DRIVESHAFTS AND

UNIVERSAL JOINTS

The term "driveshaft" and "propeller shaft" are
synonymous, since both describe the basic function
that they are designed for, namely to transmit drive
from the output shaft of the transmission to the rear
axle assembly in order to drive, or propel, the vehicle
forward.

The three major functions of a driveshaft are as follows:

1. Since the driveshaft transmits both torque and speed
variations from the output shaft of the vehicle transmission to the axle, the shaft must be structurally
strong enough to handle the maximum low gear torque from the engine on through the transmission.
Consider for example that a typical Class 8 truck/tractor, using one of the newer high horsepower
engines, produces a peak torque around an average of 1250 lb. ft. (1694.75 Nm), when rated at the
430-450 BHP (320.6-335.5 kW) range. When coupled to a transmission (automatic or standard), low
gear ratio can be as much as 13 or 16:1 reduction. This kind of ratio would therefore produce 16 x
1250 lb. ft. breakaway torque to the driveshaft, which computes out to 20,000 lb. ft. of torque or
twisting force. The initial shock loads imposed on the driveline to move a heavily laden vehicle must
also be absorbed by the driveshaft. Therefore the driveshaft should be made as strong as possible to
be able to handle these loads and have a significant safety factor built in to handle shock loads. Drive
shafts are usually constructed with minimum practical weight, strong but as light as possible.
In addition, the shaft must be capable of transmitting the torque at the maximum vehicle speed in all
ratios of the transmission.
Critical Speed
Every driveshaft has a critical speed. Critical speed is the point at which a rotating driveshaft begins
to bow off its normal rotating centerline.
Drive shafts begin to vibrate as they approach critical speed. If they are operated at near critical
speed for an extended period, they often fail. This can damage the vehicle and possibly injure
persons nearby.
A drive shafts safe operating speed can be raised by increasing its tube diameter or by shortening
the installed center-to-center length of the driveshaft. Changing the installed length of a driveshaft will
require the use of multiple drive shafts with center bearings.
Important: The critical speed of an assembly can be affected by driveshaft imbalance, improper
universal joint operating angles, or improperly phased drive shafts. (A properly phased driveshaft has
the in-board yokes of the shaft in line with each other.) Since critical speed can ultimately cause drive
shaft failure, it is extremely important to be very precise in all applications.

2. With the driveshaft connected
from the transmission output shaft
to the axle, it must operate through
constantly changing angles
because the axles of the vehicle,
as they move up and down, must
by necessity create a change in
the angle of drive.



3. The driveshaft length must be capable of changing as it rotates and transmits torque due to this
necessary axle movement, torque and brake reaction, road surface changes, etc.

Component Identification
The driveshaft
consists of universal
joints, connecting
shafts, and
attaching flanges or
yokes. The term
"Cardan joint is the
correct name for
what we usually call
a "universal joint."
The concept was
first thought of by an
Italian mathematician named Cardano he never developed the joint any
further. A British inventor named Hooke expanded on Cardanos work
and actually produced the joint to support a compass, Hooke called his
invention a universal joint. In 1903 Clarence Spicer was the first person
to use the U-J oint to invent an automobile drive shaft, automobiles until
that time were driven by sprockets and chains.

The driveshaft is
constructed of special
high strength tubing with minimum practical weight,
which is then welded to its end members. Roller type
needle bearings are used on the U-J oint journal cross
since they are capable of withstanding high capacity
loads in a limited space while oscillating at high drive
shaft speeds.
Each bearing assembly is sealed in order to retain its
lubricant, as well as to prevent foreign material from
penetrating the bearing area. Any dust, dirt, or water
mixed with the bearing lubricant will seriously affect bearing life. Synthetic rubber seals are now used
on most commercial vehicle installations. These seals are designed to allow grease to purge from the
joint without allowing contaminants in.

Since drive shafts must change operating length because of
suspension articulation and torque windup, a slip joint must
be used. This consists of an internal and external spline
arrangement that allows the length to change as necessary.







Operating angles.
Because any U-J oint operating through an angle
has an inherent resistance to motion the allowable
drive shaft operating angle is limited by the speed
the driveshaft is expected to turn. The faster the
speed the lower the angle must be.



Non-constant
velocity
A shaft driven
through an angle
using a U-J oint
experiences non-
constant velocity,
that is that the
driven shaft speeds
up and slows down
twice during a
revolution. If a shaft
with one U-J oint
working through an
angle were
connected to a drive axle the vehicle would speed up and slow down twice through every revolution.
The resulting vibration would be unacceptable. The only way to cancel the non-constant or non
uniform speed is to put
another U-J oint at the
end of the shaft
operating at close to the
same angle this will
cancel out the speed
fluctuations. The angles
must be equal to within
one degree in most
cases to be effective.



There are two basic setups to accomplish this
cancellation, the parallel or waterfall joint
arrangement or the broken back arrangement. The
parallel type has angles that are equal to within 1
degree and are opposite. This is the preferred type
because angles remain equal throughout
suspension oscillation. The broken back style has
angles that intersect at the midpoint of the drive
shaft length, in this style the angles will not remain
constant during suspension oscillation because as
the length of the shaft changes the angles no longer
intersect at the midpoint of the drive shaft length
therefore it is usually found only in the rear rear axle
of a tandem set where there is very little length
change.






Driveshaft phasing
Heavy-duty two piece drive shafts must
be phased on installation in order to
ensure that each u-joint is in the same
portion of its revolution at the same
time. The in board yoke ears must line
up. If this is not done the driveshaft will
cause extreme vibration due to the shaft
winding up and unwinding as it travels
through a revolution. The reason for this
winding and unwinding is that joints are
not cancelling each other out at the right
portion of the shafts revolution.

Constant velocity joints.
Constant velocity joints eliminate the need for cancelling
angles and drive shaft phasing. There are two common types
in use in automotive applications.





Newly developed double Cardan style CV joint
Called the Yordak 1





Double Cardan joint
The double Cardan joint has two
Cardan joints in the same carrier and
non-uniform velocity is automatically
cancelled as the two joints always
have the exact opposite angle. The
joint has a centering socket and ball
which means that ensures the equal
angles. This joint may be used on a
shaft with no U-J oint on the opposite
end, (Companion flange), or the shaft may have a single U-J oint at the
opposite end in which case its operating angle must be 1 degree or less to
prevent vibration.




Extreme aftermarket
Double Cardan has
Continuous Operating
angle of 40 degrees


Front drive CV
joint
These CV joints
come in two
basic types the
Tripod plunge
type and the
Rzeppa, (both
plunge and
fixed).
There are many
variations but all have one or the other principle of operation.
The secret of these types
of CV joints is that the
angle formed between the
input and output side
always bisects the
centreline of the six balls or
the three tripod elements
which then ensure that
there is constant velocity
through the joint. These
joints are very popular as
drive shafts for front wheel
drive vehicles. Tripod joint bearing
Arrangement
There is another type of constant velocity
joint being developed in Australia at the
moment known as the Thompson Coupler.
Its inner workings are still proprietary
information so how exactly it works is not
public knowledge as yet but its inherent
lack of friction and smooth operation mean
that we will more than likely see more of it
in the future.


Drive shaft vibration
Drive shaft vibration can be caused by any problem that affects drive shaft balance, run out
(straightness), or u-joint operating angles. Driveline vibration is usually more rapid than vibration
caused by wheels and tires.
Drive shaft vibration may be similar to the vibration produced by an unbalanced clutch, flywheel, or
engine crankshaft.
When test-driving, drive in high gear at the engine rpm that causes the most vibration then shift into
different transmission gears or neutral while maintaining vehicle speed. If there is NOT a change in
the vibration, the vibration may be in the drive shaft. A vibration change indicates the engine, clutch,
torque converter, or
transmission is at fault.
When vehicle speed
remains the same, drive
shaft rpm remains the
same.
Drive shaft vibration can be
caused by undercoating on
the shaft, a mud build up,
missing balance weights,
damaged shaft, (dented),
worn U-J oints or sharp
drive line angle. Always check for these and other problems.

Drive shaft inspection
To inspect the drive shaft for wear or damage,
raise the car on a hoist. Look for undercoating or
mud on the drive shaft. Check for missing
balance weights, cracked welds, and other drive
shaft problems. To check for worn U-joints, wiggle
and rotate each U-joint back and forth. Watch the
universal joint carefully. Try to detect any play
between the cross and yoke. If the cross moves
inside the yoke, the U-joint is worn and should be
replaced.







Next check for endplay in the U-J oint if there is
excessive endplay, (more than .006), the joint is
worn and should be replaced. Always check U-J oint
before lubricating the shaft as grease can mask a
worn joint.
Also, wiggle the slip yoke up and down. If it
moves in the transmission bushing excessively
in a light duty application, either the yoke itself
or the bushing is worn. In heavy duty
application check the slip yoke for looseness or
movement on the splines the max allowable is
typically .012. Also inspect all the attaching bolts for tightness, (note that Spicer recommends not
reusing any of the attaching hardware when installing U-J oints). Make sure the motor mounts are not
broken. Look for any condition that could upset the operation of the drive shaft.
If you fail to find a problem, you may need to measure drive shaft run out (wobble) and check
balance.

Measuring drive shaft run out
Drive shaft run out is caused by a bent drive shaft, damaged yokes, or worn U-joints. A dial indicator
is normally used to measure drive shaft run out.
First, sand and clean around the front, center, and rear of the drive shaft. This will give the dial
indicator a smooth surface for accurate measurements. Mount the dial indicator perpendicular to the
shaft. The indicator base must be placed on a rigid surface floor pan, frame, or special post
stand).

The drive shaft must NOT be in a sharp angle during run out measurement, make sure that the
vehicle axles are in their normally weighted positions.
With the transmission in neutral, turn the drive shaft. Measure run out at the front, center, and rear of
the shaft. Compare your measurements to specs. Generally, drive shaft run out should not exceed
.010 to .030 in. (0.25 to 0.76 mm).
If drive shaft run out is beyond specs, try removing and rotating the shaft 180 degrees in the rear
yoke. Make sure the universal joints are in good condition and that the yokes are not damaged.
If after eliminating all other causes of vibration and if run out is okay, try rotating the shaft 180
degrees in the rear yoke to possibly lessen vibration, if there is still a vibration present the drive shaft
should be sent out for balancing.

Driveline Angularity
Driveline angularity is usually the last thing to look for when checking for vibration unless obvious
changes have been made to the vehicle running height or length etc. but after eliminating other
possible causes you may need to check the driveline angles.
To check the angles you will need a good protractor, most manufacturers print angularity worksheets
that you can use to record the angles and almost all have computerized angularity programs that will
do the calculating for you.
The following are Spicers recommendations.






























When a drive shaft has more than two angles to consider such as with a two piece shaft then all three
angles must be considered when eliminating vibrations. Again most Manufacturers produce
worksheets or computer programs to solve these situations. The following is a three angle worksheet
from Mack.

When using these sheets it is important to remember that shaft speed is Max engine RPM for
non overdrive vehicles and engine RPM times the overdrive ratio in overdrive vehicles

The computer programs that are put out by the manufacturers have greatly reduced the time and
effort required to do these calculations.

Lubrication
Some U-J oints are sealed and have no grease zerks all others must be lubricated regularly following
the OEM manual recommendations,
usually every 10,000 miles or 16,000
Kilometres. It is crucial that grease purges
from all 4 bearing cups and it is a good
idea to purge the cups until all of the
original lube is gone to avoid incompatible
greases from being mixed. If grease does
nut purge you must remove the joint and
locate the problem. If you notice moisture
or rust purging with the grease you must
replace the U-J oint.








Most slip yokes must also be lubricated on a regular
basis again usually every 10,000 miles or so but check
the OEM manual to be sure. When lubricating yokes the
grease should purge from the grease relief hole in the
Welch plug on the yoke and at the seal on the other end
of the yoke. In cold weather be sure to road test a
vehicle after lubricating the slip yoke to displace any
extra grease, if the grease is allowed to solidify slip yoke
action can pop out the Welch plug leading to loss of
lubricant and eventual failure of the slip joint.