parents by working with them and incorporating values to provide
the best educational environment possible for their children.
Value-Based Education: Professional Development vital towards effective integration
Todays world is aware of the importance and relevance of value based education. It is sad to note that
the teachers today often are "unmindful" of the tremendous responsibility they have but feel contented with
covering the curriculum and producing intellectuals rather than humans. Lickona (1993) noted that Character
education is far more complex than teaching math or reading; it requires personal growth as well as skills
development. Yet teachers typically receive almost no pre-service or in-service training in the moral aspects of
their craft. Many teachers do not feel comfortable or competent in the values domain. (p. 11) The teachers are
trained and qualified to teach disciplines such as mathematics but are rarely trained to teach values which is
usually a very challenging thing to do. This may also be because value education does not form a separate
subject of study or examination at any stage of the curriculum. Irrespective of why many training workshops are
not available for the educators to imbibe values education, there is a strong need for training teachers in the
topic for better outcome. The question that arises is Are teachers trained to implement such curriculum? So,
the question of how well the teachers know to impart such knowledge or be effective in promoting effective
learning in values education needs to be answered.

Importance of teacher training towards a goal of high quality education
Values are essential building blocks on which an education for a humanistic and international society
must be built on. This boosts self esteem both personal and cultural; promote respect and tolerance for others as
individuals and as members of ethnic/cultural groups; and creates a sense of belonging. Value based education
promotes a secure physical, emotional and political locus within society; a sense of responsibility in relation to
social, political, economic, cultural and environmental factors, an appreciation of the importance of learning
(Sanyal, 2000). This approach to education can probe a well-rounded development and help students aim the
highest (Eidle, 1993).
Practice what you preach is a saying that is very apt for teachers when it comes to values education.
Teachers need to be able to imbibe values in their attitude and in action to be able to bring them into their
classrooms. Narvaez and Lapsley (2008) looked at education as a value-infused enterprise and addressed the
question of how to train teachers for positive character formation. They noted that teachers implicitly impart
values when they select and exclude topics; when they insist on correct answers; when they encourage students
to seek the truth of the matter; when they establish classroom routines, form groups, enforce discipline,
encourage excellence.

Preparing teachers as Values Educators and the 21
st
century value education schools
Confucius has outlined the ethics of teaching in three beautiful words. Ren - means an act of utmost
love. Yi - refers to moral uprightness. Li - indicates etiquettes in personal and institutional life. According to
Confucian theory, only a person who is always a source of love, morally upright and whose behavior not only in
personal but also in the institutional life is impeccable, is worthy of being a teacher. An ideal teacher is a guide
and source of interest who loves the subject, the profession and last but not the least loves the students. It is very
challenging for the 21
st
century educators to keep up with the changing world unless they are lifelong learners
and an effective catalyst to this social and economic change.
Today we are in a technological world where things are happening fast. A question that educators ask
themselves is whether they are capable of training the young citizens to be the torch barriers of the noble human
world. It is not just enough for the young learners to acquire knowledge to earn a living but also require them to
be a good citizen and be educated as a whole child. Changing world at different levels raises a big concern to
focus on the relevance and importance of value education at the same time emphasizes on the need to train
teachers in new techniques to promote a quality system of education with a focus of value based education.
Before planning an orientation workshop for teachers, it is important first to understand how to construct a
values curriculum for quality education. Following are the steps that administrators and curriculum developers
can take to structure the value based curriculum:
1. Articulate Vision statements and the underlying principles of value based curriculum
2. Outline values to be integrated in the curriculum
3. Duration and formulation detailed specific objectives and lesson plans for each value according to age and
mental maturity.
4. Selection of appropriate activities, seminars, fieldwork, group-work & projects necessary to achieve the
objectives.
5. Integrating values in every subject based on the needs of the individual and society.
6. Organizing these units meaningfully in a coherent simple way
7. Outlining an evaluation plan to assess the manner in which values objective is attained
8. Ongoing scope of open discussion with parents and community about the improvement of the curriculum
9. Modifying and improving the Curriculum based on the above step and finalization.
10. Planning teacher training workshop and orientation on value based curriculum to promote understanding of
the underlying principles and aim to create robust learning environment
After a school has successfully planned a values curriculum, it is very important that the school plans
orientation training workshop for teachers to enable them to implement and integrate the curriculum into the
class effectively.
Ideas for successful teacher training
Multiple schools worldwide have introduced Value-Based programs as part of their curriculum. These
curriculums are getting very popular in the schools in UK and India, and are getting attention in the schools in
USA as part of character education. Training and discussion is needed to understand the underlying principles,
aim and approach to value based education. Workshops could provide a platform to teachers to practice teaching
an activity that imbibe values as well as give them an opportunity to experience it as a child. Through these
trainings teachers can not only understand their own values and strengths but also gain a better understanding of
their students.
Values cannot be just taught students but have to be modeled and imbibed by adults and teachers so
that they become part of the character of the individual. The values curriculum promotes a learning environment
where values are absorbed progressively and through a variety of activities structured according to the relevance
and age of the students. The process of learning is based on experiences, action and reflection through project-
based learning, seminars, group-work, dialogue, role-play, films and other media presentations, fieldwork.
Teacher training is needed to help teachers equip with new strategies and techniques to promote values
learning. The following components can be included in a 3-5 days workshop for training teachers to integrate
values in their classroom and make it an experiential learning:
1. Workshops need to be interactive
2. Discussion on underlying principles, aim and approach to values education with mentors
3. Guide teachers in day to day lessons and transactions. Practice teaching an activity, experience an activity
as a student and receive feedback from one another
4. Equip teachers to provide as many real-life situations to imbibe a value. Share creative thoughts among
each other
5. Open discussion with teachers on new ideas for improving and evolving the curriculum
Through value oriented teacher education, the challenge of teacher education to prepare teachers to take care of
the holistic education of children can be resolved. New courses and professional programs are being developed
by several institutions to enable value education to be integrated in the academic curriculum. National Council
for Teacher Education (NCTE) is well aware of the challenge in providing value orientation to teacher education
and has been conducting orientation programs on education in human values for teacher educators. Titles related
to value education available from the NCTE web site are: Education for Character Development; Education for
Tomorrow; Report of the Working Group to Review Teachers' Training Programme; Role and Responsibility of
Teachers in Building up Modern India; Gandhi on Education; Sri Aurobindo on Education; and Tilak on
Education (http://www.ncte-in.org ).
Furthermore, the following approaches can be used for teaching values in character building activities
as reported on the UNESCO APIED on Education for Affective Development
1. Telling: A process for developing values that enables a pupil to have a clear picture of a value _ laden
situation by means of his own narration of the situation.
2. Inculcating: An approach geared towards instilling and internalizing norms into person's own value systems.
3. Persuading: the process of convincing the learner to accept certain values and behave in accordance with what
is acceptable.
4. Modeling: A strategy in which a certain individual perceived as epitomizing desirable/ideal values is
presented to the learners as a model.
5. Role playing: Acting out the true feelings of the actor(s) by taking the role of another person but without the
risk of reprisals.
6. Simulating: A strategy in which the learners are asked to pretend to be in a certain situation called for by the
lesson and then to portray the events and also by imitating the character's personality.
7. Problem solving: An approach wherein a dilemma is presented to the learners asking them what decisions
they are going to take.
8. Discussing situations, stories, pictures, etc: This technique asks the learners to deliberate on and explain the
details in the lesson.
9. Studying biographies of great men: This is an approach that makes use of the lives of great men as the subject
matter for trying to elicit their good needs and thoughts worthy for emulation.
10. Moralizing: The process of working out a sense of morality through active structuring and restructuring of
one's social experiences (e.g. moral reasoning and analysis)
11. Values clarification: Values clarification as a strategy for values development may be considered as learner-
centered. It relies heavily on the pupils ability to process his beliefs, behave according to his beliefs and to make
a decision whenever confronted with a value dilemma. (As cited in http://www.ncte-
india.org/pub/rimse/spk4.htm)

III. Conclusion
Values education help students find their place in the world and build their self-confidence. Values in a
school curriculum add a dimension to that promote holistic development of the students and benefits their
academic achievement. Teachers feel a need to introduce experiential approaches to values education as a means
to counter an overly cognitive national curriculum and to address issues of behavior, discipline and social
attitudes. The role of teachers cannot be deemed minor in developing good character among students. Values
educators must facilitate a student's personal internalized discovery that one would want to be a values-oriented
and values-guided person because through such activity one can feel good about oneself, respect oneself, and
esteem oneself well (Eidle, 1993). Professional development sessions allowing educators to interact with each
other lets individuals examine and view his or her own beliefs differently by using thoughts and testimonies
from others; such experiences permit individuals to make sense of the world around them which is
transformative learning (Cranton & King, 2003). There are some training workshops available worldwide for
implementing value based education that have tremendously helped teachers develop skills to create a value
based environment that promote inspiring and active listening classrooms. Much remains to be done in this
direction to make this effort meaningful and worthwhile, keeping in mind what is best for the future.

References
[1] Arweck, E., Nesbitt, E., & Jackson, R. 2005. Common values for the common school? Using two values education programmes to
promote spiritual and moral development. Journal of Moral Education. 34 (3). 325-342.
[2] Burra, H. 2007. Value Based Education: A Need of Today. Associated Content. Retrieved from
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/355207/value_based_education_a_need_of_today.html?cat=4 .
[3] Cavazos, L., F. 2002. Emphasizing Performance Goals and high-quality education for all students. Phi Delta Kappan. 83 (9).
[4] Cranton, P., & King, K. P. (2003). Transformative learning as a professional development goal. New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, 98, 31-37.
[5] Eidle, W., R. 1993. Values education and self-esteem. Education. 113(4).
[6] Lickona, T. (1993). The return of character education. Educational Leadership, 51(3), 6- 11.
[7] Narvaez, D., & Lapsley, D. K. (2008). Teaching moral character: Two alternatives for teacher education. The Teacher Educator, 43
(2), 156 172.
[8] National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE). 2013. Retrieved from http://www.ncte-india.org/pub/rimse/rimse.htm
[9] Sanyal, B., C. 2000. Need for value-based education in the twenty-first century. Here-now4u Online Magazine. Retrieved from
http://www.here-now4u.de/ENG/need_for_the_value-based_educa.htm

e-ISSN: 2320-7388, p-ISSN: 2320-737X Volume 1, Issue 1 (Jan - Feb. 2013), PP 21-25

Providing Physical Fitness and Wellness for the School Children
through School Health Programme

Ajayi-Vincent, O.B (PhD).
Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti. Dept. of Human Kinetics & Health Education.

Abstract: Today, inactivity and unhealthy lifestyle habits have eaten deep into the fabric of modern mans life
posing serious threat to good health. To address this trend requires urgency in looking for means by which the
awareness of man could be re-awaken towards ways by which an individual can be equipped with knowledge to
improve his health by taking actions that guarantee better and healthier life. This paper therefore discussed
physical fitness, wellness and their components in relation to how they could be provided for, through a well
planned and implemented school health education programme for the school children to combat inactivity and
negative lifestyle habits. It was concluded that a well planned, organized and funded school health programme
can provide for physical fitness and wellness programme in the school system.

I. Introduction
The importance of good health to human life is very immense when the kind of life to be enjoyed and
productivity to various phases of human endeavour are quantified. The concept of good health has gone beyond
the idea of completeness of state and absence of illness or not being sick in bed. Nations have embraced the
notion of health as a state of positive and total well-being involving all the dimensions/components of health
(physical, mental, social, emotional, spiritual etc.) (Hoeger and Hoeger, 1996). According to Ajayi- Vincent and
Adesina (2008) quoting Hahn and Payne 1999, it is the ability to access and apply resources from the various
dimensions of health to the experiences of daily living, thus assuring growth and development and the sense of
well-being that it affords. A state of well-being that guarantees individuals optimum efficiency both at work,
play and to life in the society.
Physical fitness and wellness are two terms that are usually used interchangeably to express good
health. The two are good pointers to what good health stands for but it is worthy of note that they are not
synonymous in the real sense of it. One is a component of the other, fitness is the ability to persevere on a task
where an unfit persons fail. It is a component of wellness which implies a constant and deliberate effort to stay
healthy and achieve the highest potential for well being.
Good health however, is a highly valued asset in any sane society, possession of which is crucial if an
individual wishes to get the greatest possible satisfaction from life and make his fullest contributions to it. This
is the essence of school health education in the school system. Health education in the school system is an
outgrowth of the universal search for more effective and more enjoyable living (Adegboyega, Ajayi-Vincent and
Adesina, 2005). It was realized that school as an agent of cultural transfer and change can also prepare a person
to do what is necessary for the protection, preservation and promotion of his health. Saddled with these
responsibilities, it becomes imperative for the school to administer the school health education programmes
leading to the achievement of these goals effectively.
It is therefore the focus of this paper to discuss physical fitness and wellness in relation to the life of the
school children and life in our society and the way by which they can be provided for through administration of
a good and functional school health programme.

II. What is Physical Fitness?
The ability of an individual to adapt and respond favourably to physical efforts could be seen as
physical fitness. It is the degree to which an individual is able to function effectively or live a full and balanced
life. In the words of Hockey (1993), physical fitness is the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigour and
alertness, without undue fatigue and with ample reserved energy to enjoy leisure time pursuits and to meet
unforeseen circumstances and emergencies. According to Hoeger and Hoeger (1996), this implies that
individuals are physically fit when they can meet both the ordinary and unusual demands of daily life safely and
effectively without being overtly fatigued and still have energy left for leisure and recreational activities.
Maintaining a high level of physical fitness generally should be an aspiration for all, because of its immense
contribution to healthy and meaningful life (Nwankwo and Salawu 1995).
Physical fitness as a construct can be classified into two namely, health-related and motor performance-
related fitness components. The main interest of this paper is in the health-related fitness components, although
the performance-related components are of immense benefits when competitive sports are involved. The health-
Providing Physical Fitness and Wellness for the School Children through School Health Programme
related fitness components are appropriate body build and composition, muscular strength, muscular endurance,
musculoskeletal flexibility and cardio-respiratory endurance. In the words of Ajayi-Vincent and Adesina
(2008), optimal level of development in these components is crucial for adequate growth, development and
well-being. As it has been stated earlier, the motor performance-related components of fitness are of significant
importance for successful feat in competitive sporting events and in lifetime sport and pursuits. Prominent
among these motor performance-related fitness components are, agility, power, speed, reaction time,
coordination and balance. It is worth mentioning also that good motor performance related fitness components
also enhance overall quality of life by helping people cope more adequately in emergency conditions. Both the
health-related and motor performance-related fitness components should be recognized and adequately provided
for in the school health education programme to enhance a robust health of the school children.
Meaning of Wellness and its Components Wellness is the new emerging concept used to describe
good health. It emerged in response to the quest for an appropriate word to describe good health after it has
been discovered that improving physical fitness component alone was not enough in any way to lower the risk
for diseases and ensure better health. According to Hoeger and Hoeger (1996), good health is no longer viewed
as simply the absence of illness. They further stated that the notion of good health evolved notably in the last
few years and continue to change as scientists learn more about lifestyle factors that brings in illness and affect
wellness. In the opinion of Merki and Merki (1987), wellness considers health in broad terms and it is a way of
living each day that includes choices and decisions based on healthy attitudes. Wellness as a concept portrays
health as dynamic rather than passive because it is constantly changing.
In the words of Hoeger and Hoeger (1996), wellness is defined as the constant and deliberate efforts to
stay healthy and achieve the highest potential for well-being. In other words, a person needs to give him/herself
to a lifestyle that will lead to positive outcomes in the seven dimensions of health. Broadly speaking wellness
incorporates the following components namely, physical fitness, healthy nutrition, disease prevention,
appropriate and adequate health education, spirituality, stress management and smoking cessation. Others are
personal safety, social support, medical/physical examinations, substance control, self worth, cardiovascular risk
reduction and environmental support. The implication of this is that for one to live a wellness way of life, such
an individual must be physically fit and manifest no signs of disease and must not have risk factors for diseases.
Programmes to cater for all these components of wellness must be provided for in the school health education
programme to improve the health and quality of life of the school children.

III. Benefits of Physical Fitness and Wellness Programmes
Regular participation in adequate doses of physical fitness and wellness programmes has great benefits
to man. The greatest benefit is that physically fit individuals live life to its fullest potential and have fewer
health problems than inactive individuals who also may indulge in negative lifestyle pattern. Regular and
adequate doses of physical fitness programme will improve and strengthen the various systems of the body.
Notable among these systems are the circulo-respitatory, muscular, skeletal, nervous and digestive systems.
Also it improves body posture and physical appearance and helps to maintain appropriate body build and
composition. Ogwu (1995) expressed the view that regular exercise reduces anxiety, emotional outburst and
develops high tolerance levels. Adequate doses of exercise and wellness lifestyle also sharpen the social values
and habits of individuals.
Provision of Physical fitness and wellness programme through school health Programme.
The school health programme involves many activities as it concerns with many people of different
professions. It comprises all health activities, which are planned, organized and carried out under the auspices
of the school. Udoh (1980) according to Ogundele (2002) perceived school health programme as primarily
concerned with developing an understanding of health and providing necessary experiences and services which
play a key role in the maintenance and improvement of the school of both pupils and school personnel. While
the programme seeks to maintain and promote the health of the school child, it extends such services to the
teachers and other workers in the school. As the teachers and other workers need protection from
communicable diseases that could be spread by the school children, so also the children need protection from
those diseases that could be spread by the staff in the school.
The activities of the school health programme can be expressed under the phases of the programme.
Traditionally there are three interdependent phases of the school health education programme namely, the
school health instruction, school health services and the healthful school living. These are the programmes
under which the physical fitness and wellness programmes can find expression to impart on the school children.
The school health instruction according to Ogundele (2002) is the aspect of school health education programme
which is concerned with the process of planning and organization of learning experiences for the learner under
the guidance, supervision or direction of the class teacher or accredited health personnel (e.g. physician or
nurse). It is the organized teaching procedures directed towards developing understanding, attitudes and
practices relating to health and factors affecting health. It is the phase of the school health education programme
where scientific information are disseminated to the school children as well as methods of applying the acquired
information.
This phase provides a veritable ground for dissemination of information that bother on physical fitness
and wellness programme. The only way for any school to achieve this is to design and encourage a well
structured school health instruction programme, with adequate class periods allotted for regular instructions by
qualified personnel on issues such as drugs, sexuality, nutrition, physical fitness, rest, stress management,
sanitation, safety and a host of other related subjects. If this is done, it becomes possible to inculcate in the
school children a regular habit of exercise consciousness and various strategies and principles for behavior
modification right from their formative stage of life to influence their adult wellness life style. According to
Hoeger and Hoeger (1996), the incidence of killers diseases has decline in United State America (USA) because
people are now more aware of the risk factors for all the diseases and are changing their lifestyle to lower their
potential risk factor for the diseases through health education (instruction).
The school health services is the second phase of the school health education programme. It is very
important and the implementation consists of many phases attracting many personnel with specific expertise.
According to Udoh, Fawole, Ajala, Okafor and Nwana (1987), this phase constitutes those school activities
directly concerned with the present and existing health status of the school children. It also reflects sound public
health and educational principles.
This phase refers to the cooperative activities of the school teachers, physicians, dentists, nurses,
counselors and others for the purpose of appraising, promoting and maintaining the health of all the school
children and personnel. It provides an umbrella for all the procedures established to appraise the health status of
students, school personnel, counsel students, parents and others concerning appraisal findings and to prevent and
correct physical and remediable defects.
This phase is sub-divided into two, appraisal and preventive phases. The appraisal phase deals with an
evaluation or assessment of the present health status of a person. It deals with the relationship of a person health
attainment to the basic endowment and his adjustment to life needs. Both physical fitness and wellness
programmes can also be provided for under this phase. The physical fitness components of the school children
can easily be assessed through the use of appropriate assessment procedures.
As it has been stated earlier, physical fitness is a construct and no single test can provide a complete
measure of it. For example the health related fitness has five different components-cardio-respiratory
endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, musculoskeletal flexibility and appropriate body build and
composition. Each of these components has a number of measuring instruments and out of these, selections are
made to package a battery of tests to determine an individuals overall level of fitness. Health appraisal also
include physical and medical health examinations, dental examination, physical observation, screening tests for
visual and auditory acuity and taking of health history of the children. Through all these tests, physical
impairment can be detected and referral made.
The preventive aspect of the school health services deals with issues of communicable and non-
communication diseases, safety promotion, first aid and emergency care, substance abuse control and
spirituality etc. Major health problems which can have negative influence on the wellness status of the school
children are identified and necessary preventive measures sorted out and applied. The fact that children come
from various homes is incontestable, they bring with them a lot of health problems which may include any of
the identified communicable diseases. It is necessary to stem up certain preventive measures to guard and
protect the health of the healthy ones while the sick is not ignored or neglected while in school. Some of these
measures include provision of healthy environment, isolation of student, immunization, re-admitting the sick
student back to school etc.
On the issue of first aid and emergency care, by law, the school acts in loco-parentis for the school
children. It is therefore assumed that the child will receive the same care and protection during school hours as
he/she would receive at home. There could be sudden illness or injury to the children, the school should see to
the immediate care through qualified personnel, facilities and supplies.
The third phase of the school health programme is the school healthful living. According to
Ogundele(2002), the phase encompasses all the various physical, emotional and social aspects of the school and
the measures provided at the school to ensure healthy environment for the school children. This phase is also
sub-divided into two, namely the physical aspect and the emotional/social aspect. The physical aspect has to do
with the provision of physical infrastructure and facilities to effect the successful implementation of the first two
phases of the programme. Adequate provision of buildings for classrooms, administrative offices, laboratories,
health bays etc. with good ventilation and lighting is very crucial to this phase. Likewise, provision of facilities
for toilet and waste disposal, food services, playing field etc. should not be lacking.
The second aspect deals with the emotional/social relationship within the school system. This aspect is
very important to the achievement of school children. The emotional aspect implies a state of mind that allows
the individual to adjust in a satisfactory manner to whatever life has to offer. It encompasses the interactive
components of the school system (student-student, teacher-teacher, student-teacher, student-administrative staff
etc.). This phase of the school health programme offers a good ground for the provision of physical fitness and
wellness programme for the school children. The various facilities and equipment that are needed for the
prosecution of the fitness and wellness programme are provided for by the implementation of this physical
aspect. While the emotional/social aspect takes care of the behavioural aspect of the programmes. For example,
good mental health cannot be taught as a subject, but it should permeate the total life of the school system. It
means that the school programmes are flexible and geared to individuals needs, a permissive climate prevails,
and children are allowed considerable freedom and become self-reliant and other essentials to happy and
purposeful living. The use of the school for the aforementioned purposes depends upon adequate and successful
interaction of the components of this phase of the school health programme.

Conclusion
Physical inactivity and negative lifestyles are twin factors that are fighting the enjoyment of vibrant and
healthy living in the life of the general populace world over. And the two are deeply rooted in mans behavior
begging for modification. The school system has been found to provide a veritable opportunity for behavior
moulding and modification. It is on this premise that the school health programme should be saddled with the
responsibility of providing for the physical fitness and wellness programme of the school children through its
distinct programmes.
It can be therefore concluded that if the school health programme is well planned, organized, funded
and supervised, it will provide adequately for the physical fitness and
Wellness programme of the school children.
On the issue of first aid and emergency care, by law, the school acts in loco-parents for the school
children. It is therefore assumed that the child will receive the same care and protection during school hours as
he/she would receive at home. There could be sudden illness or injury to the children, the school should see to
the immediate care through qualified personnel, facilities and supplies.
The third phase of the school health programme is the school healthful living. According to Ogundele
(2002), the phase encompasses all the various physical, emotional and social aspect of the school and the
measures provided at the school to ensure healthy environment for the school children. This phase is also sub-
divided into two namely the physical aspect and the emotional/social aspect. The physical aspect has to do with
the provision of physical infrastructure and facilities to effect the successful implementation of the first two
phases of the programme. Adequate provision of buildings for classrooms, administrative offices, laboratories,
health Bay etc, with good ventilation and lighting is very crucial to this phase. Likewise provision of facilities
for toilet and waste disposal, food services, playing field etc. should not be lacking.
The second aspect deals with the emotional/social relationship within the school system. This aspect is
very important to the achievement of school children. The emotional aspect implies a state of mind that allows
the individual to adjust in a satisfactory manner to whatever life has to offer. It encompasses the interactive
components of the school system student- student, teacher-teacher, student-teacher, student-administrative staff
etc.
This phase of the school health programme offers a good ground for the provision of physical fitness
and wellness programme for the school children. The various facilities and equipment that are needed for the
prosecution of the fitness and wellness programme are provided for by the implementation of this physical
aspect. While the emotional/social aspect takes care of the bahavioural aspect of the programmes. For example,
good mental health cannot be taught as a subject, but it should permeate the total life of the school system. It
means that the school programmes are flexible and geared to individual needs, a permissive climate prevails,
children are allowed considerable freedom and become self-reliant and other essentials to happy and purposeful
living. The use of the school for the above stated purposes depends upon adequate and successful interaction of
the components of this phase of the school health education programme.

IV. Conclusion
Physical inactivity and negative lifestyle are twin factors that are fighting the enjoyment of vibrant and
healthy living in the life of the general populace world over. And the two are deeply rooted in mans behavior
begging for modification. The school system has been found to provide a veritable opportunity for behaviuor
moldings and modification. It is on this premise that the school health education should be saddled with the
responsibility of providing for the physical fitness and wellness programme of the school children through its
distinct programmes.
It can therefore be concluded that if the school health education programme is well planned, organized,
funded and supervised, it will provide adequately for the physical fitness and wellness programme of the school
children.

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[10] Udoh, C.O, Fawole, J.O., Ajala, J.A., Okafor, C & Nwana O., (1987).Fundamentals of Health Education. Ibadan. Heinemann
Educational Books (Nig) Ltd.

e-ISSN: 2320-7388, p-ISSN: 2320-737X Volume 1, Issue 1 (Jan - Feb 2013), PP 26-38

The Use of Augmented Reality Pop-Up Book to Increase
Motivation in English Language Learning For National Primary
School
Nor Nashirah Nor Mahadzir
1
, Li Funn Phung
2

1, 2
(Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia)

Abstract : This research study describes the use of Augmented Reality (AR) as an emerging form of experience
in which the real world is enhanced by computer-generated content. AR pop-up books for instance will help
students bridge the gap between the digital and physical world. Students are able to use the AR pop-up book as
the primary interface, changing perspective or direction by moving the book through their webcam where a
marker detection which is a two-dimensional patterns to carry information that are attached to the book page.
AR technology is adopted in this research study because it has the potential to motivate and support students in
English language learning. In learning a second language, research has established that it is utmost important
that students receive maximum support in terms of supportive and conducive learning environment. The AR
pop-up book is developed using ZooBurst tool and the design is incorporated with a problem solving approach
which is Kellers ARCS model: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. The development process is
enhanced using Kellers ARCS model of motivational design. The result of the study is obtained from
observations of Year One primary school students using the AR pop-up book and followed by semi-structured
interview.
Keywords - ARCS model, ARCS model of motivational design, Augmented Reality pop-up book, English
language learning, Motivation.

I. INTRODUCTION
The focus of interest in this empirical study is in the nature of promoting the augmented reality (AR)
pop-up book to increase motivation in English language learning among Malaysian primary school students.
English is taught as a second language of Standard British English in Malaysian primary school in Year One
(seven years-old), right through Year Six (12 years-old). English is taken into consideration because of the fact
that today knowledge comes to us in English language. English language encompasses most knowledge
acquired processes. In addition, the concern for low English language literacy among Malaysian students is
regarded. The commitment to address the low literacy has been highly regarded by the Malaysian government
[1]. Motivation in English language learning among Malaysian primary school students is seen to be the main
factor in the English language literary issue.
Legault, Green-Demers, and Pelletier, [2] reported one of the most prominent academic problems
plaguing today teenage youth is a lack of motivation toward academic activities. This is mainly because of the
instructional strategies that do not meet the needs of the learners. There is a lack of creative use of technology
and active participation of students in the current primary school where English language learning is concerned,
in addition to this, there are many Malaysian students who have problems in learning and communicating in
English in schools [3]. Students need more meaningful interactions such as the use of augmented reality (AR) in
classroom environment rather than the traditional method itself. Physical English book usually provide students
with non-immersive experience with lack of motivation elements such as attention, confidence, and even
satisfaction.
Augmented reality (AR) allows students to see the real world and have total immersion experience. At
first instant, students may have encountered web applications which enable them for view quick response (QR)
codes through their webcam [4]. QR codes or also known as marker which is a digital information that can be
attached to images either on cards, papers, or other surfaces. When a marker is held in front of a webcam,
students who are using the AR applications through computer can view digital content superimposed on the
marker in their hands [4]. In addition, when students move or rotate the marker, the digital content will also
moves or rotates together. Collaboration between the participants is achieved through the use of a tangible AR
interfaces that use marker cards as well as an immersive AR environment which is based on software user
interfaces (UIs) and hardware devices [5].
Furthermore, the English language learning lessons embedded in the augmented reality (AR) pop-up
book are used where the theoretical framework is guided by Kellers ARCS model. The acronym ARCS is
derived from four categories of motivational factors (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) that
The Use of Augmented Reality Pop-Up Book To Increase Motivation in English Language Learning
are based on an aggregation of motivational concepts and theories according to their shared and discriminative
attributes [6]. The AR pop-up book is developed using the ZooBurst application tool through the step by step of
ARCS motivational design process. The outline of this research study is given in Appendix 1.
Wei and Elias, [3] in their study reported that, teachers, schools, and the Ministry of Education find
ways to increase interest in English language learning among learners and become intrinsically motivated to
learn the language. Thus, the objectives of this research were to determine the relationship between augmented
reality (AR) pop-up book and motivation among primary school students and to investigate the use of AR pop-
up book towards English language learning.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Literature review has been discussed in section II,
methodology is presented in section III, section IV describe complete application of augmented reality (AR)
pop-up book, section V elaborated the findings, section VI presents discussion, and the paper is concluded in
section VII.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW
ZooBurst Tool for Augmented Reality (AR) Application
ZooBurst is an educational digital storytelling tool that is designed to let anyone easily create their own
augmented reality 3D pop-up books. ZooBurst can be experienced using a web browser running the Adobe
Flash plug-in and a webcam. The on-screen book is entirely interactive, allowing readers to change the page,
click on characters to see dialogue, or tilt the paper in any direction to view the story from different angle [4].
The interactivity in ZooBurst application gives students an opportunity for total immersion. The immersive in
learning will increase motivation as well as allow students to improve performance

Augmented Reality Technology in Education
The use of augmented reality (AR) in formal education could prove a key component in future
learning environments that are rich populated with a blend of hardware and software applications [7]. Similar
to this, in the development of AR pop-up book in English language learning, it allows the digital content to be
overlaid and mixed into students perception of the real world.
In addition, Yuen, Yaoyuneyong, and Johnson, [4] describe in their research study that augmented
reality (AR) technology has great potential to offer learners with 3D presentations and interactive experiences
that are more appealing than digital native learning. The exciting presentations and experiences in AR
technology will increase motivation in English language learning such as in ZooBurst. Students are able to
interact with the book using simple gestures such as simply waving hand in front of the book to turn its pages.
Also, Yuen, Yaoyuneyong, and Johnson, [4] have reviewed an example of AR book entitled The Future is
Wild: The Living Book which is able to increase motivation in learning by encouraging students to build a
connection to a book. The book was developed by Meatio, a company in Germany and launched at the Frankfurt
Book Fair in 2011.
Further, learning with realistic audio-visual contents in AR technology will motivate learners by
providing a better learning environment especially for learners in primary school, level 1 where learning with
text itself is difficult. Related to this, according to Lee, Choi, and Park, [8] in their research study on e-learning
system using AR technology, the proposed e-learning system augments the audio-visual contents as the
students interact with the objects in the text book. The used of audio-visual contents are proven to improve
learning as the authors tested their proposed e-learning system with real elementary education courses, and they
obtained successful result [8].
Augmented reality technology in education is a key element of future learning environments. It is also
a promising educational tool that helps to enhance learning through motivation.

English Language Learning in Primary School
One of the important elements in learning is the students motivation to learn English language from
the beginning of formal education. The motivation to learn English language among Malaysia students is vital
in their process of learning [3]. Performance will improve if students are motivated to learn.
According to Che Musa, Lie, and Azman, [1], the study maintains that, apart from the linguistics
obstacles, the social surroundings such as unenthusiastic attitude, lack of interest towards learning the language
and the environment that do not encourage learners to use the language have worsened the effort of acquiring
the language. Giving the exciting way of learning using interactive technology will make it possible to enhance
students interest to learn English.
Moreover, Zubairi and Sarudin, [9] stated that Puhafl, Christian, and Rhodes reviewed that successful
foreign language programmes shared several common features including (a) an early start for students to learn
languages and (g) creative use of technology. Therefore, primary school will be the best platform to
enhance the development of English language learning skills by integrating interactive technology in learning so
that the lessons are meaningful to learners. Knowing English language has become an added advantage and also
an economic commodity.

Kellers ARCS Model of Motivation
Educators know the challenge of stimulating and sustaining learner motivation and the difficulty to find
suitable methods for motivating learner [10]. Thus, Keller, [10] suggested one approach to meet this challenge
which is the ARCS model of motivation where it provides systematic guidance to design motivational
augmented reality (AR) pop-up book in English language learning. The framework of motivational augmented
reality (AR) pop-up book in English language learning is given in Appendix 2.
Motivation in English language learning is vital because of the low English literacy among students in
Malaysia and this is supported by Keller, [11] where motivation to learn is promoted when a learners curiosity
is aroused due to a perceived gap in current knowledge.
To create an effective, efficient and attractive AR pop-up book, all the four categories of motivation
(Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) are necessary and require deep understanding [12]. In
addition to the four categories of motivation, Keller, [10] provided the component parts, or subcategories that
represent specific aspects of motivation. These component parts are essential in the development of augmented
reality (AR) pop-up book for a learner to be fully motivated in English language learning.
The first step in motivation acquiring the Attention of the learner during the learning period and
ensuring its continuity [12]. Relevance comes next where the content of the augmented reality (AR) pop-up
book shouldnt be difficult to learner, the curiosity of whom is stimulated, to preserve interest and curiosities
[12]. In addition to the next two categories of the ARCS model, Sali, [12] stated that Confidence is where
learners develop positive expectation in order to perform a high degree of success and Satisfaction is the result
that learner get from the English language learning with AR pop-up book.

III. METHODOLOGY
In this research study, two stages of data collections had been carried out. Observation had been carried
out to observe the motivation level that the participants shown during the lesson. In addition, a semi-structured
interview had been carried out to confirm the results derived from the observation. This process was recorded
with permission. Thus, these two methods will then triangulate this research study.

Participants
Five participants from northern region in Malaysia were selected based on convenience sampling
method. They were all aged seven and were in primary school. This sample group included one Indian male,
one Malay male, and three Malay females.
Instruments
There were two instruments used in this research study. The first instrument which is given in
Appendix 3 was the observation checklist adapted from Keller [13]. This instrument denotes not observed (1),
more emphasis recommended (2), and accomplished very well (3). The right best number that represents the
participants respond is circled throughout the observation by the researcher.
The second instrument was semi-structured interview as shown in Appendix 4. It has been derived
from Kellers ARCS model of motivation [10]. The questions have been manipulated according to standard
level of Year One students. The interview questions are provided in both English and Malay language.

Data Collection
In this research study, data was collected in the forms of observations and semi-structured interviews.
Convenience sampling method was used to sample the sample group for both observations and interview
sessions. Data were collected through:
Observations. Observations were conducted in a school library by the researcher during recess time and
extend to the next one hour of lesson. The observation was done with one participant at a time and it took ten
minutes for each participant to complete the English language learning using AR pop-up book. Participant
briefing was held at the beginning of the learning. The researcher measured the motivation level of each
participant by using the observation checklist In addition, video recording was done throughout the learning for
further coding and transcribing processes.
Semi-structured Interviews. Interview sessions were conducted right after the observation session with
one participant at a time. The setting remained the same. The interview session took approximately seven to ten
minutes for each participant. A set of similar questions were asked accordingly. All the participants were
interviewed in Malay language as requested by the primary school. Also, video recording was done for further
coding and transcribing processes to repeat on what they said due to the nature of qualitative methodology.

Data Analysis
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to measure the mean resulted from the
observations. It was descriptive coding. Next, data from the interviews were analyzed using content analysis
procedures. After the transcript process was done based on the interviews other data were intensively read and
carefully coded to cross-examine possible underlying meanings. The process of interviews was used to fill up
the gaps from observation.

Figure 1 Motivational Design: Nine Step Model Adapted from Keller (2000)
IV. AUGMENTED REALITY (AR) POP-UP BOOK
There are many augmented reality (AR) educational application that are used to support learning.
However, one of the missing components in the existing applications is motivation elements. Thus, this research
study has adapted Kellers ARCS model of motivational design as shown in Figure 1 for the development of
motivational AR pop-up book in English language learning which focuses on English grammar. This
motivational design contains a systematic design process with nine-step. According to Keller, they provide the
basis for the second major feature of the ARCS model which is the systematic design process that assists you in
creating motivational tactics that match student characteristics and need [10].

Figure 2 Instruction
Following are a few illustrations of the final augmented reality (AR) pop-up book that has been
developed with ZooBurst.


Figure 3 Welcome Page
Figure 3 represents the first page of the augmented reality (AR) pop-up book. The page is displayed with
dynamic multimedia elements such as animation, graphics, texts, and sound. The 3D image is displayed through
a camera mode. Then, to display AR mode, a printed code as shown in Figure 2 is held by students in front of
the webcam. The perceptual, arousal, inquiry arousal, and variability are applied.

Figure 4 Animal Sounds

Figure 4 represents the second page of the augmented reality (AR) pop-up book. The page starts with
the first topic of English grammar which is animal sounds. It is based on the primary school Year One English
syllabus. The motive matching and familiarity are applied.
The rest of the pages represent more topics on English grammar.

V. FINDINGS
This section reports the findings of the observation and semi-structured interview carried out on
primary school students motivation using augmented reality (AR) pop-up book in English language learning.
A. Observation
Descriptive statistics on mean was performed to describe the level of motivation on five participants.
Apart from that, frequency diagrams and pie charts were used to show the distribution of the data. Finally, the
significant value for reliability test is shown to measure internal consistency that is, how closely related a set of
items are as a group.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics: Minimum, Maximum, Mean, and Standard Deviation for Motivation in
English Language Learning Using Augmented Reality (AR) Pop-Up Book
Description N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Attention Q1

5

3.00

3.00

3.0000
.
00000
Attention Q2 5 2.00 3.00 2.6000 .54772
Attention Q3 5 2.00 3.00 2.6000 .54772
Attention Q4 5 1.00 3.00 2.2000 1.09545
Attention Q5 5 3.00 3.00 3.0000 .00000
Attention Q6 5 1.00 1.00 1.0000 .00000
Relevance Q1 5 2.00 3.00 2.6000 .54772
Relevance Q2 5 1.00 3.00 2.4000 .89443
Relevance Q3 5 1.00 3.00 2.2000 1.09545
Confidence Q1 5 3.00 3.00 3.0000 .00000
Confidence Q2 5 2.00 3.00 2.6000 .54772
Confidence Q3 5 1.00 1.00 1.0000 .00000
Confidence Q4 5 3.00 3.00 3.0000 .00000
Satisfaction Q1 5 1.00 3.00 2.4000 .89443
Satisfaction Q2 5 1.00 3.00 2.2000 1.09545
Satisfaction Q3 5 1.00 3.00 2.4000 .89443
Satisfaction Q4 5 1.00 3.00 2.2000 1.09545
Attention Q1 in Table 1 represents Shows initial interest in lesson has a spread of 0.00 over 3.00
mean with the maximum score of 3.00. The frequency diagram and pie chart showed the percentage of 100%
scored on accomplished very.
Attention Q2 in Table 1 represents Interest retained during lesson has a spread of 0.55 over 2.60 mean
with the maximum score of 3.00 and minimum score of 2.00. The frequency diagram and pie chart showed two
participants with the percentage of 40% scored on more emphasis and three participants with the percentage of
60% scored on accomplished very well.
Attention Q3 in Table 1 represents Shows curiosity for aspects of lesson has a spread of 0.55 over
2.60 mean with the maximum score of 3.00 and minimum score of 2.00. The frequency diagram and pie chart
showed two participants with the percentage of 40% scored on more emphasis and three participants with the
percentage of 60% scored on accomplished very well.
Attention Q4 in Table 1 represents Retains attention throughout the lesson has a spread of 1.09 over
showed two participants with the percentage of 40% scored on not observed and three participants with the
Attention Q5 in Table 5.0 represents Repetition and practice leads to boredom has a spread of 0.00
over 3.00 mean with the maximum score of 3.00. The frequency diagram and pie chart showed all five
participants with the percentage of 100% scored on accomplished very well.
Attention Q6 in Table 5.0 represents Method of lesson too hard/challenging to maintain attention has
a spread of 0.00 over 1.00 mean with the minimum score of 1.00. The frequency diagram and pie chart showed
all five participants with the percentage of 100% scored on not observed.
Relevance Q1 in Table 1represents Can relate method/lesson to personal interests/experiences has a
spread of 0.55 over 2.60 mean with the maximum score of 3.00 and minimum score of 2.00. The frequency
diagram and pie chart showed two participants with the percentage of 40% scored on more emphasis and three
Relevance Q2 in Table 1 represents Understands how the method/content relates to learning
goals/targets has a spread of 0.89 over 2.40 mean with the maximum score of 3.00 and minimum score of 1.00.
The frequency diagram and pie chart showed one participant with the percentage of 20% scored on not
observed, one participant with the percentage of 20% scored on more emphasis, and three participants with the
Relevance Q3 in Table 5.0 represents Sees the point/purpose of lesson for longer term personal goals
has a spread of 1.09 over 2.20 mean with the maximum score of 3.00 and minimum score of 1.00. The
frequency diagram and pie chart showed two participants with the percentage of 40% scored on not observed
and three participants with the percentage of 60% scored on accomplished very well.
Confidence Q1 in Table 5.0 represents Shows confidence about using the method has a spread of 0.00
over 3.00 mean with the maximum score of 3.00. The frequency diagram and pie chart showed all five
Confidence Q2 in Table 5.0 represents Believes that she/he can cope with the method has a spread of
0.55 over 2.60 mean with the maximum score of 3.00 and minimum score of 2.00. The frequency diagram and
pie chart showed two participants with the percentage of 40% scored on more emphasis and three participants
with the percentage of 60% scored on accomplished very well.
Confidence Q3 in Table 5.0 represents Communicates about difficulties/challenges of learning
method has a spread of 0.00 over 1.00 mean with the minimum score of 1.00. The frequency diagram and pie
chart showed all five participants with the percentage of 100% scored on not observed.
Confidence Q4 in Table 5.0 represents Takes control of lesson activities has a spread of 0.00 over
3.00 mean with the maximum score of 3.00. The frequency diagram and pie chart showed all five participants
Satisfaction Q1 in Table 5.0 represents Enjoy learning so much that wants to do more has a spread of
pie chart showed one participant with the percentage of 20% scored on not observed, one participant with the
percentage of 20% scored on more emphasis, and three participants with the percentage of 60% scored on
accomplished very well.
Satisfaction Q2 in Table 5.0 represents Shows that working at lesson is worthwhile has a spread of
pie chart showed two participants with the percentage of 40% scored on not observed and three participants with
the percentage of 60% scored on accomplished very well.
Satisfaction Q3 in Table 5.0 represents Shows pleasure during the lesson has a spread of 0.89 over
showed one participant with the percentage of 20% scored on not observed, one participant with the percentage
of 20% scored on more emphasis, and three participants with the percentage of 60% scored on accomplished
very well.
Satisfaction Q4 in Table 5.0 represents Experiences satisfaction when lesson completed has a spread
of 1.09 over 2.20 mean with the maximum score of 3.00 and minimum score of 1.00. The frequency diagram
and pie chart showed two participants with the percentage of 40% scored on not observed and three participants

Table 2: Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items

.990 .997 12
The reliability test was done using on the observation checklist using Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS) and the alpha coefficient for the 12 items was 0.990, suggesting that the items have relatively
high internal consistency.

B. Semi-structured Interview
The semi-structured interview had been carried out to confirm the results derived from the observation.
The questions were asked according to the ARCS model of motivation. The interview had been done in Malay
language and the answers given from the participants were recorded accurately, without modification.

Attention
Perceptual arousal as a whole was found to be interesting and captured their interest during learning.
Participants reviewed that the augmented reality (AR) pop-up book generated inquiry and they
managed to solve those problems by themselves after a few tries.
Finally, for variability, there were two participants who were lack of interest in English language
learning and using computer for some reasons, thus they did not give full attention during the learning process.
They, however, still had the interest to learn in a way that it did not put aside the school books.

Relevance
Participants were able to apply the knowledge in the classroom setting, and able to enhance their skill
in computing. However, participant 4, and participant 5 replied in a tone that indicated them having low literacy
in English language learning.
English was always coincides with their own desires. Thus, the learning was more relevance as it
matches their motive and value in learning. While, having low literacy in English language learning has made
participant 5 felt a coercive learning.
Familiarity as a whole according to all participants was the learning experiences in English language
learning and computing related to the AR pop-up book.

Confidence
Participants reviewed that the augmented reality (AR) pop-up book assisted them in the learning
session.
Participants 1, 2, and 3 described that they were able to remember the lesson while participant 4 and 5
slightly remember what they have learned. However, all the participants felt that the content was enough for
them to learn.
Participants described that they went through all the topics as they had more control over their time for
the learning. They felt more confident in achieving success through the personal control during the lesson.

Satisfaction
Participants were given an opportunity to speak English after the learning session and they were able to
use their newly acquired knowledge to have the intrinsic reinforcement through the short story telling session.
However, participant 4 and 5 did experienced emotional distress at the beginning as they had low literacy in
English but they managed to give it a try.
Participants were all excited to have the rewards and it gives them satisfaction in learning, thus increase
their intention to learn more especially for participant 4 and 5.
Equity as a whole was found to be easy for the participants in terms the ease of use for the learning
material and the content itself which was cleared and easy to learn.

VI. Discussion
All five students were observed to show initial interest in lesson, interest retained during lesson, shows
curiosity for aspects of lesson, and retains attention throughout the lesson in the learning session. This can be
further described from the interview process where students were excited about computer aided learning hence,
attracted to the augmented reality pop-up elements. This can be shown in their happy facial expression. This
phenomenon can be supported by Sali, [12]. In the research, she stated that various studies have indicated that
variability, unexpected events, curiosity and incompatible situations stimulate attention. However, two
students were observed to have lack of attention because they had low literacy in English language.
Next, three students were successful observed can relate method/lesson to personal
interest/experiences, understand how the method/content relates to learning goals/targets, and see the
point/purpose of lesson for longer term personal goals. This can be further described from the interview process
where students were able to apply their knowledge in the classroom setting. Also, the learning session matched
their motive and value. The augmented reality (AR) pop-up book was designed in a way that familiar to their
learning experiences. This can be supported by Keller, [10] where he stated that, although a curiosity is aroused,
motivation is lost if the content has no perceive value to the learners. Two students were observed that the
lesson was not fully relevance to them with the same reason of having low literacy in English language. This
can be described from the interview process where one of the two students felt a coercive learning for having
low literacy.
All students were observed to shows confidence about using the method, believe that she/he can cope
with the method, and takes control of lesson activities. This can be further described from the interview process
where students were able to build success as their learning requirement was fulfilled by the learning material.
They were also believes to achieve success for having more control over their time for the learning session. This
can be supported by Keller, [10] that confidence is not likely to increase if the students believe that success was
due to external factor such as luck or lack of challenge.
Finally, the observation was on satisfaction as the result of the learning session. Three students were
successfully observed to enjoy learning so much that wants to do more, shows that working at lesson is
worthwhile, shows pleasure during the lesson, and experiences satisfaction when lesson completed. Two
students were not observed on most criteria for the satisfaction. However, this can be further described from the
interview process where all students were actually showing their satisfaction by using their newly acquired
knowledge to have the intrinsic reinforcement through a short story telling session although at the beginning the
two students with low literacy experienced emotional distress but they managed to give it a try. Besides that,
students were all excited to have rewards as the feeling of satisfaction with their learning session. In addition,
Sali, [12] reported that motivation in high degree is realized as a result of satisfaction. The interview session
reviewed that students were satisfied with the difficulty level of the learning material. Also, this phenomenon
can be supported by Keller, [11] where he stated that it is important for students to feel the amount of work
required by the course was appropriate.

VII. Conclusions
The observation and semi-structured interview successfully answered both research questions. Year
One students perceive augmented reality (AR) pop-up book as being motivational through the attention,
relevance, confidence, and finally the feeling of satisfaction as a result from the learning session. Besides that,
the important elements that contributed to the success in English language learning by using augmented reality
(AR) pop-up book were perceptual arousal, inquiry arousal, variability, goal orientation, motive matching,
familiarity, learning requirements, success opportunities, personal control, intrinsic reinforcement, extrinsic
rewards, and equity. All these elements are essential for students to be fully motivated in learning.
Apart from that, through the continuing research in augmented reality (AR) technologies and
motivation, classroom can be even more immersive and inspiring for students, thus enhance their performance.

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Appendix 1: Research Framework Adapted from Steven J. McGriff (1999)

Appendix 2: Framework of motivational augmented reality (AR) pop-up book in English
language learning (2.0)
Framework of motivational augmented reality (AR) pop-up book in English language learning (2.0)
Motivation (2.4)
Attention
2.4.1

Arousing and sustaining
curiosity and interest

Relevance
2.4.2

Learner needs, interest, and
motives.
Confidence
2.4.3

Develop positive expectations.
Satisfaction
2.4.4

Extrinsic and intrinsic
reinforcement for effort.
A. Perceptual Arousal
2.4.1.1

Capture interest using novel
approaches; inject personal or
emotional material.

A. Goal Orientation
2.4.2.1

Develop goals or demonstrate
utility of instruction to meet the
needs.

A. Learning Requirements
2.4.3.1

Assist in building a positive
expectation for success.

A. Intrinsic Reinforcement
2.4.4.1

Meaningful opportunities for
learners to use their newly
acquired knowledge.

B. Inquiry Arousal
2.4.1.2

Stimulate an attitude of inquiry
by using mystery, unresolved
problems, and other techniques.

B. Motive Matching
2.4.2.2

Provide appropriate choices,
responsibilities, and influence
using authentic exercises; match
individual to learning style.
B. Success Opportunities
2.4.3.2

Learning experiences that
support learners beliefs in their
competence.
B. Extrinsic Rewards
2.4.4.2

Reinforcement to the learners
success.

C. Variability
2.4.1.3

Maintain interest using
variations in presentation style.

C. Familiarity
2.4.2.3

Tie instruction to learners
experience using concrete
example and analogies to relate
materials to learners live.

C. Personal Control
2.4.3.3

Techniques that allow learners
to clearly know their success is
based upon their efforts and
abilities.
C. Equity
2.4.4.3

Assist learners in anchoring a
positive feeling about their
accomplishments.
Note: Numbers refer to sub-heading within Chapter two
Appendix 3: Observation checklist
OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
Name:
Date: Time:

Respond to each statement using the following scale:
Not observed More emphasis recommended Accomplished very well
1 2 3
Content Organization Not observed More emphasis Accomplished very well

ATTENTION

1

2

3 Shows initial interest in lesson

Interest retained during lesson
1

2

3
Shows curiosity for aspects of lesson
1

2

3
Retains attention throughout the lesson
1

2

3
Repetition and practice leads to boredom
1

2

3

Method of lesson too hard /challenging to
maintain attention

1

2

3

RELEVANCE

1

2

3
Can relate method / lesson to personal
interests/ experiences

Understands how the method / content
relates to learning goals / targets

1

2

3
Sees the point / purpose of lesson for
longer term personal goals

1

2

3
CONFIDENCE

Shows confidence about using the
method

1

2

3
Believes that she/he can cope with the
method

1

2

3

Communicates about difficulties /
challenges of learning method

1

2

3
Takes control of lesson activities

1

2 3
SATISFACTION

Enjoyed learning so much that wants to
do more

1

2

3
Shows that working at lesson is
worthwhile

1

2

3
Shows pleasure during the lesson
1

2

3
Experiences satisfaction when lesson
completed

1

2

3

Appendix 4: Semi-structured interview questions
Interview Protocol
The following information is to be used by the researcher before, during, and after the interview.
The researcher follows these steps:

Before the interview
Schedule interview with student during recess time. Be sure to schedule the room for the interview to take place with a teacher
present.
Request permission ahead of time to record the interview.
Assure the teacher and headmaster that results will be kept confidential.
Have all materials organized and ready for the interview.
Make sure to test recording equipment.
Make sure to bring extra batteries for recording equipment and use a high quality tape.

During the interview
Before beginning the interview session, the researcher introduces herself and records students name, date, and time.
Ask questions as written, but if the participant seems to misinterpret the question or to get off track with his/her response, asks
probing questions to clarify his/her response.
Try to avoid a dialogue during the interview-lets the participant do the talking.
In conclusion, asks the participant if he/she have any questions or comments.

After the interview
Write up (verbally attach) a brief report as soon as possible after the interview. Make sure to clarify any unusual occurrences
(such as an interruption in the interview), or her impressions of strange response from the participant. (e.g.,Were there any
questions that he/she seemed to find offensive or threatening, or questions that seemed unusually difficult to answer?)
Describe any insights that may not have registered through audio medium, or any other unusual occurrences during meeting.

Interview Questions
Name:
Date: Time:
Introduce yourself and the purpose of the interview:
After I introduce myself and have the recorder started, I will read the following:
Hi, thank you for learning with me today! What should I call you? Now I would like to ask a few questions to you on what you have
learned just now. You wont get any marks for answering my questions. I will take 10 minutes. Do you have any questions to ask me before
we start?

Confidentially:
Not to worry because I will keep all your answers as a secret
You are free to answer anything that you want and dont be scared

ATTENTION
1. Perceptual Arousal
Q1: Did you enjoy the lesson?
Q2: What did you like most about the lesson?

2. Inquiry Arousal
Q1: What problems did you have just now?
Q2: So, what have you done?

3. Variability
Q1: What were the things that make you like to use when learning?
Q2: What about the things that you like to see and hear?
RELEVANCE
4. Goal Orientation
Q1: What can you do with your learning today?

5. Motive Matching
Q1: You are learning English because you yourself want to learn or other people ask you to learn?

6. Familiarity
Q1: Do you know how to use a computer? If yes, for what?
Q2: Have you learned about the topics before this?

CONFIDENCE
7. Learning Requirements
Q1: Did you need help in your lesson from beginning until you finish just now? Why?

8. Success Opportunities
Q1: Can you remember the lesson?
Q2: Did you feel the topics enough for you, or a lot?

9. Personal Control
Q1: Did you complete all the topics in the lesson?
SATISFACTION
10. Intrinsic Reinforcement
Q1: Well, I want to give you a chance to tell me about yourself, your favorite colors, your family, and anything that you like to say
right now. Make sure it is in English. Let us start.

11. Extrinsic Rewards
Q1: Do you like to have something since you have finished your lesson with me? Why? Why not?

12. Equity
Q1: Was the lesson easy or difficult to learn?
e-ISSN: 23207388,p-ISSN: 2320737X Volume 1, Issue 1 (Jan. Feb. 2013), PP 39-45

Assessment of Industrial Safety Education Programmes In
Manufacturing Industries In Kaduna And Niger States Of
Nigeria

Atsumbe, B.N
1
. Ohize, E.J
1
. Abutu, Francis
1
,

Amine J. D
2

1.Department of Industrial & Technology

Education, Federal University of Technology,Minna Niger State
Nigeria
2.Department of Mechanical Engineerin, University of Agiculture,Makurdi, Benue State Nigeria

Abstract: Loss of working hours, low productivity and the loss of human and material resources due to
negligence of safety and industrial safety education programme has become an incessant problem in
manufacturing industries. This research study therefore focused on the assessment of industrial safety education
programmes in the manufacturing industries of Kaduna and Niger states of Nigeria. The study sought to
identify the industrial safety education training needs of the industries; the potential sources of industrial
accidents in workshops/laboratories of manufacturing industries and the suitable instructional methods used by
the industries to ensure safety and accident prevention in the industries. A 45 item questionnaire was used to
collect data from management staff and factory workers from 24 manufacturing industries spread across
Kaduna and Niger states of Nigeria. Mean ( X ) and Standard Deviation (S.D) were used for data analysis.
The study among others found that: a conducive working environment greatly reduce potential sources of
accidents and identifies appropriate industrial safety education training needs of the industries in addition to
the instructional methods adopted. The study also recommended that: Federal Government should ensure
monitoring and strict compliance with factories laws to save human and material resources and to create a
conducive working environment for industrial workers in Nigeria.

I. Introduction
Strict adherence to industrial safety has become a major challenge in the manufacturing industries of
Nigeria because of its effects on overall productivity and production cost. Ofuonye (2004) lamented on the
pathetic situation of incessant dozens of industrial accidents occurring in manufacturing industries in Nigeria on
a monthly basis leading to loss of life, injuries, damage to material resources and hindrance to achievement of
production target. It has been observed that a lot of accidents occur because of lack of safety awareness. Men
fall from ladders, operate their machines without a guard, drop objects on their toes, or cut their hands because
of misuse of tools. Some even get to the extent of crushing their fingers in between moving sprockets and some
rendered blind because of wrong settings of timing valves among others. According to Atsumbe (1996) all these
are the results of unsafe acts- the reason for these being that there have not been complete instructions or what
you may term safety education on safe practices. Safety education can take different forms for example by
having awareness meetings, posters, safety booklets, films, special classroom sessions, and some safety contacts
with safety specialist and supervisors. Some industrial organizations use what is termed mass educational
method. However it is important to stress that when industries embark on thorough and aggressive safety
education the following are bound to ensure, compensation and medical payments, reduced damage to
equipment and products, production delays and unnecessary subtractions from production profits are reduced to
the barest minimum. Further to this Atsumbe (2006) observed that correct safety education results in good
community relations, lower employee turnover and absenteeism, better employee morale, higher production
targets and steadier work. Manufacturing industries can be described as the industries that focus on the
transformation of materials and information into goods for the satisfaction of human needs.
Godbey (1979) described industrial safety as the science which investigates the facts by logic and
knowledge to ensure that personnel and equipment operate harmoniously in a defined environment which will
not encounter unexpected or inadvertent events that would result in injury or damage to either of them. Safety
education is a control process and a procedure which must be identified for the prevention and correction of
unsafe acts and conditions. Mewis (1995) emphasized the need for safety education in the industries to prevent
accidents and injuries. He also stated that the implementation of safety education programmes have contributed
immensely to the declining rate of accidents and injuries in industrial work places. Industrial safety education
programme in the industry is a very important component which cannot just be ignored by the industry but must
be enforced to the fullest to prevent injuries to workers, loss of life and damage to materials, tools, equipment
and machines. Miller (1998) stated that it is difficult to teach and implement industrial safety education
Assessment Of Industrial Safety Education Programmes In Manufacturing Industries In Kaduna And
programme without first giving thought to the causes of factory accidents. He also confirmed that factory
workers, students, safety engineers and teachers of safety must have a thorough understanding of how accidents
occur before they can identify an unsafe condition and correct the situation. A good safety education
programme is based on adequate instruction in the operation and maintenance of existing tools, equipments and
machineries.
Jain (2010) attributed the high rate of accidents in industries to poor attitude of workers towards safety
practices, poor attitudes of employers towards provision of safety awareness training courses and incomplete
instructions on safe practices and technical know-how on the operation of tools, equipment and machineries. He
also stressed that the absence of safety education have made workers operate machines without a guard, drop
objects on their toes, or cut their hands because of misuse of tools. Jain(2006) noted that lack of safety education
have led several workers into unsafe acts such as operating machines which they are not familiar with, lifting
heavy loads which is above their strength in an incorrect manner, adjusting moving belts, sprockets and timing
chains which has led to fatal accidents. He further emphasized that a good industrial safety education
programme for manufacturing industries should involve both mass industrial safety education methods as well
as personalized industrial safety education training method. Mass industrial safety education methods involve
having meetings, use of posters, safety booklets, films, special classroom sessions and some safety contacts by
safety teachers, specialists and supervisors; while the personalized industrial safety education training method
permits the conversion of safety generalities into specific safe practices that apply to a specific jobs and to the
individual doing the job. Personalized safety training is more effective since it permits consideration of the
workers rate of learning, his interests, his natural ability and his physical limitations at work.
According to Riggs (2010) industrial safety education programme will be ineffective if attempts are
made to control accidents without first creating a proper safety philosophy, teaching safety principles and
eliminating misconceptions about the causes of accidents. To prevent accidents and ensure safety at work,
safety rules have to be enforced, safe working conditions developed and workers trained to do the job safely.
Supervisors, safety teachers and engineers must believe that accidents are caused and they can also be
prevented. However, manufacturing industries in Nigeria in a bid to maximize cost go the extra mile to ensure
over utilization of human and material resources with little regard to industrial safety education which makes
personnel and material resources vulnerable to accident and loss of life. Apagu, Bulama and Diraso (2000)
found out that industrial accidents and mishaps can generally be attributed to environmental conditions, human
behaviours, and improper use of tools/machines. Specifically the accidents are tied to the following five
conditions: insufficient skill of the workers, lack of knowledge of safety education, poor work habits and
attitudes, unsafe behaviours and environmental hazards. Equipment in the industries need to be protected, while
workers and employers of labour need to have sound knowledge of industrial safety education to minimize loss
of life, materials and waste of working hours due to industrial accidents. It is the pathetic situation of constant
occurrence of industrial accidents in manufacturing industries in Nigeria due to the incessant negligence and
poor attitude towards industrial safety education programme that necessitated this study.

II Research Questions
Three research questions guided the study:
1. What are the industrial safety education training needs of the industrial workers in Kaduna and Niger states
of Nigeria?
2. What are the potential sources of industrial accidents in workshops/laboratories of manufacturing industries?
3. What are the suitable instructional methods used by the industries to ensure safety and accident prevention?

III Methodology
The study used a survey research design which focused on the assessment of industrial safety education
programme in manufacturing industries of Kaduna and Niger states of Nigeria. The research study covered 24
manufacturing industries spread across the two states under study. The respondents comprised 177 management
staff and 1488 factory workers. A 45 items questionnaire structured on a 5-point Likert scale response options
were used to collect data from the respondents. The research instrument was validated by five research experts,
one each from; the department of Technology Education, Federal University of Technology, Minna and
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa university, Bauchi; Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka; Safety department of Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation, Kaduna and Training
Department of Industrial Training Fund, Zonal Office, Minna and corrections were made appropriately before it
was administered. The data obtained from the respondents were analyzed using Mean ( X ) and Standard
Deviation (S.D). Therefore, items with mean score below 3.00 were regarded as disagreed while those with
mean score of 3.00 and above were regarded as agreed.

Research Question 1
What are the industrial safety education training needs of the industrial workers in Kaduna and Niger states of
Nigeria?

Table 1
Mean ( X ) Responses and Standard Deviation (S.D) of Management Staff and Factory Workers on
Industrial Safety Education Training Needs of the Industries in the States.
S/N ITEMS X SD REMARK
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.
Workers need to be familiar with safety regulations of the industry to
avoid industrial accident.

Workers need periodic re-orientation on the care and uses of the
machines and equipments to prevent accident.

Workers of industry need to know how and why they use protective
clothing in accident prevention.

Keeping the working environment free from obstacles to
Prevent accident is an area needed by the workers.

Newly employed workers need refresher courses to prevent
accidents.

Old employed workers need refresher on safety regulations to serve
as a reminder.

On the job training is the best method of safety instructions to
workers.

Types of accidents recorded in the industry are areas needed for
safety training.

First aid and medical attention are areas workers need training on.

General safety and health provisions will help in reducing accidents
in the industry.

Occupational health and environmental control are needed to reduce
accidents

Personal protective and life saving equipment are matters that require
the attention of workers.

Fire protection and prevention materials are good materials in
preventing industrial accidents.

Signs and signals when identified by workers can prevent accident.

Materials handling, storage and uses are areas where workers need
training.
4.32

4.49

4.42

4.39

4.33

4.35

4.27

4.03

4.25

4.17

4.09

4.24

4.32

4.23

4.15
0.96

1.01

1.05

1.03

0.98

1.01

1.04

0.94

0.94

1.04

0.89

1.15

1.14

0.95

0.94
Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

The data presented in table 2 showed that both categories of staff agreed with the 15 items with mean score
ranging from 4.03 4.49. The respondents agreed that the 15 items should be part of the training needs in the
industries in industrial safety education programme in order to reduce accidents while working.

Research Question 2
What are the potential sources of industrial accidents in workshops/laboratories of manufacturing industries?

Table 2
Mean ( X ) Responses and Standard Deviation (S.D) of Management Staff and Factory Workers on the
potential sources of Industrial Accident in Workshops/Laboratories of Manufacturing Industries.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.
Inadequate machine guarding contributes to industrial accident.

Defective condition of equipment can cause industrial accident.

Lack of signs, signals and barricades in the factories are sources of
industrial accident.

Improper use of mechanical aids such as jigs and fixtures are sources
of industrial accident.

Special lifting devices whose maximum load capacities are
exceeded.

Power tools not properly grounded and insulated do cause accident.

Floors, aisles, and inside passageways not kept clean.

Protective clothing such as gloves, protective shoes amongst others
when not used.

Incompetent personnel operating industrial equipment.

All fixed machinery not securely anchored to prevent movement.

Poor handling of industrial equipment is source of accident.

Poorly constructed workshop/laboratory buildings

Negligence to safety rules while working in the industries.

Improper illumination in the factories is a source of accident.

Poor safety awareness, education and safety training.
4.45

4.43

4.44

4.41

4.24

4.16

4.44

4.22

4.22

4.46

4.24

4.01

4.16

4.35

4.46
0.98

1.01

1.05

1.03

0.90

0.92

0.94

0.98

1.01

0.92

1.05

1.05

0.92

1.01

1.03
Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

The data in table 2 revealed that the management staff and factory workers agreed that all the 15 items presented
to them are potential sources of industrial accidents in
workshops/laboratories of manufacturing industries.


Research Question 3
What are the suitable instructional methods to be used by the industries to ensure safety and accident
prevention?

Table 3
Mean ( X ) Responses and Standard Deviation (S.D) of Management Staff and Factory Workers on
Suitable Instructional Methods used in Safety Education Programme and Accident Prevention.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.
Safety and accident prevention procedures are done through
individualized instruction.

Safety education programme is done through the use of public
relation activities.

Safety education programme to workers is done by enforcement of
the regulations.

Accident prevention and safety education programme is achieved by
the management through workshops and seminars

Lectures are mostly used by the industry in passing information on
safety programme.

Safety instructions to the workers are better done by the industrial
based teachers.

Suggestion boxes are tools for preventing accidents in the industry.

Formal classroom situation is the best way for safety education
programme in the industry.

Safety education programme through constant coaching of the
workers can reduce accident.

Interactive multimedia through shop demonstration can prevent
accidents.

Safety instruction through shop demonstration can prevent accidents.

Public lecture by safety experts on safety in the industry can be
frequently used.

Field trips and conferences on safety are necessary to prevent
accidents.

Use of television programmes can aid in preventing industrial
accidents.

Constant safety inspection by regulating bodies is a sure way of
safety education programme.
4.24

4.24

3.90

4.27

2.80

4.40

3.90

3.77

4.34

3.97

4.24

4.14

4.24

4.15

4.27
0.97

1.01

1.05

1.03

1.50

1.02

1.10

1.01

0.98

0.94

0.90

1.01

0.98

0.93

0.88
Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Undecided

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

Agree

The data in table 3 revealed that all items presented were accepted by the respondents as suitable instructional
methods used in safety education programme and accident prevention in industries except item number 5 with a
mean of 2.80 in which the management staff and factory workers were undecided.


V Discussion of Findings
The results on table 1 indicated that the 15 items identified in the instrument were accepted by both
categories of staff as being the areas of needs for their industrial safety education programme. Their mean
responses ranged between 4.03 to 4.49, which is high. It therefore mean that the respondents agreed with all the
items as such believed the items are the industrial safety education training needs of industry workers. The
workers attitude were mostly influenced by motivation received from the management on safety and machine
maintenance practices, accidents prevention practices and getting the gang way free of obstacles as these items
recorded very high mean ratings. In support of this finding are the works of Godbey (1979) and Miller (1998)
who observed that for any meaningful safety education programme to take place, the needs of the workers must
be ascertained before any safety training commences. Also Mewis (1995) point out that there are various ways
of determining the training needs of the workers; these include using instruments such as survey, questionnaires,
and personal interviews to gather data. This finding is in line with Miller (1998), as the training needs of the
industrial workers could be determined through the administration of questionnaires. It is therefore expected
that needs assessment would be carried out by industries to determine areas of need before embarking upon any
safety education and accident prevention programme to achieve maximum success.
Once the needs have been determined, training objectives must be developed and written down. These
objectives must be stated in terms of what employees should know and be able to do by the end of the training.
If these are done, safety education programmes would go a long way in reducing and preventing accidents in the
industry. Even though the findings showed that the industries have some safety and accident prevention
programmes in place, it is the view of the researcher that those accident prevention programmes may not be
elaborate and that is why the workers agreed that these items should be part of their training needs for safety
education programme.
The results on sources of accident shown in table 2 reveals that the staff agreed that the items identified
are all sources of accident in the industries. It therefore means that they are all potential hazards which if not
properly handle by workers can cause accidents which could lead to injury or death. But if the workers are
aware of these potential hazards and sources of accidents through safety education programme, accidents could
be prevented or reduced. This finding is similar to that of Miller (1998), and Ofuonye (2004) who stated that the
cause of industrial accidents could be traced to two things. It could be traced to unsafe physical conditions, e.g
inadequate mechanical guarding, defective condition of equipment, unsafe design and construction, poor
machine operation and arrangement, and lack of protective clothing and equipment. It could also depend on
unsafe environmental conditions which include noise, heat, vibration, radiation, toxic materials, dust, gases,
physical and chemical hazards. The finding implies that industries need to provide safe physical and
environmental conditions for its workers to prevent accidents in the industries.
Findings as evident from the study in table 3 showed that both categories of staff agreed with all the
items presented to them as suitable instructional methods of safety education programme with the exception of
item number 5. The respondents disagreed with lecture methods as a method mostly used by the industry in
safety education programme. Both the management staff and factory workers were unable to make decision on
the use of lecture method by industries in passing information on safety programme. It therefore means that the
industries, do not use lecture method in accident prevention programme perhaps because of the business nature
of the industries, it may be difficult to organize such lectures by the management. This is contrary to what
Miller (1998) said, that traditional lecture method of instruction may be the best way to impart any information
on safety and accident prevention.
However, Strong (1975), Boyd (1978) and Riggs (1981) are of the opinion that safety education
programme can take many forms. It may include classroom method, discussions, field trips, shop demonstration
and talks, etc. They went further to say that the programme will depend on multitude of factors, such as time,
money, number of employees and the business climate. The industries should, therefore, analyze and see the
methods that best suit their environment for a meaningful safety education. This is in line with Rodriques
(1990) who said that, industries should insist on formal, fully organized and documented safety education
programme, which is designed to develop awareness of safe and healthful practices to the workers based on
industries, resources and employee awareness.

VI. Conclusion
High production output, smooth manufacturing operations and high profit maximization can only be
achieved when the industrial activities continue smoothly and safely without interruption or excess downtime
resulting from loss or accident to human, machines, tools, equipments and materials. Therefore management
staff of manufacturing industries have to put in place a functional industrial safety education programme where
workers will be taught and trained about the various hazards inherent in industrial materials, tools, equipments
and machines. Factory workers should be trained to observe all safety precaution while working to prevent
accident and injury so as to create a safe and conducive working environment for all categories of staff in the
manufacturing industries in the Northeastern states of Nigeria.

VII Recommendation
Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:
1. Each manufacturing industry should have a comprehensive safety education and accident prevention
programme in place for its workers to prevent accident and injury. The yearly safety week is not adequate to
keep the workers aware of the dangers of the working environment.
2. Each manufacturing industry should have a health and safety department to be responsible for all safety
education programmes of the industry and also ensure the strict compliance of all safety regulations of the
industry by its workers.
3. Safety department in manufacturing industries should ensure that, the management provides a conducive
working environment for its workers according to the laws of the Federation.
4. Industries should take into consideration the instructional methods that best suit their industry as well as their
industrys training needs in order to impart the appropriate safety attitudes in workers.
5. The Ministry of Employment, Labour and Productivity should ensure strict compliance with the Factories
Act (Cap 126) of 1990 to save the lives of factory workers who are dying daily due to lack of safety
education and accident prevention programme in place.
6. The Factory Acts should be reviewed to make the penalty tougher for defaulters of the Law.
7. All the industries in the country irrespective of the area of location should have a safety education
programme to prevent accidents in the working environment. They should ensure that the working
environment is conducive for the workers so as to avoid any health and safety problems.
8. All the manufacturing industries should employ only skilled labour and qualified staff who will be able to
operate and man those equipment and machines with little or no difficulty, as it was discovered that
unqualified and unskilled staff are prone to accidents more than the skilled and qualified staff.
9. Management of the manufacturing industries should show more commitment towards safety education
programme by committing some of its resources to the programme so as to motivate its workers towards the
programme.

References
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[3] Boyd, J.E. (1978). Equipment for Rural Workshop. London: Intermediate Technology Publication.
[4] FRN (1990). The Laws of the Federation of Nigeria: Factories Act (Cap 126). Lagos: Federal Ministry of Justice.
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Washington DC; Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
[6] Hislop, R.D. (1999). Construction Site Safety: A Guide for Managing Contractors. Washington DC: Lewis Publication.
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International
Symposium. Antwerp, Belgium, June 6-9.
[9] Miller, K.L. (1998). Objective Based Safety Training: New York, Lewis Publishers.
[10] Otoole, M. (2003). Lone Workers: A Unique Safety Challenge. Retrieved June 20, 2004 from http//www.looksmart.com.
[11] Ofuonye, E. (2004). Factory Hands,Slave Labour. New Age Newspaper, June 3rd, 20-21.
[12] Pidgeon, N. (1998). Safety Culture Key and Theoretical Issues. Work snd Stress. 12, 202-216.
[13] Riggs, J.L. (1981). Production Systems: Planning, Analysis and Control. John Willey and Sons Inc., Newyork.
[14] Rodriques, C.C. (1990). Analysis of Subjective Response. In B.Das (Ed), Industrial Ergonomic and Safety II. London: Taylor and
Francis 619-626.
[15] Strong, M.E. (1975). Accident Prevention Manual for Training Programme. A Professional Publication of the National Association
of Industrial and Technical Teacher Education (NAITTE). Chicago: American Technical Society, 13-48.

Growth of Higher Education in India during the Period 1950-
2005

Dr. Heena Upadhyaya
Department of Business Economics, Faculty of Commerce
The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India

Abstract: Education influences Economic Development directly and also indirectly. The direct impact is
through productivity, employment, composition of the labour force, division of labour, mobility of labour, and
other such factors. The indirect impact is through savings, limiting family size, inculcating right attitudes and
skills, and by removing obstacles to social change and progress. It facilitates attitudinal changes for
modernization and social transformation. This study investigates the growth of higher education in India during
the period 1950 to 2005. The objective of this study is analyzed using the year wise growth rate formula. The
result shows that the there is satisfactory growth of higher education in India During study period.
Keywords: Education influences, Economic Development, Productivity, Employment, Modernization
I. Introduction
Developing countries and developed ones have rapid economic development as the primary objective.
Human beings play a crucial role in this development. Gerald M, Meir has aptly remarked: The key to
development is human being and his (her) abilities, values and attitudes must be changed in order to accelerate
the process of development (Meir G.M., 1975). Education plays a key role in this process. Theoretical and
empirical researches have substantiated the fact that investment in human capital formation of a country plays a
fundamental role in improving the efficiency and productivity of human beings, and through them the various
factors that complement and supplement the production process. This investment in people, especially through
the medium of education has attracted the attention of economists across the world. A properly planned
education system contributes significantly to the growth and economic development of a country (Agrawal P.,
1982). The modern university system in India came into existence during British rule. However, the seeds of
higher learning have its deep rooted origin since the vedic times in the form of gurukuls and ashrams.
In India, during the British rule, the first three universities were set up in 1857 and the thrust of
development was mainly on liberal Arts education. Growth was modest with 18 universities established over a
period of 90 years. Most of these followed the model of the three leading universities at Bombay, Calcutta and
madras. At the time of independence, there were 20 universities and about 500 colleges, with an enrolment of
less than 150,000. Presently, the Indian system of higher education is one of the largest in the world (Tilak JBG,
2007).

II. Review of literature
Lakdawala D.T. and Shah K.R. (1978) studied the funding pattern of education in Gujarat state during
1960-61 to 1969-70. The study examined the unit cost in colleges and their economic and optimum size. The
study proposed policy actions and revision of funding pattern in higher education.
Tilak J.B.G. and Varghese N.V. (1991), in their study entitled Financing of Education in India,
analyzed various aspects of public financing of education in India, particularly the centre-state partnership in
deciding the total amount of resource allocation to education, its distribution by levels of education and inter-
state differences. The study also discussed possible alternative sources of financing education. The study argued
that fee is an important source of additional financing for education in India. Majority of the resources spent on
education come from government sources, which has little possibility of any further increase. Therefore,
optimum utilization of existing resources and mobilization of additional resources becomes very important for
financing education in the coming years. Another important aspect is the devolution of financial and other
authority between the state and districts for evolving policies on financing education in India in the coming
years.
OECD conducted an Economic Survey of India (OECD, 2007). It suggested that there is an urgent need
to improve education in India. The study found that there are marked differences in educational attainment
across gender and social backgrounds. However, higher enrolment is just a first step to better outcomes. More
needs to be done to raise the quality of education, including providing stronger incentives for teachers to work
and improving both the attendance and completion rates of students and teachers training. Educational reforms
at the state-level and in OECD countries suggest that decentralisation helps to raise efficiency and should be
encouraged.
Growth of Higher Education in India during the Period 1950-2005
Agarwal Pawan (2006) in his paper on Higher Education in India: The Need for Change lays down an
agenda for reforms in the higher education sector in India. The paper relates to the growth of higher education in
India in relation to the changing funding pattern and suggests ways to ensure that higher education remains both
affordable and accessible to all. The author emphasizes the need for greater adaptability in the higher education
system so that it continues to provide the needed skills and trained workforce to the economy as it integrates
with the world economy. The author also suggests policy measures required to promote, sustain, and enhance
world-class research. Considering the weaknesses in the prevailing regulatory and quality assurance
environment. The paper provides a roadmap for reforms towards improved accountability of the system.
Mukherjee A.N. in his study Public Expenditure on Education: A Review of Selected Issues and
Evidence (2007) discusses the role of education in economic development which has been recognized in
mainstream economic literature. Divergence between the private and social rate of return from education is the
rationale for intervention by the state in ensuring equity in opportunity across the population. The New Growth
Theories predict that higher levels of schooling and better quality of workforce will lead to an increase in the
growth rate, further strengthening the case for public expenditure on education. The outcome of such research
has implications for the financing of education.
However, the effectiveness and efficiency of resource allocation by the government has generated
considerable debate, both from ideological and technical points of view. It is widely acknowledged that there is
a large scope for improvement in both the level and the quality of publicly funded education. New institutional
arrangements are being designed to address the deficiencies in incentives and monitoring, thereby improving
quality.
III. Objective
The specific objective of this study is to examine the growth of Higher Education in India During the
period 1950-2005

Hypothesis: There is no significance growth of higher Education in India during the Period 1950-2005.
Data Source and Research Methodology
The study used secondary data available in published sources. The time series data on Institutions,
Enrolment and Teachers in Higher Education in India were compiled from Various Report Published by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Higher Education New Delhi. Year wise Growth
Rate calculated by Following Formula:
Growth Rate= (New Value-Old Value/ Old Value)*100
Empirical Results
Table 1
Growth of Institutions, Enrolment and Teachers in Higher Education in India
Year Universities * Colleges Enrolment ('000) Teachers ('000)
1950-51 28 578 174 24
1960-61 45 1819 557 62
1970-71 93 3227 1956 190
1980-81 123 4738 2752 244
1990-91 184 5748 4925 271
2004-05 348 17625 10481 472
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Higher Education
Note: * Universities include central, state, private and deemed to be universities as also institutions of national
importance established both by the central and state Governments.
During 1950-51 to 2004-05, the number of universities has increased from 28 to 418, and the number
of colleges from 578 to 17,635. During the same period, enrolment in higher education has also increased from
0.174 million to 10.48 million. The number of teachers has also gone up from around 24,000 in 1950-51, to
4,72,000 in 2004-05. The expansion of higher education after independence was higher during the decades of
1950s and 1960s. This may be because of the growing demand for higher education during this period which
was a global phenomenon. The growth of such institutions was comparatively slow during the 1970s and 1980s.
However, during 1990s and onwards, the expansion of higher education system has regained momentum.

Table 2
Growth of Higher Education in India (CAGR %)
Year Universities Colleges Enrolment Teachers
1950-51 to 1960-61 4.86

12.15

12.34

9.96

1960-61 to 1970-71

7.53

5.90

13.38

11.85

1970-71 to 1980-81

2.84

3.92

3.47

2.53

1980-81 to 1990-91

4.11

1.95

5.99

1.06

1990-91 to 2000-01

3.75

6.85

5.48

3.84

2000-01 to 2004-05

11.22

12.14

5.69

4.55

Source: Authors own calculation
During the year 1950-51 to 1960-61, the number of universities has grown at a compound annual
growth rate (CAGR) of 4.86% per annum, while colleges at a rate of 12.15% per annum. During 1970s, 1980s
and 1990s, the rate of growth was relatively low compared to the earlier period on all parameters. This has
increased considerably during the period 2000 and then after when the compounded annual growth rate of
universities has been more than 11% per annum and that of students enrolment and teachers being around 5%
per annum. In the present times, as shown in table 1.05, as of 2006, the number of institutions has grown
considerably during the period 2001 and onwards. This may be because of the efforts made by the government
in promoting the establishment of institutions of higher education etc.

Table 3
Number of Universities and Other Academic Institutions till 2006
Academic Institutions Total number up to:
Type of Universities and other Academic Institutions
till 2006 1947 1966 1980 1993 2006
Central Universities 3 5 8 10 18
Institutions recognized as 'Deemed Universities' 5 11 12 30 95
Institutions of National Importance 2 9 9 10 13
State General Universities 18 56 81 112 176
State Agriculture Universities --- 6 20 25 40
Total 28 87 130 187 342
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Higher Education

As is shown in the table 3 there has been a sharp increase in the number of state universities and
institutions recognized as deemed to be universities during the recent times and the total number of
universities and other institutions has increased from 28 at the time of independence which has risen to 342
during 2006.

IV. Conclusion
Nevertheless, in spite of these impressive figures, India lags far behind the developed countries with a
population of 100 crores the country has only 417 universities. In contrast to this, Japan with a population of
12.7 crores has 684 universities and The USA, with a population of 27.6 crores, has 2364 universities. Germany
has 330 universities with population of 8.2 crores. The average size of Indian higher education institution in
terms of enrolment is much smaller compared to that of Europe, US and China.
References
[1] Agarwal Pawan (2006), Higher Education in India: The Need for Change
www.icrier.org/pdf/icrier_wp180_Higher_Educaion_in_India_pdf (viewed as on 12-1-2009)
[2] Agrawal, P. (1982) Financing of Higher Education in India, Ganga Kaveri Publishing House, Varanasi.
[3] Lakdawala D. T. and Shah K. R. (1978) funding pattern of education in Gujarat state during 1960-61 to 1969-70.Optimum
Utilization of Educational Expenditure in Gujarat, Ahmedabad, sardar Patel Research Institute
[4] Meier G.M (1975), Leading Issues in Economic Development, Oxford University Press, London.
[5] Mukherjee A (2007), Public Expenditure on Education: A Review of Selected Issues and Evidence, Working paper from financing
Human Development paper 1, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy.
[6] OECD (2007) www.oecd.org/dataoecd (viewed as on 12-1-2009)
[7] Tilak J.B.G and Varghese N.V. (1991) Financing of Education in India, International Institute of educational Planning, Anybool ltd.
United Kingdom
[8] Tilak, J.B.G. (2007), Student loan and Financing of Higher Education in India, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration,
July, Volume XXI, No. 3.


A study on adjustment of higher secondary school students of
durg district

Smt.vandana chauhan,
Asstt. Professor,Shiva college Bhilai

Abstract: Present study was conducted on 111 higher secondary students of Durg District, to as certain their
adjustment. Adjustment scale by A.K.P, Sinha and R.P. Singh was used for the purpose of data collection. The
t-test results indicate that there is significant difference in adjustment of higher secondary schools students and
Female students have good adjustment level when compared to the male students.

I. Introduction
The word adjustment means that behaviour that permits people to meet the demands of the
environment. It is also defined as a response to stress and adjust. Different psychologists and the leaders of
educational thoughts defined the process of adjustment in different terms.
The concept of adjustment was first given by Darwin, who used it as adaptation to survive in the physical
world.
Adjustment and adaptation are frequently used in the same sense. Initially adaptation was used by
person at meant to attempt to survive in physical conditions of environment .later on psychology come out with
the new term Adjustment with a broader concept. New Adjustment means behavioral reaction to personal
demands and social adjustment is commonly used in our everyday life. It is equally popular in the discipline of
psychology, sociology and education. Life is a continuous series of change and challenges. Everyone is facing
such situations for his survival or growth. Different persons use different ways to satisfy these needs. The
strategy used by the individual to manage this is called adjustment. Sometimes, the efforts of the individual are
successful and satisfying, then it is a case of good adjustment. But if a person meet frustration in his efforts
continuously , the personality adjustment may not be proper, then it might be a case of maladjustment.
Agarwal(2003): The investigator conducted a comparative study of adolescents level of adjustment in relation
to the academic success and failue. It was found that successful adolescents were significantly superior in their
social emotions and educational adjustment in comparison to unsuccessful addescents. Singh (2006) The study
examined the effects of socio, emotional and socio emotional climate of the school and sex on the adjustment of
students along with their interactionls effects. Boys were significantly better than girls in their health
adjustment at different levels of socio-emotional climate of the school.Parmar Gira B.(2012): The study has
been conducted to know the adjustment of secondary school students of Gandhi nagar district. In the study
effect of gender and category on the adjustment of secondary school students.

Objectives-
To study the total adjustment of higher secondary students.
To study the education adjustment of higher secondary students.
To study the emotional adjustment of higher secondary students.
To study the social adjustment of higher secondary students
To classify the students based on their adjustment scores.

Hypotheses:-
There will be no significant difference in; total adjustment between male and female of higher secondary
students.
There will be no significant difference in education adjustment between ale and female of higher secondary
students.
There will be no significant difference in emotional adjustment between male and female of higher
secondary students.
There will be no significant difference in social adjustment between male and female of higher secondary
student

A study on adjustment of higher secondary school students of durg district
II. Methodology-
Normative survey method of research was used.
Sample-
For the present study 51 boys and 60 girls were randomly selected from higher secondary schools of Durg
district of chhattisgarh state.

Tool used-
Adjustment Inventory for school students was constructed by A.K.P.sinha and R.P. Singh with 60 items
equally distributed on Emotional ,Social , Educational adjustments was used for total adjustment 5 cores.
Analysis of data and results-
The analysis of data its interpretation are presented below:
Critical ratio was used to test hypotheses. The results are shown in the following table :-

Table 1
Table showing t value of total adjustment of higher secondary male and female students
gender N MEAN S.D. SE
D
df t-value significant
male 51 19.196 6.71 1.16 109 4.69 Signf.
Female 60 13.75 5.277

The table-1 Shows that the obtained t value of 4.69 is greater than the table value of 2.61 at 0.01 significant
level for degree of freedom 109. Hence the null hypotheses is rejected. It is thus inferred that there is
significant difference in total adjustment between male and female of higher secondary students.

Table-2

Table showing t value of Emotional adjustment of higher secondary male and female students
gender N mean S.D. SE
D
male 51 5.254 2.82 .479 109 4.107 Signif.
female 60 3.283 2.05

The table-2 Shows that the obtained t value of 4.107 is greater than the table value of 2.61 at o.o1 significant
level for degree of freedom 109.Hence the null hypotheses is rejected. It is thus inferred that there is significant
difference in emotional adjustment between male and female of higher secondary students.
Table-3
Table showing t value of social adjustment of higher secondary male and female students -
D
male 51 6.94 2.78 0.2215 109 1.17 Non signif.
female 60 6.68 2.03

The table-3 shows that the obtained t value of 1.17 is less than the table value of 2.61 at 0.01 significant
level for degree of freedom 109. Hence the null hypotheses is accepted. It is thus inferred that there is no
significant difference in social adjustment of between male and female of higher secondary students.

Table-4
Table showing t value of educational adjustment of higher secondary male and female students.
D
male 51 7.039 2.99 0.53 109 6.065 signif.
female 60 3.80 2.55

Table-4 shows tat the obtained t value of 6.065 is grater than the table value of 2.61 at 0.01 significant level
fordegree of freedom 109. Hence the null hypotheses is refected. It is thus inferred that there is significant
difference in educational adjustment between male and female of higher secondary students

Classification ofstudents adjustment interms of categories scores:-
The students were classified on the basis of their adjustment into 5 groups. Based on scores obtained
in the questionnaire as those with: excellent, Good, Average, unsatisfactory, very unsatisfactory.
The following table-5 shows the sample classification on the basis of their adjustment scores.
A study on adjustment of higher secondary school students of durg district
Table-5
Classification of student based on adjustment scores:
category description male female
N percent N Percent
A Excellent 0 0 % 3 5%
B Good 10 19.60% 30 50%
C Average 27 52.94% 23 38.33%
D Unsatisfactory 10 19.60% 4 6.66%
E Very
unsatisfactory
4 7.84% - -

From the table-5 it can be seen that vast majority of female students i.e. 50% have good
Adjustment and male students i.e. 52.94% have average while 38.33% female are average adjustment and
6.66% are unsatisfactory whereas in male students19.60% are in good adjustment and 19.60% unsatisfactory
adjustment level.So that female are having good and excellent adjustment level than the male.

III. Conclusion-
On the basis of results that there is significant difference in total adjustment between male and female
of higher secondary students. The findings of the present study indicate that there is distinction between male
and female student in their adjustment. The female student have good and excellent adjustment. The female
student have good and excellent adjustment level when compared to the male students.

Reference-
[1] Harbans Singh(2006): Effect of socio- emotional climate of the school on the adjustment of students. Psycho lingua,2006,36,no. -
2,page.133-143
[2] Kusum Agarwal(2003); A comparative study of adolescents level of Adjustment in relation to the academic success and failure.
Indian Journal of psychometric and education. Vol34 (2) July 2003.page- 172-176 ISSN-03781003.
[3] Parmar Gira B. (2012) A study of adjustment of the secondary school students international indexed & referred research, Journal,
June 2012,ISSN- 0974,2832,RNI,RAJBIL 2009/29954,Vol/IV ISSUE 41

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