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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE CRDOBA

FACULTAD DE DERECHO Y CIENCIAS SOCIALES
SECRETARA DE POSGRADO

ESPECIALIZACIN EN DERECHO DE LOS NEGOCIOS




INGLS I









Prof. Mara Eugenia Sandrin





UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE CRDOBA

FACULTAD DE DERECHO Y CIENCIAS SOCIALES.

CARRERA DE POSTGRADO: DERECHO DE LOS NEGOCIOS












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ASIGNATURA: INGLS I (nivel avanzado)

PROGRAMA

PROFESORA:

Mara Eugenia del Socorro Sandrin

AO: 2014


OBJETIVOS:
GENERALES
Desarrollar la capacidad para interpretar, al principio en forma guiada y posteriormente de
manera independiente, textos en ingls relacionados a las reas del Derecho Privado Contractual,
Negociacin, Anlisis de los Estados Contables, Derecho de Sociedades, Derecho Tributario,
Derecho del Trabajo y Seguridad Social, Derecho del Consumidor. Dichos textos tendrn una
complejidad progresiva en los aspectos estructurales, conceptuales y discursivos.
Lograr la adquisicin de un vocabulario amplio que permita una lectura inicial comprensiva.
Fortalecer en el alumno el inters por obtener y comprender informacin actualizada y de
calidad.
Utilizar la experiencia y los conocimientos que los profesionales tienen de la materia en la
lectura de los textos de la especialidad.
ESPECFICOS
Reconocer tems morfolgicos y estructurales y establecer relaciones entre los mismos a fin
de interpretar el mensaje contenido en textos de la especialidad.
Expresar correctamente en espaol el mensaje contenido en textos en Ingls.
Deducir el significado de palabras no conocidas.
Comprender las relaciones entre las oraciones a travs de elementos de cohesin
(gramaticales) y de coherencia.
Interpretar el texto asumiendo una actitud crtica-valorativa, sin modificarlo con sus
conocimientos previos.
Reconocer elementos gramaticales, lxicos y discursivos e identificar los elementos verbales y
no verbales como portadores de significacin.
Interpretar en castellano textos de variada complejidad gramatical, respetando el mensaje de
los mismos y transmitindolo con solvencia en el idioma castellano.

PROPUESTAS DE CONTENIDO
La frase simple

Los constituyentes de la oracin simple:

a) El sustantivo, sus complementos: el adjetivo calificativo. La nocin de cantidad aplicada al
sustantivo y al adjetivo (comparativos y superlativos). Los determinantes del sustantivo: artculos,
adjetivos demostrativos, adjetivos posesivos, pronombres interrogativos, adjetivos indefinidos y
pronombres relativos.

b) El verbo, sus formas, sus modos y sus tiempos. El infinitivo, el gerundio y el participio
presente. La voz activa y pasiva. Los complementos circunstanciales.


La oracin compuesta:


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La causa / la consecuencia, la finalidad, la intencin, la oposicin / la concesin, la condicin la
suposicin, etc.

Las modalidades de la enunciacin:
La afirmacin, la negacin, la posibilidad, la obligacin, etc.
Nota: estas nociones se evaluarn en situacin en tanto formadoras de sentido de un texto
determinado.
BIBLIOGRAFA
a) Bibliografa de Lectura Obligatoria:
El Manual de Ctedra incluye todos los contenidos del programa. Su estudio es de carcter
obligatorio.
Las explicaciones gramaticales estn extradas de las siguientes Gramticas:
-ALEXANDER, L.G. Longman English Grammar Edicin 1.994.
-ECKERSLEY, C.E.; ECKERSLEY,J.M. A Comprehensive Grammar to Foreign Students.
Longman. 1.974.
-QUIRK, Randolph. University Grammar of English
-THOMPSON AND MARTINET. A Practical English Grammar Oxford University Press.
-VAN DIJK, Teun A. La Ciencia del Texto

El material especfico de traduccin comprende textos que abordan las temticas de las
materias centrales del perodo lectivo. Dicho material est extrado de libros y de revistas de la
especialidad que puedan aportar a la permanente formacin de los profesionales. Asimismo, se
ha seleccionado material de Internet relativo a la especializacin y de complejidad gramatical
gradual.

b) Bibliografa de Consulta: El alumno podr consultar en la medida que lo considere necesario
o que el docente se lo indique, diccionarios bilinges o monolinges as como publicaciones de
actualidad afines a su carrera. La lectura de dicho material incrementar indudablemente el
vocabulario adquirido y contribuir a una comprensin de textos una cada vez mejor.

METODOLOGIA

Se brindar a los alumnos el marco terico necesario para la correcta interpretacin de los textos
que se trabajarn en clase en forma individual y/o grupal.
En este sentido, la metodologa del curso ser expositiva en cuanto se refiere a la parte terica
gramatical, seguida de la participacin activa de los alumnos en la interpretacin de los textos de
la parte prctica. Los temas se presentarn en forma gradual, revisando permanentemente el
material ya enseado, prestando atencin a expresiones idiomticas. Se realizarn diferentes
actividades para presentar el vocabulario bsico relacionado con cada tema entre las que
podemos mencionar: ejercicios de mltiple eleccin, formacin de palabras y familias de
palabras, textos para completar con tems gramaticales, etc. Se sugerir a los alumnos realizar un
glosario en el que incluyan todos los vocablos nuevos; su uso facilita el aprendizaje.
Se trabaja con la teora de Dinmica de Grupos en forma flexible ya que el intercambio fluido de
conocimientos previos y los diferentes modos de adquirir conocimientos favorecen ampliamente el
aprendizaje de tcnicas de traduccin.

CRITERIOS Y FORMAS DE EVALUACIN.

La evaluacin Parcial y el Examen Final consistirn en un texto para traducir que incluirn los
temas gramaticales y el vocabulario enseados en ese perodo del ciclo lectivo. No obstante, las
evaluaciones tendrn un carcter integrador, como ocurre con el aprendizaje de cualquier idioma.
El Parcial y el Examen Final se realizarn sin diccionario. El alumno deber traducir el texto del
ingls al castellano. Si bien la traduccin no debe ser necesariamente literal; sta deber ser fiel

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al original, no slo en cuanto a los contenidos sino tambin en cuanto a los tiempos verbales, las
concordancias gramaticales, etc.
La modalidad de las evaluaciones ser escrita e individual.


CONDICIONES PARA OBTENER LA REGULARIDAD

Para obtener la Regularidad el alumno deber asistir al 80% de las clases dictadas y aprobar las
dos actividades: un examen parcial con nota de 4 (cuatro) o superior y un trabajo prctico. El
alumno que no obtuviera 4 o faltara al Parcial, deber hacer un examen parcial recuperatorio. La
calificacin obtenida en el recuperatorio reemplaza a la anterior.
El alumno que haya obtenido la regularidad, acceder al examen final.










































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UNIDAD 1


1. Lea las siguientes definiciones de mediacin.

I) Mediation as defined by Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary:
Date: 14
th
Century
the act or process of mediating; especially: intervention between conflicting parties to promote
reconciliation, settlement or compromise.

Expanded definition
Mediation is a process in which a third-party neutral, whether one mediator or more, acts as a
facilitator to assist in resolving a dispute between two or more parties. It is a non-adversarial
approach to conflict resolution, where the parties generally communicate directly; the role of the
mediator is to facilitate communication between the parties, assist them in focusing on the real
issues of the dispute, and generate options for settlement.



2)mediation (m d - sh n)
n.
1. The act of mediating; intervention.
2. The state of being mediated.
3. Law An attempt to bring about a peaceful settlement or compromise between disputants
through the objective intervention of a neutral party.



3) mediation


Definition

An informal, voluntary process intended to resolve conflicts, without resorting to arbitration or
litigation, by using an impartial third party.





4) Definition of Mediation
Mediation is a private, usually voluntary, discussion and consensual decision-making process in
which one or more impartial persons - the mediator(s) - assist people, organizations, and
communities in conflict to work toward a variety of goals. Parties in the mediation process are
encouraged to:
improve communication, understanding and empathy;
improve relationships;
use mediation to minimize, avoid or enhance involvement in the legal/judicial system;
work toward mutual understanding to resolve a problem or dispute;
reach their own decisions;
resolve underlying conflicts;
prevent problems from recurring.

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The primary responsibility for any resolution of a dispute rests with the parties. Mediators
intervening in a conflict never give opinions on the issues in dispute. Mediators work:
to facilitate communication among the parties;
to help them explore mutual understanding;
to assist in defining and clarifying issues;
to maximize the exploration of alternatives;
to assist in exploring reconciliation and settlement.

Vocabulario:
century: siglo
between: entre
settlement: acuerdo
whether: si, ya sea
approach. abordaje, enfoque
issues: cuestiones, temas, problemas
through: mediante
without: sin
resort: (v) recurrir
toward: hacia
goal: objetivo, meta
encourage: (v) alentar
enhance: (v) aumentar
avoid: (v) evitar
understand: (v) entender, comprender
reach: (v) lograr, alcanzar
rest: (v) yacer
La frase sustantiva o nominal


La frase sustantiva o nominal es un grupo de palabras que tiene por ncleo a un sustantivo y
que cumple dentro de la oracin las funciones propias de ste. El sustantivo ncleo, que es la
palabra ms importante dentro de la frase ya que nos indica de qu se esta hablando,
normalmente se identifica por su posicin en la frase: al final de la misma o bien antes de un
post modificador.



Interprete las siguientes frases sustantivas extradas de las definiciones

1. the act or process of mediating

2. a dispute between two or more parties

3. a peaceful settlement or compromise between disputants

4. the objective intervention of a neutral party

5. a private, usually voluntary, discussion and consensual decision-making process

6. opinions on the issues in dispute

7. exploring reconciliation and settlement



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El infinitivo


El infinitivo se construye con la forma simple del verbo y la preposicin to.
Se puede interpretar de dos maneras al castellano: a) como infinitivo puro (los infinitivos son
formas verbales no conjugadas terminadas en ar, -er, -ir) , o b) como infinitivo de propsito.
En este segundo caso se interpreta con la preposicin para, a fin de, con el propsito de .
Existen otras formas de expresar propsito en ingls, tales como in order to..., so as to,
so that ...., in order that....


Interprete las siguientes expresiones con infinitivo

1. to promote reconciliation, settlement or compromise

2. to facilitate communication between the parties

3. to help them explore mutual understanding
4. to maximize the exploration of alternatives
La forma -ing

Ejemplos:

1. conflicting parties

2. decision-making

3. without resorting to arbitration or litigation

4. Mediators intervening in a conflict




La terminacin ing en ingls no siempre se interpreta con la terminacin ando, -endo en castellano.

Una palabra terminada en ing puede interpretarse de diversas maneras segn la funcin que cumpla
dentro de la oracin.

En algunos casos, los derivados ing deben interpretarse como adjetivos porque cumplen esa funcin
en el texto. Tal es el caso del ejemplo 1) en que la palabra conflicting modifica a parties. La
interpretacin de esta frase es: partes conflictivas / en conflicto.

En la frase 2) la palabra making funciona como sustantivo, es el ncleo de la frase nominal. La
interpretacin de esta frase es: toma de decisiones.

En la frase 3) encontramos una preposicin seguida por un derivado ing. Este es tambin un caso de
funcin nominal del derivado ing. Es conveniente interpretar esa palabra como un infinitivo en
castellano, o bien como un sustantivo. La interpretacin de esta frase es entonces: sin recurrir a
arbitraje o litigio.

En la frase 4) el infinitivo intervening sigue al sustantivo mediators y lo califica. Para interpretar
esta forma al castellano debemos agregar la palabra que seguida por la forma conjugada del verbo
intervene. La interpretacin de esta frase es: Los mediadores que intervienen en un conflicto.




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Interprete ahora las cuatro definiciones de mediacin.

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Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
The OSC Mediation Program
The OSC offers Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) to resolve selected prohibited personnel
practice complaints. ADR, used in appropriate circumstances, can yield results that are faster, less
expensive, and less contentious than traditional OSC complaint processing. The OSC primarily
uses mediation to provide parties the opportunity to resolve an OSC complaint without the need
for a lengthy investigation or costly litigation.
What is Mediation?
How Does Mediation Work?
Advantages of Mediation
Answers to Frequently Asked Questions
Mediation Program Contact Information

What is Mediation?
Mediation is an informal process in which a neutral third party - the mediator - assists the opposing
parties in reaching a voluntary, negotiated resolution of the complaint. Mediation is different from
other forms of dispute resolution in that the parties participate voluntarily, and the mediator has no
authority to make a decision. The decision-making power rests in the hands of the parties.

How Does Mediation Work?
Mediation gives the parties the opportunity to discuss the issues raised in the complaint, clear up
misunderstandings, find areas of agreement and, ultimately, to incorporate those areas of
agreement into a final resolution of the complaint. The mediator focuses the attention of the
parties upon their needs and interests rather than on their stated positions.

Advantages of Mediation
Many parties prefer mediation as a dispute resolution process because it is:
INFORMAL. The process is informal and flexible; attorneys are not necessary. There are
no formal rules of evidence and no witnesses.
CONFIDENTIAL. Mediation is a confidential process. The mediators will not disclose any
information revealed during the mediation. The sessions are not tape-recorded or transcribed. At
the conclusion of the mediation, mediators destroy any notes they took during the mediation
session.
QUICK AND INEXPENSIVE. When parties want to get on with their business and their
lives, mediation may be desirable as a means of producing rapid results. The majority of
mediations are completed in one or two sessions.
Moreover, mediation generally produces or promotes:
GREATER DEGREE OF PARTY CONTROL. Parties who negotiate their own settlements
have more control over the outcome of their dispute. Parties have an equal say in the process.
There is no determination of fault, but rather, the parties reach a mutually agreeable resolution to
their conflict.
PRESERVATION OF RELATIONSHIPS. Many disputes occur in the context of ongoing
work relationships. Mediated settlements that address all parties interests often preserve working
relationships. Mediation can also make the termination of a work relationship more amicable.
MUTUALLY SATISFACTORY RESULTS. Parties are generally more satisfied with
solutions that have been mutually agreed upon, as opposed to solutions that are imposed by a
third party decision-maker.
A FOUNDATION FOR FUTURE PROBLEM-SOLVING. After a mediation resolution, if a
subsequent dispute occurs, parties are more likely to utilize a cooperative forum of problem-
solving to resolve their differences than to pursue an adversarial approach.

Answers to Frequently Asked Questions

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Question: Does mediation work?
Answer: While each case is unique, general statistics from a wide range of forums indicate that
mediation resolves over 70% of disputes.
Question: Does OSC require the parties to participate in mediation?
Answer: No. Participation is strictly voluntary.
Question: Who mediates OSC complaints?
Answer: OSC cases are conducted by mediators who are experienced and trained in mediation
and federal personnel law. All internal OSC mediators are neutral unbiased professionals.
Question: Who attends the mediation session?
Answer: The complainant and a representative from the employing agency attend the mediation.
While it is not necessary to have an attorney or other representative attend the session, either
party may choose to do so. It is essential, however, that the individuals attending the mediation
session have the authority necessary to resolve the dispute.
Question: How long does the mediation process take?
Answer: The length of the mediation session depends upon the complexity of the case and
willingness of the parties to resolve the dispute. Most mediations are completed in eight hours or
less. More complex cases may call for a second mediation session.
Question: What happens if the mediation does not result in resolution?
Answer: The parties risk nothing by participating in mediation.
Question: Are all OSC complaints eligible for mediation?
Answer: No. The OSC ADR Unit evaluates each complaint to determine whether it is appropriate
for mediation. The factors considered include the nature of the case, the relationship of the parties,
the complexity of the case, and the relief sought by the complainant. Allegations that do not
warrant referral to the Investigation and Prosecution Division are not eligible for mediation.

Mediation Program Contact Information
U.S. Office of Special Counsel
Alternative Dispute Resolution Unit
1730 M Street, N.W., Suite 218
Washington, D.C. 20036-4505
Tel: (202) 254-3600
Email: adr@osc.gov






Vocabulario
complaint: problema
yield: (v) arrojar, producir
contentious: contencioso, litigioso
lengthy: larga, extensa
costil: costoso
reach: (v) alcanzar, lograr
power: poder
raise: (v) surgir
clear up: (v) aclarar
misunderstanding: disensin, desavenencia
upon: sobre, en
rather than: en lugar de
state: (v) expresar, manifestar, enunciar
attorney: abogado

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witness: testigo
disclose: (v) revelar, dar a conocer
moreover: adems
settlement: arreglo, convenio
outcome: resultado
say: uso de la palabra, decisin de opinin
agreeable: satisfactorio, aceptable
addeess: dirigir(se)
likely: proclive, propenso
pursue: perseguir, seguir
unbiased: imparcial
complainant: querellante, demandante
willingness: buena voluntad
relief: ayuda, compensacin, reparacin
sought: (p.p.) seek: buscar



Interprete las siguientes frases sustantivas

1. neutral unbiased professionals
2. a representative from the employing agency

3. general statistics from a wide range of forums

4. the issues raised in the complaint

5. mutually agreeable resolution to their conflict


El presente simple


El presente simple se usa para expresar acciones habituales.
En su forma afirmativa se reconoce porque es igual al infinitivo del verbo sin to; en el caso de la
tercera persona del singular (he, she, it), se identifica porque el verbo termina en s, es o ies a la
raz del verbo.
La forma interrogativa se reconoce por la presencia del auxiliar verbal do o does al comienzo de la
oracin.
La forma negativa se identifica por los auxiliares do y does seguidos de la palabra not.
El presente simple generalmente va acompaado de adverbios de frecuencia tales como: always, often,
generally, seldom, sometimes, usually, frequently, never.




Interprete las siguientes oraciones en presente simple

1. Many parties prefer mediation as a dispute resolution process.

2. Mediated agreements often help resolve procedural and interpersonal issues that are not
necessarily susceptible to legal determination.

3. How does Mediation work?


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4. Parties who negotiate their own settlements have more control over the outcome of their
dispute.

5. The length of the mediation session depends upon the complexity of the case and willingness
of the parties to resolve the dispute.
6. The mediator focuses the attention of the parties upon their needs and interests rather than on
their stated positions.
7. Does OSC require the parties to participate in mediation?



El adjetivo: grados de comparacin


Existen cuatro formas de comparacin del adjetivo: la comparacin de igualdad, la comparacin de
inferioridad, la comparacin de superioridad y el grado superlativo.
La comparacin de igualdad se forma de la siguiente manera: as+adjetivo+as.
La comparacin de inferioridad se forma de este modo: less+adjetivo+than.
La comparacin de superioridad se reconoce por su terminacin er+ than y la forma superlativa por
su terminacin est. Esto sucede con los adjetivos cortos en forma comparativa (de una slaba o los
terminados en y).
A los adjetivos ms largos (dos slabas no terminados en y o ms de dos slabas) los reconocemos por
la siguiente construccin: more+adjetivo+than.
Los adjetivos largos en grado superlativo tienen la siguiente construccin: the+most+adjetivo.

Sin embargo hay algunos adjetivos que son irregulares, por lo tanto, no siguen la regla que acabamos
de analizar. Algunos ejemplos son:

Adjetivo Comparativo de superioridad Superlativo
good better (than) (the) best
bad worse (than) (the) worst
little less (than) (the) least
far further /farther (than) (the) furthest/ farthest







Interprete los siguientes ejemplos de adjetivos en grado comparativo

1. ADR, used in appropriate circumstances, can yield results that are faster, less expensive, and
less contentious than traditional OSC complaint processing.

2. greater degree of party control

3. Parties are more likely to utilize a cooperative forum of problem-solving to resolve their
differences than to pursue an adversarial approach.
4. More complex cases may call for a second mediation session.




Traduzca el texto completo


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El texto a continuacin presenta el mismo tema que hemos trabajado anteriormente con
un vocabulario muy similar.

1. Lalo en forma completa.

2. Subraye los adjetivos en grado comparativo

3. Subraye los verbos en presente simple

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4. Marque las oraciones que tengan construcciones con -ing. Interprete su significado.

5. Traduzca el texto en forma completa



Arbitration & Mediation
Arbitration &Mediation are two of the most common methods of Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR). Mediation is one of the less formal alternatives to litigation that involves impartial third
party or panel (normally one or more licensed attorneys trained in negotiations) that intervenes to
promote the resolution of the dispute or grievance.

Mediation is used for a wide array of case-types: ranging from family law issues to juvenile
felonies to Federal government negotiations with Native American Indian tribes or other disputing
parties.

How does mediation work?

At the beginning of the formal mediation, the mediator explains their role, the confidential nature of
the proceedings, any ground rules (e.g., no name calling), the benefits of mediation, and the
procedural steps that will be followed (if any).

During the fact-gathering stage, the mediator will begin to define the issues, helping the parties to
focus on the issues rather than their positions. At appropriate times the mediator will reinforce
points of agreement and conduct reality checks whenever necessary. The mediator steers the
parties away from past events and focuses them on what they want to see happen in the future.

Once a tentative agreement is reached, the mediator clarifies the terms of the agreement and
makes sure all parties understand the terms of this agreement. One way this can be accomplished
is by having the parties restate the agreement in their own words. The essence of the agreement
is then prepared in writing, although the parties may want to have the agreement reviewed by an
attorney before signing a formal agreement.

Is mediation voluntary?

Mediation is usually voluntary although participation is sometimes mandated by contract or by the
court. Settlement, however, can never be mandated. When settlement is reached, studies show
that mediated agreements are more likely to be complied with than decisions imposed by
arbitrators or judges. This success may be because the parties take an active role in the decision-
making process.


Taken from American Law Directory




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Lea el siguiente texto

Mediation...
Tomorrows Dispute Resolution Solution
Preparing your client and yourself for court ordered mediation
If it has not happened to you already, one day soon you will receive a notice from a court ordering
you and your opponent in a case to participate in facilitative mediation by a date certain. You will
also be directed to promptly select a mediator and advised that if you dont, the court will select
one for you. So you select an experienced mediator, set a date for the mediation and then ask
yourself: How do I prepare for mediation so that it will best serve the interests of my client?

The following are some time-tested personal suggestions for counsel who find themselves in this
situation.

1) Make sure you will be able to know the value of your case. Determine whether there is some
vital information that you need to value the case but which you definitely will not be able to obtain
at, or before, the scheduled mediation. If this is the case, you may want to ask the Court to
adjourn the mediation.


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2) Contact the mediator. Find out his or her philosophy of mediation (facilitative v. evaluative).
Determine how they normally conduct a mediation and how they see the role of counsel (active v
passive). Ask if a written mediation submission is expected, and, if so, what it should contain.
Discuss the advisability of a pre-mediation counsel conference (in-person v by telephone). Advise
the mediator of any key documents that you need and have not been able to obtain from the other
party. Make sure you understand how the mediator calculates his or her fee and how it is to be
divided among the parties.

3) Get your case together. Research the basic cause of action as well as any evidentiary or
procedural issues that have come up or are likely to arise. Try to obtain documentation (affidavit
or deposition transcript) of any pivotal testimony. Have copies of any documents you plan to
present to your opponent for the first time.

4) Be prepared to listen and to negotiate. Mediation takes a radically different mind-set than
litigation. Be prepared to make that shift. This is a no-risk procedure given the total confidentiality
of mediation. You should be prepared to, perhaps for the first time, listen intently and silently to
the other party and their counsel.

5) Prepare your client for mediation. You need to meet with your client in advance of the
mediation to discuss the nature of mediation, the mediator, the strengths and weaknesses of your
case and the interests of your client that need to be addressed in any mediated agreement. Make
sure that your client understands the risks, ambiguities and costs of continuing litigation. Your
clients focus should be on the future rather than on the past. You should reassure the client that
you will be sitting next to him throughout and that he can consult with you in private at any time.
Remind him that the mediator can not force him into a deal that he does not accept.

6) Prepare your core case and strategy. Understand that you will not really be speaking to the
mediator; rather you will be speaking to the other party. Be prepared to explain your best
arguments in a forceful yet respectful manner. Be prepared to respond to objections and
questions about your case. Understand what is really most important to your client. Discuss with
your client possible non-traditional methods of settlement.

7) The secrets to success at mediation are, I submit:

Knowledge of your clients needs
Knowledge of all the facts
Knowledge of the relevant law
Knowledge of your opponents needs
Knowledge of, and acceptance of, the mediation process
The ability to actively listen
The ability to subordinate your ego to the real interests of your client
The ability to trust and utilize the mediator to help your client
The ability to negotiate openly, fairly and creatively
The ability to help draft a mediation agreement that clearly resolves all issues, present and
future.

These tips should assure that you will be well prepared for your next facilitative mediation.



Excerpted from comments by Harvey Mackay




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Modo imperativo


El modo imperativo se usa para dar rdenes o instrucciones. Aparece al comienzo de una oracin. En
algunos casos est precedido por la palabra please.
La forma negativa se identifica por la presencia del auxiliar do + not ( = dont) antepuesta al verbo.






Interprete las siguientes oraciones en modo imperativo

1. Discuss with your client possible non-traditional methods of settlement.
2. Discuss the advisability of a pre-mediation counsel conference (in-person v by telephone).
3. Try to obtain documentation (affidavit or deposition transcript) of any pivotal testimony.
4. Be prepared to listen and to negotiate.



El tiempo futuro simple


El tiempo futuro simple se forma con el auxiliar will seguido de la forma simple del verbo.
La negacin se forma agregando la palabra not al auxiliar will.
La interrogacin se forma anteponiendo will al verbo.
El tiempo futuro simple es muy frecuente en la jerga jurdica. En algunos casos aparece la forma
shall para expresar futuro.



Subraye los verbos en tiempo futuro en las siguientes oraciones e interprtelas

1. One day soon you will receive a notice from a court ordering you and your opponent in a case
to participate in facilitative mediation by a date certain.

2. How do I prepare for mediation so that it will best serve the interests of my client?





Familia de palabras
to advise
advice
advisability

to proceed
proceeding
procedural

18

to mediate
mediation
mediator

to counsel
counsellor
counsel for the prosecution

to meet
meeting

to try
trial

to settle
settlement

ability
able
disability
disabled

to write
writing
written
to respond
respondent
response

to know
known
knowledge

to pivot
pivotal

to follow
follower
following


Los verbos modales o defectivos


Los verbos modales o defectivos no siguen el patrn de construccin gramatical del resto de los verbos.
Le imprimen al texto una modalidad especial. Los siguientes son los verbos modales ms comunes: can,
may, be able to, could, might, should, ought to, must, have to.
can; may, be able to: indican posibilidad, se interpretan: poder ; could, might: indican posibilidad
remota, se interpretan: podra; should, ought to: indican sugerencia, se interpretan: debera; must,
have to: indican obligacin, se interpretan: deber.





19

Marque los verbos modales en las siguientes oraciones e interprtelas.

1. Make sure you will be able to know the value of your case.

2. Ask if a written mediation submission is expected, and, if so, what it should contain.

3. These tips should assure that you will be well prepared for your next facilitative mediation.

4. You should be prepared to, perhaps for the first time, listen intently and silently to the other
party and their counsel.

Traduzca el texto completo


.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.



.

.

.

.



.

.

.

.

20

.
Uso del diccionario

Trabajo grupal: para interpretar este texto, podremos consultar el diccionario. Parte del
vocabulario que aqu aparece ya ha sido trabajado en los textos anteriores. El aspecto
gramatical del texto es similar al de los artculos previos.
1. Lea el texto completo.

2. Interprete los tres prrafos que introducen el artculo

3. Analice los cuatro principios propuestos por Fisher and Ury para una efectiva
negociacin. Sintetice en pocas lneas cada uno de estos principios.

4. Comente con sus compaeros las ideas que ha sintetizado.



Conflict Research Consortium BOOK SUMMARY
Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving In
by
Roger Fisher and William Ury

In this classic text, Fisher and Ury describe their four principles for effective negotiation. They also
describe three common obstacles to negotiation and discuss ways to overcome those obstacles.
Fisher and Ury explain that a good agreement is one which is wise and efficient, and which
improves the parties' relationship. Wise agreements satisfy the parties' interests and are fair and
lasting. The authors' goal is to develop a method for reaching good agreements. They develop
four principles of negotiation. Their process of principled negotiation can be used effectively on
almost any type of dispute. Their four principles are 1) separate the people from the problem; 2)
focus on interests rather than positions; 3) generate a variety of options before settling on an
agreement; and 4) insist that the agreement be based on objective criteria.
These principles should be observed at each stage of the negotiation process. The process begins
with the analysis of the situation or problem, of the other parties' interests and perceptions, and of
the existing options. The next stage is to plan ways of responding to the situation and the other
parties. Finally, the parties discuss the problem trying to find a solution on which they can agree.
Separating People and Issues
Fisher and Ury's first principle is to separate the people from the issues. People tend to become
personally involved with the issues and with their side's positions. And so they will tend to take
responses to those issues and positions as personal attacks. Separating the people from the
issues allows the parties to address the issues without damaging their relationship. It also helps
them to get a clearer view of the substantive problem.
The authors identify three basic sorts of people problems. First are differences on perception
among the parties. Since most conflicts are based in differing interpretations of the facts, it is
crucial for both sides to understand the other's viewpoint. The parties should try to put themselves
in the other's place. The parties should not simply assume that their worst fears will become the
actions of the other party. Nor should one side blame the other for the problem. Each side should
try to make proposals which would be appealing to the other side.
Emotions are a second source of people problems. Negotiation can be a frustrating process.
People often react with fear or anger when they feel that their interests are threatened. The first
step in dealing with emotions is to acknowledge them, and to try to understand their source. The
parties must acknowledge the fact that certain emotions are present, even when they don't see
those feelings as reasonable. Dismissing another's feelings as unreasonable is likely to provoke

21
an even more intense emotional response. The parties must allow the other side to express their
emotions. They must not react emotionally to emotional outbursts. Symbolic gestures such as
apologies or an expression of sympathy can help to defuse strong emotions.
Communication is the third main source of people problems. The parties may not be listening to
each other, but may instead be planning their own responses. Even when the parties are speaking
to each other and are listening, misunderstandings may occur. To combat these problems, the
parties should employ active listening. The listeners should give the speaker their full attention,
occasionally summarizing the speaker's points to confirm their understanding. It is important to
remember that understanding the other's case does not mean agreeing with it. Speakers should
direct their speech toward the other parties and keep focused on what they are trying to
communicate. Each side should avoid blaming or attacking the other, and should speak about
themselves.
Generally the best way to deal with people problems is to prevent them from arising. People
problems are less likely to come up if the parties have a good relationship, and think of each other
as partners in negotiation rather than as adversaries.



Focus on Interests
Good agreements focus on the parties' interests, rather than their positions. As Fisher and Ury
explain, "Your position is something you have decided upon. Your interests are what caused you
to so decide."[p. 42] Defining a problem in terms of positions means that at least one party will
"lose" the dispute. When a problem is defined in terms of the parties' underlying interests it is often
possible to find a solution which satisfies both parties' interests.
The first step is to identify the parties' interests regarding the issue at hand. This can be done by
asking why they hold the positions they do, and by considering why they don't hold some other
possible position. Each party usually has a number of different interests underlying their positions.
And interests may differ somewhat among the individual members of each side. However, all
people will share certain basic interests or needs, such as the need for security and economic
well-being.
Once the parties have identified their interests, they must discuss them together. If a party wants
the other side to take their interests into account, that party must explain their interests clearly.
The other side will be more motivated to take those interests into account if the first party shows
that they are paying attention to the other side's interests. Discussions should look forward to the
desired solution, rather than focusing on past events. Parties should keep a clear focus on their
interests, but remain open to different proposals and positions.

Generate Options
Fisher and Ury identify four obstacles to generating creative options for solving a problem. Parties
may decide prematurely on an option and so fail to consider alternatives. The parties may be
intent on narrowing their options to find the single answer. The parties may define the problem in
win-lose terms, assuming that the only options are for one side to win and the other to lose. Or a
party may decide that it is up to the other side to come up with a solution to the problem.
The authors also suggest four techniques for overcoming these obstacles and generating creative
options. First it is important to separate the invention process from the evaluation stage. The
parties should come together in an informal atmosphere and brainstorm for all possible solutions
to the problem. Wild and creative proposals are encouraged. Brainstorming sessions can be made
more creative and productive by encouraging the parties to shift between four types of thinking:
stating the problem, analyzing the problem, considering general approaches, and considering
specific actions. Parties may suggest partial solutions to the problem. Only after a variety of
proposals have been made should the group turn to evaluating the ideas. Evaluation should start
with the most promising proposals. The parties may also refine and improve proposals at this
point.

22
Participants can avoid falling into a win-lose mentality by focusing on shared interests. When the
parties' interests differ, they should seek options in which those differences can be made
compatible or even complementary. Each side should try to make proposals that are appealing to
the other side, and that the other side would find easy to agree to. To do this it is important to
identify the decision makers and target proposals directly toward them. Proposals are easier to
agree to when they seem legitimate, or when they are supported by precedent. Threats are
usually less effective at motivating agreement than are beneficial offers.

Use Objective Criteria
When interests are directly opposed, the parties should use objective criteria to resolve their
differences. Decisions based on reasonable standards makes it easier for the parties to agree and
preserve their good relationship.
The first step is to develop objective criteria. Usually there are a number of different criteria which
could be used. The parties must agree which criterion is best for their situation. Criteria should be
both legitimate and practical. Scientific findings, professional standards, or legal precedent are
possible sources of objective criteria. One way to test for objectivity is to ask if both sides would
agree to be bound by those standards.

Copyright 1998-2005 Conflict Research Consortium. Contact: crc@colorado.edu


Interprete las siguientes frases sustantivas extradas del texto

the third main source of people problems

the first step in dealing with emotions

understanding the other's case

defining a problem in terms of positions

in terms of the parties' underlying interests

a number of different interests underlying their positions

the individual members of each side

four obstacles to generating creative options for solving a problem.

four techniques for overcoming these obstacles and generating creative options

Dismissing another's feelings as unreasonable


CONTRACT

Definition

Contract, in the simplest definition, is a promise enforceable by law. The promise may be to do
something or to refrain from doing something. The making of a contract requires the mutual assent
of two or more persons, one of them ordinarily making an offer and the other accepting. If one of
the parties fails to keep the promise, the other is entitled to legal recourse against him.

REQUI REMENTS OF AN ENFORCEABLE CONTRACT

23

The requirements of an enforceable contract are:
an agreement, that is to say, mutual consent.
Consideration,
Formal requisites;
Parties with legal capacity
A lawful object.



Necessity for agreement

Agreement is the first essential of a contract. The parties reach an agreement by an offer made on
one side which is accepted on the other. An offer is a promise conditioned on acceptance. The
condition may be the doing of an act by the offeree in which case acceptance may be made only
by the doing of the act. Thus, if A promises B $ 100 if B performs certain work, B must complete
the work before As promise becomes binding. Such a contract is called unilateral, because the
only promise is by A.
On the other hand, if the condition of the offer is that the offeree promises to do the work, Bs
promise of completion of the work is the acceptance, and a bilateral contract is then created.





Complete los espacios en blanco segn el texto

El requisito esencial ..............................................................................................
.
Las partes .
por la otra..
..............condicionada por
La condicin puede .
Por lo tanto, si A
B debe ..
Dicho contrato........................................................................., porque

Por otro lado

es la aceptacin y ..
.


Cmo tradujo los siguientes verbos?

1) is accepted
is created
is called

2) may be ..
must complete .

3) promises to do .

24






Estos son algunos de los verbos empleados. Una con flechas segn su significado.

to be alcanzar

to accept realizar

to reach ser/ estar

to agree llamar

to offer obligar

to promise llevar a cabo

to make crear

to do ofrecer

to perform acordar

to bind volverse / tornarse

to become hacer

to call aceptar

to create prometer



Estos son sustantivos derivados de algunos de los verbos anteriores.
Complete el cuadro.




offer promise doing agreement

acceptance offeree







significado verbo sustantivo significado

25
offer
promise
doing
agreement
acceptance
offeree


Consideration

The second requirement of a contract is that the promise or promises be founded upon
consideration. A promise to make a gift can not create a contract. Consideration is something of
value bargained for and given in exchange for a promise. The value of that which is given may be
very slight so long as it has some value or possibility of value. The law will not inquire into the
fairness of an agreed exchange. Consideration may consist of an act, a forbearance, or a return
promise.
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Estos trminos ya fueron empleados en otros textos. Recuerda el significado?

promise :
to make :
to create :
may :
to agree :
that :
which :


En el texto se encuentran los equivalentes en ingls de los siguientes trminos. Lalo
nuevamente y trate de identificarlos.

entregada :
cambio :
segundo :
algo :
retorno/ devolucin :
regalo :
abstencin /omisin
valor :
ley .

26
bajo/ insignificante .
equidad
acordado :
negociado :
siempre que / a condicin de que :
investigar / interrogar






Traduzca las frases en negrita segn el contexto

The second requirement of a contract is that the promise or promises be founded upon
consideration.

be founded :

A promise to make a gift .

to make :

Consideration is something of value bargained for and given

bargained for and given :

The value of that which is given

is given :

The law will not inquire into the fairness of an agreed exchange:

will not inquire:



Formal requisites
Five types of contract are required by statute to be in writing and signed in order to be
enforceable. The five types of contracts which must be in writing under The Statute of Frauds are:
contracts for the sale of land or an interest therein; contracts not to be performed within one year
of the time of making; contracts for the sale of goods over the value of $500; contracts in
consideration of marriage; and promises to answer for the debt of another person.
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Vocabulario


27
types: statute: fraud:
land: goods: marriage:
debts: value: sales:

28

Una las siguientes frases y subryelas en el texto


in writing all /all dentro

are required para / con el fin de

in order to debe ser

the sale of la venta de

therein por sobre/ por encima de

the time of making en el trmino de

over the value of por escrito

in consideration of se requieren

must be en el momento de la realizacin

within one year en consideracin de



Capacity of parties.
For an enforceable contract, the parties must have legal capacities . Infants, insane persons, and
intoxicated persons lack the capacity to bind themselves in a contract.
Infants. At common the legal age of majority for entering into a contract is twenty one years. Anyone
below that age is an infant. An infant may enter into a contract, but he cannot bind himself by it. This
means that he can avoid the contract at any time during his minority, thus escaping the liability under
it. The law gives this protection to an infants youth and inexperience. Until the infant gives notice of
his election of avoidance, however, the contract is binding. This means that the infant can enforce the
contract against the adult contracting party even though the latter cannot enforce it against the infant.
Insane persons. Contracts of an insane person, like those of an infant, are avoidable, and anything
given by an insane person in performance may be recovered at his insistence or at the insistence of
his guardian.
Drunkards. Drunkenness at the time of contracting is treated like insanity for the purpose of
permitting the drunkard to disaffirm a contract.
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29
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Cul es el significado de las siguientes preposiciones?


below / above of

until / till for

into / in with

under without

against within

by over

at through




Subraye las preposiciones en los ejemplos y traduzca

For an enforceable contract
At common law
The legal age of
For entering into a contract
Below that age
At any time
The liability under it.
Until the infant gives notice
Against the adult party
Given by an insane person
For the purpose of permitting


30





Lea los verbos y encuentre su significado segn el texto

can:
may:
must:
to enter into:

to bind:

to avoid:

to mean:

to enforce:

to escape:

to give:

to recover:

to disaffirm:




significar dar acordar obligar recuperar

eludir aplicar evitar/anular poder(x2) deber - negar




Elija la opcin correcta y traduzca.


1. Minors and the mentally incompetent lack the legal capacity to enter into / increase a
contract.

2. In this country and most others, businesses have / study significant flexibility in establishing
the terms of their contracts.

3. If you need time before accepting an offer, ask the offeror to mean / give you a written
promise to hold the offer open for a few days. That will give you time to decide.


31
4. Use assignment in your contracts when you are / mean transfer of ownership of intellectual
property. Dont use the word in its other meanings or you will create confusion.

5. When possible, use / avoid unclear language and define any ambiguous terms.

6. Anybody, except minors and insane persons have full power to bind / fail themselves in a
contract.
Encuentre en el texto el equivalente en ingls de las siguientes expresiones

La mayora de edad legal
Eludir responsabilidad
La inexperiencia del nio
Eleccin de nulidad
Parte contratante
En el momento de contratar
Con el propsito de permitir




CONTRACTS LAW
Lawyers are trained to draft commercial documents in a measured and objective manner. For most
type of contracts, the drafting of an agreement needs to be a work of good communication and
advocacy. The contract and supporting documents should be written in a manner that educates the
client, the other party and any other readers.
The drafter should not hesitate to state the intent of clauses, even at the risk of obviousness or
redundancy. A contract is one of the most important pieces of written evidence in any litigation or
arbitration.
The contract formation process varies widely, from contracts formed quickly in face-to-face meetings,
to contracts formed after months of negotiations.

Traduzca las siguientes frases nominales

-commercial documents-
-in a measured and objective manner-
-most type of contracts-
-the drafting of an agreement-
-a work of good communication and advocacy-
-any other reader-
-the intent of clauses-
-even at the risk of obviousness and redundancy-
-the contract formation process
-contracts formed quickly-
-after months of negotiations


Subraye en el texto las oraciones que tengan los verbos need y should. Interprtelas.
1

2.

32

3


Traduzca estas oraciones:

Considerations can consist of an act, a performance, or a return promise.
Contracts may be written or oral.
You must avoid misunderstandings.



HERE ARE SOME GENERAL TIPS FOR ALL TYPES OF CONTRACTS

Sign contracts carefully-
Make a clear offer-
Leave a space at the end-
Fix a limit of time-
Remember to sign in all pages-
Read specifications twice-
Do not use strange words-
Do not change the same word throughout the contract-
Do not try to sound like a lawyer-




Write the contract down

All contracts should take the form of a written document signed by both parties.
It is not necessary to hire an attorney to create a written contract. If you reach an agreement over the
phone or in a meeting, write the agreement as soon as possible and sign with the other party the
written memorandum. If you are making a written offer, you may make your offer in the form of letter,
with a space at the end of the offeree to indicate acceptance.

o party: one of the persons in a legal agreement or dispute.
o attorney: person with legal authority to act for another in business or law

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................




Oraciones condicionales



33
Las oraciones que denominamos oraciones condicionales estn compuestas por una oracin
subordinada y una oracin principal. La oracin subordinada es generalmente precedida por la
conjuncin subordinante si (en ingls por la conjuncin if y otras) y expresa una situacin
real o hipottica. En la oracin principal se describe una situacin que depende de que la
condicin se cumpla o no. Existen varias formas de clasificar estas oraciones. Nosotros nos
referiremos a la siguiente clasificacin: a) condicin probable, b) condicin improbable, c)
condicin imposible. Antes de ejemplificar los tres tipos de oraciones condicionales,
mencionaremos las conjunciones subordinantes que se utilizan en ingls para introducir
oraciones condicionales:
if (si), unless (si no o a menos que), on condition that (si o a condicin de que), provided that
(si o a condicin de que), providing that (si o a condicin de que), supposing that (si o
suponiendo que).
If y unless son las conjunciones que se utilizan con mayor frecuencia.
a) condicin probable: If the students have a complaint, the principal listens to them.
En este caso se interpreta: Si los alumnos tienen alguna queja, el director los escucha.
b) condicin improbable: If the students had a complaint, the principal would listen to them.
En este caso interpretamos: Si los alumnos tuvieran alguna queja, el director los escuchara.
c) condicin imposible: If the students had had a complaint, the principal would have listened
to them.
En este ltimo caso interpretamos: Si los alumnos hubieran tenido una queja, el director los
habra escuchado.




- Make sure you are comfortable with your obligations.

If a term, for example, a deadline, makes you uneasy, make a counteroffer that substitutes a term
with which you are more comfortable.

o Deadline: fixed limit of time for finishing a piece of work
o Counteroffer. Offer made in reply to an offer made by somebody else
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................

- Remember Murphys Law

Before you sign a contract, consider what could go wrong or what could make performance of your
obligation difficult or expensive. Enter into a contract only if you can meet your obligations.

o Contract: binding agreement between persons, groups, states.
o Obligations: promise, duty or condition that indicates what action must be done.

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................

- Dont leave anything out


34
Accurately cover all aspects of your understanding with the other party. If the other party writes an
agreement based on an oral understanding be sure that the written terms match the terms of your
oral agreement. Dont leave points out of the written document.

o Document: something written or printed to be used as a record or in evidence.
o Agreement: arrangement or understanding by two or more persons, groups or
companies.

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................

- Cover all options

Cover all options, consequences, and possibilities. Make sure that your contract
includes a merger clause to avoid disputes about proposals made during negotiations but not
included in the final written agreement.

o Dispute: quarrel, argument, controversy.
o Proposal: offer

....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................

- Dont use unclear language

If you dont understand exactly what the other party expects you to do, dont camouflage your
language using vague language. Vague language leads to misunderstandings, disputes, and
lawsuits. Use simple language that accurately expresses your agreement with the other party.
o Misunderstanding: failure to understand rightly.
o Lawsuit: prosecution of a claim in law court.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................

- Define any ambiguous term

To avoid misunderstandings define any term that may be ambiguous.
....................................................................................................................................

- Use terms consistently.

35
When you write contracts, you are creating your own law. Legal writing is not creative writing. Dont
use royalty in one paragraph, licence fee in a second paragraph, and use fee in the third
paragraph; choose one term and use it throughout the contract.
.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................

Complete los espacios en blanco con su equivalente en ingls.

LEGAL A
VINCULANTE D
A D J E T I V O S
EXACTO E
COMODO C
ESCRITO T
FIJ ADO I
VAGO V
INCOMODO E
AMBIGUO S






Traduzca los siguientes ejemplos

1. All contracts must be signed by both parties.
2. If you are not sure about all the conditions, do not sign the contract
3. At the top of the hierarchy of courts there is a Supreme law-making body to which all the
other courts are related.
4. Revise all the clauses of the contract as soon as possible.
5. A few examples will illustrate the different cases throughout this chapter.
6. The offeror may terminate his offer by revoking it before it has been accepted.
7. Sign a contract only if you agree with all the deadlines.
8. The third general topic is property, rights, wills, estates and real property


Lea los siguientes textos.

THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES.
IMPORTANT CASES

Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S 162 (1875), denied the constitutional basis for the right of women to
vote, thus sustaining the disenfranchisement of women until passage of the Nineteenth Amendment
in 1920. In a unanimous decision, the justices upheld a states right to bar women from voting, finding
that nothing in the Constitution confers(s) the right of suffrage on anyone and that citizenship alone
is not sufficient cause. A Year after the decision suffragist Susan B. Anthony succeeded in getting a

36
proposed constitutional amendment introduced in Congress, but it was defeated that year and every
subsequent year until 1920.

Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), established a womans right to have an abortion without undue
restrictive interference from the government. The Court held that a womans right to decide for herself
to bring or not to bring a pregnancy to term is guaranteed under the Fourteenth Amendment. A Texas
law prohibiting abortions had been challenged by an unmarried pregnant woman (Roe) and the court
ruled in her favour, finding that the state had violated her right to privacy. In attempting to balance the
states rights against the rights of the individual, Justice Harry A. Blackmun held that the states
legitimate interest in protecting potential life increased as the pregnancy advanced. While allowing
that the state may forbid abortions during the third trimester, Blackmun wrote that a woman is entitled
to obtain an abortion freely, after consultation with a doctor, in the first trimester and in an authorized
clinic in the second trimester.
IMPORTANT LAWS
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 42 U.S.C (1990), provided civil rights protections to
individuals with disabilities and guaranteed them equal opportunity in public accommodations,
employment, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications. Some 43
million disabled people were affected by the law. The employment provisions applied beginning in
1992 to employers with 25 or more employees; those with 15-24 employees would have to be in
compliance by 1994. The public accommodations provisions were generally effective beginning
January 1992. They required that necessary changes be made to afford access by persons with
disabilities to all public facilities, including restaurants, theatres, day-care centers, parks, institutional
buildings, and hotels.
Tiempo pasado simple

Los verbos en pasado pueden reconocerse fcilmente en Ingls cuando se trata
de verbos regulares ( ej: passed, received) porque en ese caso al verbo ( en
infinitivo) se le ha agregado el sufijo ed o d .

Los verbos irregulares, se denominan de ese modo porque no siguen esa regla,
por lo tanto para reconocerlos debemos valernos de nuestro conocimiento
previo, o bien del contexto. Ejemplos:came es el pasado del verbo come,
understood es el pasado de understand.

Was y were son los pasados del verbo to be.
There was y there were son los pasados del verbo there be.

Las oraciones negativas e interrogativas en pasado se identifican por la
presencia del auxiliar de verbo did (excepto con los verbos to be y there
be).
Los marcadores de tiempo (como fechas, aos, etc.), le permiten al lector
reconocer verbos en pasado.

Marque en los textos ledos los verbos conjugados en pasado simple.
Interprete los textos.
..
..
..
..
..

37
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

GENERAL INTERNATIONAL CONTRACTUAL LAW: THE UNIDROIT PRINCIPLES OF
INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL CONTRACTS

The Need for Universal Principles of Commercial Contracts

As commercial dealings increasingly are international in their scope, so the contracts under which
those dealings are conducted must have an international-rather than a purely national-character.

A number of efforts have been made, many of them successful and widely used, to provide
universally-accepted contractual forms, trade and other terms, and legal standards for adoption by
private contracting parties. These have often proven to be immeasurably valuable for the ready
negotiation of international contracts among parties from different countries. Nonetheless, there are
gaps in the coverage of each of these measures which create lacunae in the applicable legal
standards applicable to them.

The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT), based in Rome, Italy,
performed a valuable service in formulating these principles of international commercial contractual
law in 1994. They may be formally adopted by parties in their contracts or may be argued to
constitute applicable law in contractual disputes where the applicable legal standards are lex
mercatoria, general principles of the law, and the like.

Vocabulario
dealing: trato
scope: alcance
effort: esfuerzo
under: bajo
successful: exitosa
rather than: preferentemente / mas que
trade: comercio
ready: rpida / pronta
among: entre
valuable: valiosa
coverage: cobertura
each: cada
gaps: espacios/brechas
measures: medidas
many: muchas
lacunae: lagunas
and the like: y cosas por el estilo



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Compare los siguientes trminos:

their: in their scope
them: in many of them
they: They may be

those: those dealings
these: these measures



Nexos lgicos o Conectores


Los nexos lgicos o conectores cumplen la funcin de hacer explcita la relacin lgico-
semntica entre dos enunciados. Por este motivo contribuyen a la cohesin de un texto.
Podemos agruparlos en varias categoras de acuerdo al tipo de relacin que establecen y las ms
importantes son las siguientes: a) Enumeracin y adicin, b) Resumen, c) Aposicin, d)
Resultado/Inferencia, e) Contraste/Concesin.
a) Enumeracin y adicin: Entre los nexos conectores que nos permiten listar o enumerar
elementos podemos mencionar los siguientes: first (primero), second (segundo), third (tercero),
firstly (primero o en primer trmino), secondly (segundo o en segundo trmino), thirdly (tercero o
en tercer trmino), finally / lastly (finalmente), in the first/second place (en primer/segundo
lugar), to begin with (para comenzar), first of all (ante todo, primero, for one thing (por un lado),
for another (por otro), in addition (adems), also (tambin).
b) Resumen: Entre los nexos conectores que nos permiten presentar una idea que resume las
ideas tratadas en un texto podemos mencionar los siguientes: overall (en conjunto/en general), to
summarize (en resumen), to sum up (en suma), in sum o in summary (en resumen/suma), in
all (en total), in conclusion (en conclusin), to conclude (para concluir). Estos conectores
generalmente son utilizados al final de un prrafo, despus de que se ha desarrollado uno o varios
temas, y ocasionalmente al comienzo de un texto para presentar los temas que van a tratarse en
el mismo.
c) Aposicin: Dentro de esta categora incluimos los nexos conectores que introducen una idea
que es equivalente o est incluida en la idea expresada en el enunciado precedente. Es decir,
estos nexos pueden presentar una reformulacin o un ejemplo de lo antedicho. Entre estos
conectores encontramos los siguientes: in other words (en otras palabras), i.e., o that is o that
is to say (es decir), namely (a saber, es decir, en otras palabras), specifically (especficamente),
e.g., for example, o as an example (por ejemplo), for instance (por ejemplo).
d) Resultado o inferencia: Los conectores lgicos de resultado o inferencia sealan que una
segunda unidad de discurso expresa un resultado o una consecuencia de lo enunciado en la
unidad de discurso que la antecede. Algunos ejemplos de este tipo de conectores son los
siguientes: so (entonces, por lo tanto), consequently, in consequence, as a consequence(en
consecuencia), therefore(por lotanto), as a result, thus(por consiguiente), hence(de aqu que,
es por eso que).
e) Contraste o concesin: Los nexos de contraste o concesin unen partes del discurso que
contienen informacin contradictoria o contrastante. Los siguientes son los ms frecuentes: on
the other hand (por otro lado), conversely (a la inversa), instead (en cambio), on the contrary
(por el contrario), in contrast (en contraste), by comparison (en comparacin / en contraste),
however (sin embargo), nevertheless (sin embargo/no obstante), in any case (de cualquier
modo), at any rate (de cualquier modo), in spite of this / that (a pesar de esto / eso), yet (sin
embargo).





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Frases nominales

universally- accepted. contractual forms :
applicable legal standards :
international commercial contractual law :
general principles of the law:
private contracting parties:
purely national character;

Verbos

to conduct : are conducted :
to make : have been made :
to prove : have been proved to be :
to adopt : may be adopted :
to argue . may be argued :

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..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

The text of the Unidroit Principles of International Commercial Contracts

Preamble (Purpose of the Principles)

o These principles set forth general rules for international commercial contracts.

o They shall be applied when the parties have agreed that their contract be governed by them.


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o They may be applied when the parties have agreed that their contract be governed by general
principles of law, the lex mercatoria, or the like .

o They may provide a solution to an issue raised when it proves impossible to establish the
relevant rule of the applicable law.

o They may be used to interpret or supplement international uniform law instruments.

o They may serve as a model for national and international legislators.


Tiempo Presente Perfecto

Las palabras en negrita constituyen un tiempo verbal denominado Present
perfect. A pesar de su nombre (presente) es un tiempo que se refiere a
acciones en el pasado que tienen por lo general alguna conexin con el presente
ya sea porque es una accin que contina hasta el presente o porque sus
resultados pueden apreciarse ahora.
Este tiempo verbal podr reconocerse por la presencia de los auxiliares HAVE /
HAS junto al participio pasado del verbo principal.
Utilizamos el auxiliar has o have de acuerdo al tipo de sujeto que tenga la
oracin. Si el sujeto que precede al auxiliar est en forma singular, se utiliza el
auxiliar has y si el sujeto est en el plural se utiliza el auxiliar en el plural, es
decir have. El participio pasado del verbo principal es siempre el mismo; es
decir no vara segn el nmero del sujeto. Lo mismo sucede en castellano.

El participio pasado del verbo principal siempre coincide con la forma del
pasado simple en el caso de los verbos regulares, pero no siempre coincide con
la forma del pasado simple en el caso de los verbos irregulares. Los libros de
gramtica y los diccionarios generalmente listan los participios pasados de los
verbos irregulares en la tercera columna, como puede observarse en la siguiente
tabla:


Infinitive Past Past Participle
(Infinitivo) (Pasado) (Participio Pasado)

be was been
bear bore born(e)
begin began begun
build built built
do did done
fall fell fallen
feel felt felt
forget forgot forgotten
grow grew grown
lose lost lost
see saw seen
sell sold sold
sing sang sung
spend spent spent

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take took taken
think thought thought
win won won


Para expresar una accin en el Presente Perfecto se utilizan los verbos en la tercera
columna y para expresar el Pasado Simple se utilizan las formas verbales de la segunda
columna. Los diccionarios siempre indican estas diferencias. Por ejemplo, en el caso del
verbo drive encontraremos las formas drove con la descripcin past of drive
1
o pret.
see DRIVE y driven como past p. of drive
1
o p.p. see DRIVE, en donde p.p. significa
participio pasado o participio pasivo.

El participio pasado corresponde, entre otras, a las terminaciones ado e ido de los verbos
en espaol. Por ejemplo,
- The children have watched T.V. all day.
Los chicos han mirado / visto televisin todo el da.
- He has eaten two ham and cheese sandwiches.
El ha comido dos sndwiches de jamn y queso.

Es importante contrastar este tiempo de verbo con el Pasado Simple. Por un lado, cuando
utilizamos el tiempo Pasado Simple es porque estamos haciendo referencia a acciones que
comenzaron y terminaron en el pasado, pero cuando utilizamos el tiempo Presente
Perfecto nos referimos a acciones que si bien comenzaron en el pasado tienen alguna
repercusin en el presente. Esta diferencia es importante a la hora de utilizar un tiempo o el
otro cuando hablamos o escribimos en ingls, pero no es tan importante a la hora de
traducir o interpretar textos ya que los dos tiempos verbales son equivalentes y pueden
expresarse en el tiempo Pretrito Perfecto Simple (Pretrito Indefinido) del espaol.
El tiempo Presente Perfecto se usa frecuentemente con las siguientes preposiciones y
adverbios de tiempo: for, since, yet y already.

Chapter 1 General Provisions

Article 1.1 Freedom of Contract

o The parties are free to enter into a contract and to determine its content.

Article 1.2 No Form required

o Nothing in these Principles requires a contract to be concluded in or evidenced by writing. It
may be proved by any means, including witnesses.

Article 1.3 Binding Character of Contract

o A contract validly entered into is binding upon the parties. It can only be modified or terminated
in accordance with its terms or by agreement or as otherwise provided in these Principles.

Article 1.4 Mandatory Rules

o Nothing in these Principles shall restrict the application of mandatory rules, whether of
national, international, or supranational origin, which are applicable in accordance with the relevant
rules of private international law.


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Article 1.5 Exclusion or Modification by the Parties

o The parties may exclude the application of these Principles or derogate from or vary the effect
of any of their provisions, except as otherwise provided in the Principles.

Article 1.6 Interpretation and Supplementation of the Principles

(1) In the interpretation of these Principles, regard must be had to their international character and
to their purposes including the need to promote uniformity in their application.

(2) Issues within the scope of these Principles but not expressly settled by them
must as far as possible be settled in accordance with their underlying general principles.

Article 1.7 Good Faith and Fair Dealing

(1) Each party must act in accordance with good faith and fair dealing in
international trade.

(2) The parties may not exclude or limit this duty

Article 1.8 Usages and Practices

(1) The parties are bound by any usage to which they have agreed and by any
practices which they have established between themselves.
(2) The parties are bound by a usage that is widely known to and regularly observed in
international trade by parties in the particular trade concerned except where the application of such
usage would be unreasonable.

Article 1.9 Notice

(1) Where notice is required it may be given by any means appropriate to the
circumstances.
(2) A notice is effective when it reaches the person to whom it is given.
(3) For the purpose of paragraph (2) a notice reaches a person when given
to that person orally or delivered at that persons place of business or
mailing address.
(4) For the purpose of this article notice includes a declaration, demand , request or any other
communication of intention.

Vocabulario
place: lugar
mailing address: domicilio postal
purpose: propsito/ objetivo
issue: problema / cuestin
rule: regla
content: contenido
something: algo
nothing: nada
to have regard to: tener en cuenta
by any means: por cualquier medio/ de cualquier manera

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validly: vlidamente
within: dentro de
underlying: subyacente
notice: notificacin
request: pedido / solicitud
whether: ya sea
to set forth: enunciar
to raise: suscitar / presentar
to enter into: celebrar
to settle: establecer
to deliver: entregar
to witness: presenciar / atestiguar / ser testigo de
to reach: llegar a



Pronombres relativos



Un pronombre relativo hace referencia a un trmino ya mencionado en la oracin que
se denomina antecedente. Los pronombres relativos se usan para introducir oraciones
subordinadas que dan informacin adicional sobre el antecedente.
Los pronombres relativos son: which, who, whom, whose, that, where, when, why.




Las frases a continuacin fueron tomadas del texto. Trate de identificar su equivalente en
castellano. Coloque la letra correspondiente.


1. to be free to enter into contract

2. a contact validly entered into

3. binding upon the parties

4. in accordance with its terms

5. applicable in accordance with

6. by agreement

7. except as otherwise provided

8. as otherwise provided

9. to be bound by usage


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10. in accordance with good faith and fair dealing


a. estar obligado por el uso/costumbre

b. obligatorio/vinculante para las partes

c. excepto que se establezca de otro modo

d. de buena fe y justo trato

e. segn lo de otro modo establecido

f. aplicable de acuerdo con

g. un contrato vlidamente celebrado

h. tener libertad / ser libre de / para celebrar un contrato

i. de acuerdo con sus trminos/condiciones

j . por acuerdo


Traduzca

Shall be ( applied )..

restrict.


Have agreed.

established..


May provide..

exclude.

serve..

derogate.

vary


Must be had

settled ...

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Can be terminated

modified ..


May be proved .

used

given

applied ..


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Artculo 1.10 DEFINITIONS

In these Principles
-court includes an arbitral tribunal;

-where a party has more than one place of business the relevant place of business is that which has
the closest relationship to the contract and its performance, having regard to the circumstances
known to or contemplated by the parties at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract;

-obligor refers to the party who is to perform an obligation and obligee refers to the party who is
entitled to performance of that obligation;

-writing means any mode of communication that preserves a record of the information contained
therein and is capable of being reproduced in tangible form.


En el texto estn usados los siguientes trminos. Una con flechas segn el significado.

where tener derecho a
court antes, previo a
closest en esto, all
relationship conocidas por
having regard to tribunal, corte, juzgado
known to en cualquier momento
at any time relacin
before obligado
at donde
obligor ms prximo a
obligee registro
entitled to en
record cumplimiento
therein teniendo en cuenta
performance acreedor / obligante

Frases nominales
o more than one place:
o place of business:
o the closest relationship:
o its performance:
o the circumstances known to or contemplated by:
o the information contained therein:
o of being reproduced:

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CHAPTER 2- FORMATION
Article 2.1 MANNER OF FORMATION

o A contract may be concluded either by the acceptance of an offer or by conduct of the parties
that is sufficient to show agreement.

Article 2.2 DEFINITION OF OFFER

o A proposal for concluding a contract constitutes an offer if it is sufficiently definite and indicates
the intention of the offeror to be bound in case of acceptance.

Article 2.3 WITHDRAWAL OF OFFER
1) An offer becomes effective when it reaches the offeree.
2) An offer, even if it is irrevocable, may be withdrawn if the withdrawal reaches the offeree before or
at the same time as the offer.

Article 2.4 REVOCATION OF OFFER

1) Until a contract is concluded an offer may be revoked if the revocation reaches the offeree before it
has dispatched an acceptance.

2) However, an offer cannot be revoked
a)if it indicates, whether by stating a fixed time for acceptance or otherwise, that it is irrevocable; or
b) if it was reasonable for the offeree to rely on the offer as being irrevocable and the offeree has
acted in reliance on the offer.
Article 2.5 REJECTION OF OFFER


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o An offer is terminated when a rejection reaches the offeror.


Los siguientes trminos son de uso frecuente en la redaccin de contratos. Lalos con
atencin. Vuelva a leer el texto y subryelos en el mismo.

by: por
before: antes
at the same time: a la vez
if: si
either.....or: ya sea.....o
whether......or: ya sea ........o
however: no obstante, sin embargo
offer: oferta, propuesta
offeror: oferente / proponente
offeree: persona a quien se dirige una oferta
to be bound: estar legalmente obligado
to withdraw: retractarse de/ cancelar
to dispatch: expedir
to rely on:contar con, atenerse a
to revoke: revocar
a fixed time: un tiempo determinado, un momento determinado
otherwise: de otro modo, de lo contrario
in reliance on: con confianza en.


La voz pasiva

La voz pasiva se forma con el verbo to be (que funciona como auxiliar y va conjugado) seguido
por el participio pasado del verbo principal. Es importante recordar que el tiempo de la voz pasiva
est siempre determinado por el tiempo en que se conjuga el auxiliar to be.
Con fines didcticos, clasificamos la voz pasiva en Tipo I, Tipo II y Tipo III. A continuacin,
analizaremos en detalle cada uno de estos tipos.
Tipo I:
En este caso est presente el agente de la accin.
Ejemplo:
The consent of the citizens is required by the government= El consentimiento de los ciudadanos
es requerido por el gobierno.
En este ejemplo, el tiempo de la voz pasiva es presente porque el auxiliar to be est en presente.
Tipo II:
Es muy frecuente en ingls la construccin pasiva precedida por el pronombre impersonal it.
Esta forma de voz pasiva se traduce con la forma impersonal se del castellano.
Ejemplo:

It is widely accepted that today capitalism flourishes in a global economy= Se acepta
ampliamente que el capitalismo de hoy / actual florece en una economa global.
Tipo III:
En este caso la voz pasiva va seguida de infinitivo. Para interpretar las oraciones en voz pasiva III
debemos:
1. comenzar la oracin con SE
2. traducir / interpretar el verbo principal en el mismo tiempo del verbo TO BE
3. agregar el nexo /palabra QUE
4. introducir el sujeto de la oracin
5. traducir el verbo en infinitivo de manera que concuerde con el tiempo de verbo TO BE.
Ejemplo:

49
The United Nations are too often believed to be an extension of American power = Con
demasiada frecuencia se cree que Las Naciones Unidas son una extensin del poder de Estados
Unidos.

Los siguientes verbos y expresiones usados en el texto tienen algunos elementos en comn.
Mrquelos y luego tradzcalos.

-may be concluded
-may be withdrawn
-may be revoked
-cannot be revoked

-reaches
-indicates
-is concluded
-is terminated

-has dispatched
-has acted

-for concluding
-as being
-by stating

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.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................

Contract law

Using the list of words below, fill in the spaces in the following sentences. Then translate.
remedy
rescission
assign
binding
enforceable
remedy
breach
damages
void
consideration
unenforceable
voidable


50
1. If you pass on your contractual rights to a third party, you..your rights to that person.

2. If you do not fulfill your contractual obligations, you commit of contract.

3. means that the contract is treated as if tit never existed.

4. If one party breaks the contract, the other party can sue for

5. Where a contract is not legally valid, it can be said to be .

6. A contract is a legally agreement and is . in law.

7. If a contract is breached, the law gives .

8. Under English law, there must be an agreement by which each party gives something to the other
in return for the benefit they are receiving. This something is called..

9. A contract that, though valid when made, is liable to be subsequently set aside is An
example of this would be if the contract was induced by fraud.

10. A contract that is valid but lacks evidence or presentation in the form required by law is
.


Litigation procedure
Fill in the gaps in the text using the words in the box


deny x 2 claimant claim for

letter of claim alleged particulars

statement of truth call resolution

case settlement x 2


The must write a . to the defendant giving him sufficient
information to enable him to investigate the claim. There is a maximum of three months for the
defendant to admit or ... liability. If they .. liability the defendant issues
proceedings. The claimant fills in a . This is usually accompanied by the
of claim. The claimant has to sign a stating that what
has been .. in the claim is true. The claim is issued in the county court if it is below
$15,000 and the High Court if it is above that, except in personal injury cases. The defendant then
has 14 days to file a defence, in which he must state in detail what his defence is. The claimant can
then serve a reply. These documents are now called the Statement of .. . The court serves
an allocation questionnaire in order for the case to be allocated to the right track and can then order
the use of Alternative Dispute . where the parties are encouraged to find a
. without going to court. If they can not reach a the case is
allocated to one of three tracks. The parties have to say what witnesses they intend to call and are

51
usually only allowed to use one expert appointed by the court. The court will then fix a timetable for
the trial and the length of that trial will be limited by the court.








Some general definitions
Voidable
In law, a transaction or action which is voidable is valid, but may be annulled by one of the parties to
the transaction. Voidable is usually used in distinction to void ab initio (or void from the outset) and
unenforceable.
The act of invalidating the contract by the party exercising its rights to anul the voidable contract is
usually referred to either as voiding the contract (in the United States and Canada) or avoiding the
contract (in the United Kingdom, Australia and other common law countries).
Generally speaking, one party will have the right to elect whether to annul the transaction or to affirm
it. The avoiding of a voidable transaction amounts to the rescinding it, or exercising a power of
rescission, and as such is subject to the general law in that regard.
The right to rescind can be lost. In common law there are generally said to be four "bars" to
rescission, any one of which will cause the agreement to no longer be considered voidable.
1. delay
[1]

2. affirmation (or ratification)
[2]

3. restitutio in integrum being impossible
[3]

4. third party rights
[4]

Although the law varies from country to country, most disputes relating to whether a transaction is
void or voidable turn on the ability to transfer title to goods. In many jurisdictions, if a transaction is
valid, but voidable, title to good still passes under the transaction, and the recipient may sell them
with good title. If the transaction is void, no title passes, and the original seller can reclaim the goods








Void
A void contract, also known as a void agreement, is not actually a contract. A void contract cannot
be enforced by law. Void contracts are different from voidable contracts, which are contracts that may
be (but not necessarily will be) nullified.
An agreement to carry out an illegal act is an example of a void contract or void agreement. For
example, a contract between drug dealers and buyers is a void contract simply because the terms of
the contract are illegal. In such a case, neither party can go to court to enforce the contract, although
some drug users mistakenly believe the opposite, and therefore take their disputes to court.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Consideration

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The inducement, price or motive that causes a party to enter into an agreement or contract.

Something of value that is given in exchange for getting something from another person. For
example, rent payments paid to receive the right to rent an apartment.

A compensation which is paid, or all inconvenience suffered by the party from whom it proceeds. Or it
is the reason which moves the contracting party to enter into the contract. A cause or occasion
meritorious requiring a mutual recompense in deed or in law. A consideration of some sort or other is
so absolutely necessary to the forming a good contract that a nudum pactum, or an agreement to do
or to pay any thing on one side without any compensation to the other, is totally void in law, and a
man cannot be compelled to perform it. But contracts under seal are valid without a consideration or
perhaps, more properly speaking, every bond imports in itself a sufficient consideration though none
be mentioned. Negotiable instruments, as bills of exchange and promissory notes, carry with them
prima facie evidence of consideration.

The consideration must be some benefit to the party by whom the promise is made, or to a third
person at his instance; or some detriment sustained at the instance of the party promising by the
party in whose favor the promise is made.

Considerations are good when they are for natural love and affection; or valuable when some benefit
arises to the party to whom they are made, or inconvenience to the party making them.

They are legal, which are sufficient to support the contract or illegal, which render it void. If the
performance be utterly impossible, in fact or in law, the consideration is void.

A mere moral obligation to pay a debt or perform a duty is a sufficient consideration for an express
promise, although no legal liability existed at the time of making such promise. But it is to be observed
that in such cases there must have been a good or valuable consideration; for example, every one is
under a moral obligation to relieve a person in distress, a promise to do so, however, is not binding in
law. One is bound to pay a debt which he owes although he has been released; a promise to pay
such a debt is obligatory in law on the debtor and can therefore be enforced by action.

When the consideration turns out to be false and fails there is no contract.

Taken from www.findlaw.com



Breach of contract


Minor breaches
A minor breach, a partial breach or an immaterial breach, occurs when the non-breaching party is
unentitled to an order for performance of its obligations, but only to collect the actual amount of their
damages. For example, suppose a homeowner hires a contractor to install new plumbing and insists
that the pipes, which will ultimately be sealed behind the walls, be red. The contractor instead uses
blue pipes that function just as well. Although the contractor breached the literal terms of the contract,
the homeowner can only recover the amount of his damages. Since no damages were inflicted, the
homeowner receives nothing.


53

Material breach
A material breach is any failure to perform that permits the other party to the contract to either compel
performance, or collect damages because of the breach. If the contractor in the above example had
been instructed to use copper pipes, and instead used iron pipes which would not last as long as the
copper pipes would have, the homeowner can recover the cost of actually correcting the breach -
taking out the iron pipes and replacing them with copper pipes.



Fundamental breach
A fundamental breach (or repudiatory breach) is a breach so fundamental that it permits the
aggrieved party to terminate performance of the contract, in addition to entitling that party to sue for
damages.


Anticipatory breach
A breach by anticipatory repudiation (or simply anticipatory breach) is an unequivocal indication that
the party will not perform when performance is due, or a situation in which future non-performance is
inevitable. An anticipatory breach gives the non-breaching party the option to treat such a breach as
immediate, and, if repudiatory, to terminate the contract and sue for damages (without waiting for the
breach to actually take place).

Limits on Remedies and Damages
Typically, the judicial remedy for breach of contract is monetary damages. Where the failure to
perform cannot be adequately redressed by money damage, the court may enter an equity decree
awarding an injunction or specific performance.

The aggrieved person has a duty to mitigate or reduce damages by reasonable means. Liquidated
Damages may be limited to a specific amount.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breach_of_contract"