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Introduction
Omega electronics is established in the year 1962 by Physics and
Electronics scholar Mr. Y.P. Agarwal Electronics has more than three
decades experience in manufacturing of various electronics instruments
and teaching aids. The company is renowned manufacturer of digital
instruments, electronic instruments, science experimental training boards,
computer logic training boards, dynamic demonstration boards, power
electronic training and many more instruments and training aids.
Company clients list includes major companies, engineering colleges,
institutions and government/private sector organizations. Omega
Electronics is manufacturer, exporter and supplier of a range of antenna
training equipments, breadboard training equipments, communication
training equipments, instrumentation training equipments and decade box
and power supply equipments. Omega electronics follows international
standards and procedures and is an ISO9001:2000 company.
6 After the fabrication of the instruments, they are sent to the Quality
Control Department for multi level checking of the proper functioning of
hardware and software of the instrument .The engineers’ team in the
quality control section keeps an eye on the quality of the instrument to
attain high level accuracy and minimizes the chances of malfunctioning of
the instrument and provides the customer years of maintenance-free usage
of the instrument.
Testing Team
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8 Finally we worked with the R&D Team. R&D plays a major role in the
growth of the company. This segment includes the design and
development of new products in accordance with upcoming technologies.
Working as a part of this team, we worked in the design and development
of various products like Transformer winding kit, RFID Trainer kit,
Antenna Trainer, AM / FM Trainer etc.
Resistors
9 Resistors are components that have a predetermined resistance. Resistance
determines how much current will flow through a component. Resistors
are used to control voltages and currents. A very high resistance allows
very little current to flow. Air has very high resistance.
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Current almost never flows through air. (Sparks and lightning are brief
displays of current flow through air. The light is created as the current
burns parts of the air.) A low resistance allows a large amount of current
to flow. Metals have very low resistance. That is why wires are made of
metal. They allow current to flow from one point to another point without
any resistance. Wires are usually covered with rubber or plastic. This
keeps the wires from coming in contact with other wires and creating
short circuits. High voltage power lines are covered with thick layers of
plastic to make them safe, but they become very dangerous when the line
breaks and the wire is exposed and is no longer separated from other
things by insulation.
10 Resistance is given in units of ohms. (Ohms are named after Mho Ohms
who played with electricity as a young boy in Germany.) Common
resistor values are from 100 ohms to 100,000 ohms. Each resistor is
marked with colored stripes to indicate its resistance.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
11 This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of
the resistance value is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are
frequently used.Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be
electrically noisy. Metal film resistors are recommended for use in analog
circuits.
The physical size of the different resistors are as follows.
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Rough size
Rating power Thickness Length
(W) (mm) (mm)
1/8 2 3
1/4 2 6
From the top of the photograph
1/2 3 9
1/8W
1/4W
1/2W
of the same value, all in one package. One side of each resistor is
connected with one side of all the other resistors inside. One example of
its use would be to control the current in a circuit powering many light
emitting diodes (LEDs). This resistor is called a Single-In-Line(SIL)
resistor network. It is made with many resistors.
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change the volume you are changing the resistance which changes the
current. Making the resistance higher will let less current flow so the
volume goes down. Making the resistance lower will let more current
flow so the volume goes up. The value of a variable resistor is given as its
highest resistance value. For example, a 500 ohm variable resistor can
have a resistance of anywhere between 0 ohms and 500 ohms. A variable
resistor may also be called a potentiometer (pot for short).
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8
SOME EXAMPLES
2 , 2 , 0 , x10-1, 1% = 22.0
1 , 2, 2 , 2 , 2% = 12200 = 12.2x103 =
12.2k
Capacitors
13 Now suppose you want to control how the current in your circuit changes
(or not changes) over time. Now why would you? Well radio
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14 signals require very fast current changes. Robot motors cause current
fluctuations in your circuit which you need to control. What do you dowhen
batteries cannot supply current as fast as you circuit drains them? How do
you prevent sudden current spikes that could fry your robot circuitry?
15 Capacitors are like electron storage banks. If your circuit is running low,
it will deliver electrons to your circuit. In our water analogy, think of this
as a water tank with water always flowing in, but with drainage valves
opening and closing. Since capacitors take time to charge, and time to
discharge, they can also be used for timing circuits. Timing circuits can be
used to generate signals such as PWM or be used to turn on/off motors
insolarpoweredBEAMrobots.
Quick note, some capacitors are polarized, meaning current can only flow
one direction through them. If a capacitor has a lead that is longer than the
other, assume the longer lead must always connect to positive.
16 The problem with using robot components that drain a large amount of
power is sometimes your battery cannot handle the high drain rate,
Motors and servos being perfect examples. This would cause a system
wide voltage drop, often resetting your microcontroller, or at least causing
it to not work properly. Just a side note, it is bad to use the same power
source for both your circuit and your motors. So don't do it.
Or suppose your robot motors are not operating at its full potential
because the battery cannot supply enough current, the capacitor will make
up for it. The solution is to place a large electrolytic capacitor between the
source and ground of your power source. Get a capacitor that is rated at
least twice the voltage you expect to go through it. Have it rated at 1mF-
10mF for every amp required. For example, if your 20V motors will use 3
amps, use a 3mF-30mF 50V rated capacitor. Exactly how much will
depend on how often you expect your motor to change speed and
direction, as well as momentum of what you are actuating. Just note that if
your capacitor is too large, it may take a long time to charge up when you
first turn your robot on. If it is too small, it will drain of electrons and
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your circuit will be left with a deficit. It is also bad to allow a large
capacitor to remain fully charged when you turn off your robot. Some
things could accidentally short and fry. So use a simple power on LED in
your motor circuit to drain the capacitor after your robot is turned off. If
your capacitor is not rated properly for voltage, then can explode with
smoke. Fortunately they do not overheat if given excessive amounts of
current. So just make sure your capacitor is rated higher than your highest
expected. Capacitors can also be used to prevent power spikes that could
potentially fry circuitry. Next to any on/off switch or anything that that
could affect power suddenly should have a capacitor across it?
Introduction to Robotics
18 In practical usage, a Robot is a mechanical device which performs
automated physical tasks, either according to direct human supervision, a
pre-defined program, or a set of general guidelines using artificial
intelligence techniques. Robots are typically used to do the tasks that are
too dirty, dangerous, difficult, repetitive or dull for humans. This usually
takes the form of industrial robots used in manufacturing lines. Other
applications include toxic waste cleanup, underwater and space
exploration, mining, search and rescue, and mine finding. Recently
however, robots are finding their way into the consumer market with uses
in entertainment, vacuum cleaning, and lawn mowing. A robot may
include a feedback-driven connection between sense and action, not under
direct human control, although it may have a human override function.
The action may take the form of electro-magnetic motors or actuators
(also called effectors) that move an arm, open and close grips, or propel
the robot. The step by step control and feedback is provided by a
computer program run on either an external or embedded computer or a
microcontroller. By this definition, a robot may include nearly all
automated devices.
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19 Ask a number of people to describe a robot and most of them will answer
they look like a human. Interestingly a robot that looks like a human is
probably the most difficult robot to make. It is usually a waste of time
and not the most sensible thing to model a robot after a human being. A
robot needs to be above all functional and designed with qualities that suit
its primary tasks. It depends on the task at hand whether the robot is big,
small, is able to move or nailed to the ground. Each and every task means
different qualities, form and function; a robot needs to be designed with
the task in mind.
Mobile Robots
Mobile robots are able to move, usually
they perform task such as search areas. A
prime example is the Mars Explorer,
specifically designed to roam the mars surface.
Mobile robots are a great help to such
collapsed building for survivors Mobile robots
are used for task where people cannot go.
Either because it is too dangerous of because
people cannot reach the area that needs to be
searched.
Mars Explorer image
Rolling Robots
Rolling robots have wheels to move around.
These are the type of robots that can quickly
and easily search move around. However they
are only useful in flat areas, rocky terrains give
them a hard time. Flat terrains are their
territory.
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Walking Robots
Robots on legs are usually brought in when
the terrain is rocky and difficult to enter with
wheels. Robots have a hard time shifting
balance and keep them from tumbling. That’s
why most robots with have at least 4 of them,
usually they have 6 legs or more. Even when
they lift one or more legs they still keep their
balance. Development of legged robots is
often modeled after insects or crawfish..
Stationary Robots
Robots are not only used to explore areas or
imitate a human being. Most robots perform
repeating tasks without ever moving an inch.
Most robots are ‘working’ in industry settings.
Especially dull and repeating tasks are suitable
for robots. A robot never grows tired, it will
perform its duty day and night without ever
complaining. In case the tasks at hand are
done, the robots will be reprogrammed to
perform other tasks..
Autonomous Robots
Autonomous robots are self supporting or in
other words self contained. In a way they rely
on their own ‘brains’. Autonomous robots run
a program that give them the opportunity to
decide on the action to perform depending on
their surroundings. At times these robots even
learn new behavior. They start out with a
short routine and adapt this routine to be more
successful at the task they perform. The most
successful routine will be repeated as such
their behavior is shaped.
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Remote-control Robots
Virtual Robots
20 Virtual robots don’t exits in real life. Virtual robots are just programs,
building blocks of software inside a computer. A virtual robot can
simulate a real robot or just perform a repeating task. A special kind of
robot is a robot that searches the world wide web. The internet has
countless robots crawling from site to site. These WebCrawler’s collect
information on websites and send this information to the search engines.
Another popular virtual robot is the chatterbot. These robots simulate
conversations with users of the internet. One of the first chatterbots was
ELIZA. There are many varieties of chatterbots now, including
E.L.V.I.S.
BEAM Robots
21 BEAM is short for Biology, Electronics, Aesthetics and Mechanics.
BEAM robots are made by hobbyists. BEAM robots can be simple and
very suitable for starters.
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Basic Robots Constituents
Sensors
Basic Description
22 The infrared emitter detector pair act as an eye with a flashlight in the
infrared spectrum. The detector (a transistor) detects all ambient infrared
light. The emitter (a LED) emits infrared light into an otherwise dark (in
the infrared spectrum) room.
Power Requirements
(a) Don’t bother using this circuit outside, the sun will flood your IR
detector and make it useless.
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Sonar
Basic Description
Power Requirements
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(a) Using multiple sonar can be a challenge in that they can trigger each
other inadvertently.
(b) If using multiple sonar, you must trigger each independently and
wait for a return.
(c) This can take a long time if you have 10+ sonar on your robot, so
you will have to fiddle with combinations of sonar running
simultaneously
(d) Sonar does not work at very short distances (several inches)
(e) sound bounces off of walls and can interfere with later emission
readings.
DIGITAL COMPASS
Basic Description
Power Requirements
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SENSORS - ACCELEROMETER
Basic Description
33 They are easily available and very affordable. Usually require support
circuitry. Dimension Engineering has a great plug and play dual axis
accelerometer which requires no additional support circuitry.
Power Requirements
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Types of Motors
DC Motors
35 From the start, DC motors seem quite simple. Apply a voltage to both
terminals, and it spins. But what if you want to control which direction the
motor spins? Correct, you reverse the wires. Now what if you want the
motor to spin at half that speed? You would use less voltage. But how
would you get a robot to do those things autonomously? How would you
know what voltage a motor should get? Why not 50V instead of 12V?
What about motor overheating? Operating motors can be much more
complicated than you think. DC motors are non-polarized - meaning that
you can reverse voltage without any bad things happening. Typical DC
motors are rated from about 6V-12V. The larger ones are often 24V or
more. But for the purposes of a robot, you probably will stay in the 6V-
12V range. So why do motors operate at different voltages? As we all
know (or should), voltage is directly related to motor torque. More
voltage, higher the torque. But don't go running your motor at 100V
because that’s just not nice. A DC motor is rated at the voltage it is most
efficient at running. If you apply too few volts, it just wont work. If you
apply too much, it will overheat and the coils will melt. So the general
rule is, try to apply as close to the rated voltage of the motor as you can.
Also, although a 24V motor might be stronger, do you really want your
robot to carry a 24V battery (which is heavier and bigger) around? So a
standard recommendation is do not surpass 12V motors unless you really
need the torque.
Stepper Motors
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36 Stepper Motors work under a very similar principle to DC motors, except
they have many coils instead of just one. So to operate a stepper motor,
one must activate these different coils in particular patterns to generate
motor rotation. So stepper motors need to be sent patterned commands to
rotate. These commands are sent as high and low logic over several lines,
and must be pulsed in a particular order and combination. Steppers are
often used because each 'step,' separated by a set step angle, can be
counted and used for feedback control. For example, a 10 degree step
angle stepper motor would require 36 commands to rotate 360 degrees.
However external torque can force movement to a different step,
invalidating feedback. Therefore external torque must never exceed the
holding torque of a stepper.
The following sequence steps the motor through one complete cycle.
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ROBOT BATTERIES
About Batteries
38 The robots are no longer limited to bulky low power non-rechargeable
batteries, and today there is a large assortment to suit your robots'
demands. How are batteries rated? With any battery you will see a voltage
and a power rating. Battery voltages can be somewhat complicated. When
fully recharged, a battery will often be 15% above its voltage rating.
39 When fully discharged, about 15% below its rating. A fully charged
battery will also immediately drop below its rating when driving heavy
loads, such as a DC motor. To increase battery voltage, wire multiple of
them in series. Batteries also cannot supply an infinite current. So expect
batteries of different types but equal voltages to have different current
outputs. To increase battery current output, wire multiple of them in
parallel. This is why batteries often come in assembled packs of smaller
cells. So when using a battery, make sure your circuit handles changes in
battery voltage. For the power rating you will see something like
1200mAh. mAh means milliamps per hour. So if it is 1200mAh, that
means the battery can supply 1.2 amps for one hour or 2.4 amps for 30
minutes or 0.6 amps for two hours.
40 Alkaline batteries are the most common, easiest to get, and cheapest too.
However they are useless, dont buy them. They have low power
capacities, are heavy, have trouble supplying large amounts of current in
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short time periods, and get expensive to constantly replace. The same
goes for Zinc-carbon batteries, which suck even more.
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42 Before the 1960s, robot usually meant a manlike mechanical device
(mechanical man or humanoid) capable of performing human tasks or
behaving in a human manner. Today robots come in all shapes and sizes,
including small robots made of LEGO, and larger wheeled robots that
play robot football with a full-size ball.
43 What many robots have in common is that they perform tasks that are too
dull, dirty, delicate or dangerous for people. Usually, we also expect them
to be autonomous, that is, to work using their own sensors and
intelligence, without the constant need for a human to control them.
Looked at this way, a radio controlled aero plane is not a robot, nor are
the radio controlled combat robots that appear on television. However,
there is no clear dividing line between fully autonomous robots and
human-controlled machines. For example, the robots that perform space
missions on planets like Mars may get instructions from humans on Earth,
but since it can take about ten minutes for messages to get back and forth,
the robot has to be autonomous during that time.
(a) A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a
human being to come to harm.
(b)A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except
where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
(c) A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection
does not conflict with the First or Second Law.
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do basic chores for us. Robots are very good at processing certain kinds of
information, and they are ideally suited to answering the telephone and
being controlled over the Internet.
52 The suggestion that robots will take over because they might become
more intelligent than humans overlooks one critical fact: the people who
have power in human societies are usually not the most intelligent in the
obvious, intellectual way. They have different kinds of ‘human
intelligence’, including the ability to understand other people, and to
influence their behavior.
53 The sensible answer to the question as to whether robots will take over
is that they probably won’t in the near future. There are many reasons for
this. The first is that the robots of today have puny brains compared to
humans, and they do not have the ability to organise in the same way as
humans. Our societies are very complex and allow us to achieve many
very advanced things. It is unlikely that robots could overtake us in the
near future. Even so, it is something that we should keep an eye on, since
all scientists have a responsibility not to do things that damage society.
However, for the most part, robots play a very positive role in our
societies, and we can expect them to be used in many ways that make life
better for us all.
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Printed circuit board
54 PCBs are boards whereupon electronic circuits have been etched. PCBs
are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much
more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or
point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for
high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design,
assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published
by the IPC organization.
55 The inventor of the printed circuit was the Austrian engineer Paul Eisler
(1907–1995) who, while working in England, made one circa 1936 as part
of a radio set. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a
large scale to make rugged radios for use in World War II. After the war,
in 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed
circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the
mid-1950s, after the Auto-Sembly process was developed by the United
States Army.
56 Before printed circuits (and for a while after their invention), point-to-
point construction was used. For prototypes, or small production runs,
wire wrap or turret board can be more efficient.
57 Originally, every electronic component had wire leads, and the PCB
had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The components' leads
were then passed through the holes and soldered to the PCB trace. This
method of assembly is called through-hole construction. In 1949, Moe
Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal
Corps developed the Auto-Sembly process in which component leads
were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and dip soldered.
With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this
concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process
in use today. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board
over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a wave-soldering machine.
However, the wires and holes are wasteful since drilling holes is
expensive and the protruding wires are merely cut off. In recent years, the
use of surface mount parts has gained popularity as the demand for
smaller electronics packaging and greater functionality has grown.
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58 There are two main methods for the hobbyist to make PCB's. The first
is how most people start; by laying down special etch resistant transfers
onto clean copper board and then etching the board in a bath of ferrous
chloride solution. The second is to produce the artwork (foils) for the PCB
layout using a PC software application, and then to transfer the track
pattern to the copper board using a technique similar to developing and
printing a photograph. Both methods are quite straightforward, but the
latter method, which is more expensive but quicker, produces better
results and allows more dense population of the PCB.
Method
59 here are six main steps to making a PCB, which are shown in the graphic
below. Clicking on each of the steps will provide more information. At
the foot of this page is a downloadable version of these pages.
61 The method is usually to open the layout application and using the
library of packages provided, select all the component packages to be
used in the layout (i.e.: DIL_8, TO_92, RES_30, DIL_20, CAP_20,
CONN_SIL4 etc). These packages are then placed in their rough
positions on the board area and their pins connected together as required
by clicking and dragging using the mouse.
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The screen shot on the right shows the Ares Layout Software Tool in
use.
62 This can be time consuming, and you have to be very careful to connect
the pins together correctly as there is no checkinmechanism.Alternatively,
the circuit can be entered in an accompanying schematic capture
application and the pcb layout can be laid out automatically using the
supplied auto-router. I have never been able to justify the expense of this
luxury and have always used the manual method!
63 When the artwork is finished, the layers (usually top and bottom) are
printed onto either acetate film (if you can afford it) or good quality
tracing paper available from art shops (70gsm - A4 sheets usually). It is
better NOT to reverse (mirror) the image for the bottom layer as I will
explain under 'Developing'. When using tracing paper, I leave the ink to
dry for an hour or so, then sandwich between several sheets of A4 paper
with some heavy books (such as electronic component catalogues) on top,
to flatten the artwork, over night.
64 Using transfers: This is a very slow method, which I used for many
years and good quality results can still be obtained, using etch resistant
transfers available from many electronic component suppliers.
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If the board is to be doubling sided, then before removing the plastic,
four pilot holes can be drilled, as mentioned before, to assist lining up the
layers. Tip! :- If the bottom foil was NOT reversed when printing (as
recommended), the printed side of the artwork will now be as close as
possible to the copper surface. This will result in sharper and better
resolution for thin tracks, because the UV light has less opportunity to
'spread' within the thickness of the plastic film or tracing paper used for
the foil.
67 The foils are affixed to the board with small pieces of adhesive tape.
Tip! :- At this stage the artwork and pcb should be cut larger than the
finished board by (say) 5mm all round. The board is then placed in the
UV exposure box for an appropriate amount of time to allow the pcb
pattern to be transferred to the board. Each side of the board is usually
exposed separately when using non - professional equipment. The photo'
shows my light box with the Parallel Port Development Board Foil ready
to be used.After exposure, the foils are carefully removed and the board
placed in a solution of developer for a couple of minutes and the tracks
and pads will magically appear, similar to developing a photograph.
Caustic Soda can be used with the pre-sensitized boards and this is
available from most hardware stores for cleaning drains etc. It should be
used in a well ventilated area.
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caustic soda developer solution, should be used in a well ventilated
area.
71 Before etching begins, the artwork on the PCB should be inspected for
damaged tracks and hairline cracks, which should be corrected using a
'Dalo' etch resist pen or similar. If this is necessary, the board should first
be dried off, as soon as possible after developing, with a hair ryer, for
example.
72 I have found etching is best completed with the chemical heated to a little
above room temperature, using a hot water- bath. Etching should then
take little more than 15 to 20 minutes with constant agitation of the board.
Leaving the etching bath floating in the hot water-bath makes agitation
easy, but be careful not to splash the chemical about. When the PCB looks
ready, it should be carefully removed from the chemical, using plastic
gloves and thoroughly rinsed in a cold water bath. After inspection, if it
is finished then it should be returned to the caustic soda solution, to soften
the resist, which can then be removed with a soft abrasive (e.g.: fine wet
and dry paper).
73 However, I prefer to remove the resist at the end, after all other stages
have been completed. The photo on the left shows some of the materials
required for making your own PCB's. Caustic Soda for developing the
artwork, FCC - Ferrous Oxide (etchant) and a tin of drills.
74 Cleaning the PCB, is perhaps easiest to do at this stage, as the etch resist
is soft, but I prefer to complete the drilling and cutting of the board to
size, first. Otherwise, a further, final session of cleaning will be needed
later.
75 Transfers and etch resist is fairly easily removed with a medium density,
waterproof, abrasive paper, that can be used under running water. Only
light pressure is needed, to avoid damaging the thinner copper tracks. This
can be followed by use of a very fine paper to give a better finish. If an
etch resist pen (such as a 'Dalo' marker pen) has been used, this is easily
removed by using a solvent, such as nail polish remover! However, this
can stain the pcb, if you are not careful to clean up the residue quickly.
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The picture, right, shows from top clockwise, the original art work,
(printed on good quality tracing paper). Then the exposed design before
etching and finally, the etched layout ready for drilling and finishing.
77 I use a 12 volt modeler’s drill, which I hold in two hands above the board,
and rest both wrists on the table surface. I can then use the weight of both
hands to hold the copper board down tight at the same time. In this way I
manage to hold everything rigid and am able to use light pressure to ease
the drill through the board. A soft material should be placed under the
board for the drill to pass into, such as a spare piece of cork or an old
'jiffy' bag! Whatever method is used, it is important NOT to allow any
sideways movement of the PCB (or the drill) if breakage of the drill bit is
to be avoided.
78 The drills used, should be the Tungsten Carbide type (which usually have
a larger shank) as these will not blunt as quickly as the ordinary metal
HSS drills. These are about three times as expensive, but if breakages are
avoided, will work out at better value in the long run. I have found that it
is best to use a range of drill sizes - 0.8mm for IC pads and most other
components, 1.0mm for thicker component leads (diodes and regulators)
and 1.2mm for some larger components. The normal practice of drilling a
pilot hole and then the final size later should not be tried, as this will
result in the snapping of the brittle Pcb drills, which tend to 'snatch' as
they enter a pilot hole. Therefore, drill each hole only once, with the
correct sized drill.
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copper board edge, to allow for filing/smoothing of the rough cut PCB
edge. Take care not to rub fingers and hands against the rough PCB
edges, as the glass fibers are so fine, they can enter the body! Similarly,
do not breathe in dust generated when drilling, cutting or filing the
board. The board should now be cleaned as described in the earlier page,
but if this has already been completed, then a light rub over with a fine,
waterproof, abrasive paper should be carried out. The board, with shiny
copper tracks, is now ready for assembly and soldering. After this has
been completed, and basic functional testing carried out (to spot the stupid
mistakes), the bottom surface should be coated with a protective lacquer,
to prevent oxidization of the tracks, over time. This should be done as
soon as possible after component assembly.
80 A better approach (which does not always look so good!), is to 'tin' the
copper tracks before component assembly. This takes some practice, if a
messy result is to be avoided, but the key to success is heat and flux!
Smear a THIN layer of plumbers flux across the surface to be tinned, then
using the soldering iron and the minimum possible solder, work the solder
across the pads and along tracks as quickly as possible. Avoid using too
much heat on thinner tracks to avoid damaging them. Finally, inspect the
board for solder bridges between tracks and pads - a small magnifier may
be useful for this task
81 The flux is messy and this is best removed using cellulose thinners, in a
well ventilated area. Followed by a wash with soapy water. A
protective lacquer is not needed with tinned boards, but will enhance
appearance, if applied to the finished board after components have been
assembled and soldered.
POWER SUPPLY
84 Power supply can be define as an electronic equipment which is the stable
source of d.c. power for electronic circuits.
a.c. input is applied to the primary of the transformer and the desired a.c.
voltage is obtained from the secondary . This voltage is applied to the
rectifier which converts a.c. into d.c. This d.c. output from the rectifier is
of pulsating nature and is of no use. To smooth out this pulsating d.c.
(ripples) filters are employed after rectifier .
RECTIFIERS
90 Rectifiers use mainly diodes to converts a.c. into d.c. A few types of
rectifiers (single phase) along with wavefoms are as given :
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91 The operation of the half wave rectifier can be explained as, the desired
input to the rectifier is obtained from the transformer and when A is +ve
with respect to B , diode is forward biased and conduction takes place
giving output across load . On the other hand ,when A is –ve with respect
to B , the diode is reverse biased and no conduction of current takes place
in the circuit and hence we get d.c. at the output.
92 A full wave bridge rectifier on the basis that when A is +ve with respect
to B diodes D1 and D3 are forward the direction shown. Now when A is –
ve with respect to B , diodes D2 and D4 conducts and current flows
through the diodes and load in the same direction as previous one giving
rise to waveform .
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93 The regulated power supply comprises of an unregulated power
supply,regulated through a regulator to provide d.c. power to the load
Regulators regulate the unregulated power supply to provide constant
voltage or constant current to the load irrespective of the changes in load
or source voltage
95 This circuitis an extension of the zener diode voltage regulator and has a
bipolar transistor emitter follower at the output terminals . Zener diode in
the circuit is operated in breakdown region and provide a constant voltage
at the base of the emitter follower transistor . The emitter follows the base
to supply the output current at the load terminals . The gain of transistor
provides isolation of the zener diode from the load terminals .Any change
in voltage from unregulated power supply comes across Rs and Rb since
voltage across zener diode is constant now as in an emitter follower ,
emitter follows base , output voltage also remains constant. Its advantages
over zener diode regulator are better regulation , lower output resistance
and capability of larger power output.
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96 In the operation zener diode acts as a voltage reference source (diode
operated in the breakdown region ) to bias the transistor .The output
voltage of this circuit is maintained constant because as the unregulated
DC input voltage or the load current changes it changes the biasing of the
transistor nd the current drawn by the shunt transistor is varied in the way
so as to maintain the output (load) voltage constant .The shunt regulator is
not as efficient as the series regulator but it has advantage of greater
economy and simplicity . In a shunt regulator ,the transistor passes all the
current in the absence of load, which is a disadvantage over series type ,in
which the transistor passes current only as long as the load is connected
across its output and the current through it is the load current only.
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Diodes
98 Diodes are components that allow current to flow in only one direction.
They have a positive side (leg) and a negative side. When the voltage on
the positive leg is higher than on the negative leg then current flows
through the diode (the resistance is very low). When the voltage is lower
on the positive leg than on the negative leg then the current does not flow
(the resistance is very high). The negative leg of a diode is the one with
the line closest to it. It is called the cathode. The positive end is called the
anode. Usually when current is flowing through a diode, the voltage on
the positive leg is 0.65 volts higher than on the negative leg.
Switches
99 Switches are devices that create a short circuit or an open circuit
depending on the position of the switch. For a light switch, ON means
short circuit (current flows through the switch, and lights light up.) When
the switch is OFF, that means there is an open circuit (no current flows,
lights go out.
When the switch is ON it looks and acts like a wire. When the switch is
OFF there is no connection.
LED
100 An LED is the device shown above. Besides red, they can also be
yellow, green and blue. The letters LED stand for Light Emitting Diode.
The important thing to remember about diodes (including LEDs) is that
current can only flow in one direction.
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Transistor
101 Transistors are basic components in all of today's electronics. They are
just simple switches that we can use to turn things on and off. Even
though they are simple, they are the most important electrical component.
For example, transistors are almost the only components used to build a
Pentium processor. A single Pentium chip has about 3.5 million
transistors. The ones in the Pentium are smaller than the ones we will use
but they work the same way.
102 The transistor has three legs, the Collector (C), Base (B), and Emitter
(E). Sometimes they are labeled on the flat side of the transistor.
Transistors always have one round side and one flat side. If the round side
is facing you, the Collector leg is on the left, the Base leg is in the middle,
and the Emitter leg is on the right.
Transistor Symbol
103 The following symbol is used in circuit drawings (schematics) to
represent a transistor.
Basic Circuit
The Base (B) is the On/Off switch for the transistor. If a current is
flowing to the Base, there will be a path from the Collector (C) to the
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Emitter (E) where current can flow (The Switch is On.) If there is no
current flowing to the Base, then no current can flow from the Collector
to the Emitter. (The Switch is off.) Below is the basic circuit we will use
for all of our transistors.
Relays
105 All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by
AC or DC current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a
threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which operates either to
close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is
supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch
mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one
circuit to another. The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second
is called the load circuit. A relay is usually an electromechanical device
that is actuated by an electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit
causes the opening or closing of another circuit.
Types of Relays
(1)Electromechanical Relays
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Advantages of relays
(a) Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
(b) Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
(c) Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
(d) Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
(a) Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
(b) Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can
switch many times per second.
(c) Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
(d) Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a
low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the
relay's coil.
Microcontrollers
The 8051 Microcontroller
Overview
111 The 8051 family of micro controllers is based on an architecture which
is highly optimized for embedded control systems. It is used in a wide
variety of applications from military equipment to automobiles to the
keyboard on your PC. Second only to the Motorola 68HC11 in eight bit
processors sales, the 8051 family of microcontrollers is available in a
wide array of variations from manufacturers such as Intel, Philips, and
Siemens. These manufacturers have added numerous features and
peripherals to the 8051 such as I2C interfaces, analog to digital
converters, watchdog timers, and pulse width modulated outputs.
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Memory Organization
113 The 8051 architecture provides the user with three physically distinct
memory spaces which can be seen in Figure A - 1. Each memory space
consists of contiguous addresses from 0 to the maximum size, in bytes, of
the memory space. Address overlaps are resolved by utilizing instructions
which refer specifically to a given address space. The three memory
spaces function as described below.
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Figure A - 1 - 8051 Memory Architecture
The CODE Space
114 The first memory space is the CODE segment in which the executable
program resides. This segment can be up to 64K (since it is addressed by
16 address lines). The processor treats this segment as read only and will
generate signals appropriate to access a memory device such as an
EPROM. However, this does not mean that the CODE segment must be
implemented using an EPROM. Many embedded systems these days are
using EEPROM which allows the memory to be overwritten either by the
8051 itself or by an external device. This makes upgrades to the product
easy to do since new software can be downloaded into the EEPROM
rather than having to disassemble it and install a new EPROM.
116 The second memory space is the 128 bytes of internal RAM on the 8051,
or the first 128 bytes of internal RAM on the 8052. This segment is
typically referred to as the DATA segment. The RAM locations in this
segment are accessed in one or two cycles depending on the instruction.
This access time is much quicker than access to the XDATA segment
because memory is addressed directly rather than via a memory pointer
such as DPTR which must first be initialized. Therefore, frequently used
variables and temporary scratch variables are usually assigned to the
DATA segment. Such allocation must be done with care, however, due to
the limited amount of memory in this segment. Variables stored in the
DATA segment can also be accessed indirectly via R0 or R1. The register
being used as the memory pointer must contain the address of the byte to
be retrieved or altered. These instructions can take one or two processor
cycles depending on the source/destination data byte.
117 The DATA segment contains two smaller segments of interest. The first
sub segment consists of the four sets of register banks which compose the
first 32 bytes of RAM. The 8051 can use any of these four groups of eight
bytes as its default register bank. The selection of register banks is
changeable at any time via the RS1 and the RS0 bits in the Processor
Status Word (PSW). These two bits combine into a number from 0 to 3
(with RS1 being the most significant bit) which indicates the register bank
to be used. Register bank switching allows not only for quick parameter
passing, but also opens the door for simplifying task switching on the
8051.
118 The second sub-segment in the DATA space is a bit addressable segment
in which each bit can be individually accessed. This segment is referred to
as the BDATA segment. The bit addressable segment consists of 16 bytes
(128 bits) above the four register banks in memory. The 8051 contains
several single bit instructions which are often very useful in control
applications and aid in replacing external combinatorial logic with
software in the 8051 thus reducing parts count on the target system. It
should be noted that these 16 bytes can also be accessed on a "byte-wide"
basis just like any other byte in the DATA space.
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Interfacing of Seven Segment with Parallel port
Apparatus
119 Seven segment C-5611, Parallel Port Connector cord, Jumper Wires
Bread Board.
Procedure
1. Open windows 98 as OS
2. Connect the male connector of the parallel port cord to the PC
3. Now connect the Female Connector of cord with seven
2 5
3 19
4 4
5 9
6 3
7 2
8 20
9 7
10 8
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Embedded Systems
Introduction
120 An embedded system is a special-purpose system in which the computer
is completely encapsulated by the device it controls. Unlike a general-
purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system
performs pre-defined tasks, usually with very specific requirements. Since
the system is dedicated to a specific task, design engineers can optimize
it, reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded systems are often
mass-produced, so the cost savings may be multiplied by millions of
items.
122 The first recognizably modern embedded system was the Apollo
Guidance Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT
Instrumentation Laboratory. Each flight to the moon had two. They ran
the inertial guidance systems of both the command module and LEM.
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Characteristics
123 Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be
a general-purpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time
performance constraints that must be met, for reason such as safety and
usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing
the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs. For high volume
systems such as portable music players or mobile phones, minimizing cost
is usually the primary design consideration. Engineers typically select
hardware that is just “good enough” to implement the necessary functions.
For example, a digital set-top box for satellite television has to process
large amounts of data every second, but most of the processing is done by
custom integrated circuits. The embedded CPU "sets up" this process, and
displays menu graphics, etc. for the set-top's look and feel.
124 The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware,
and is stored in ROM or Flash memory chips rather than a disk drive. It
often runs with limited hardware resources: small or no keyboard, screen,
and little RAM memory. Embedded systems reside in machines that are
expected to run continuously for years without errors and in some cases
recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore the Software is usually
developed and tested more carefully than that for Personal computers, and
unreliable mechanical moving parts such as Disk drives, switches or
buttons are avoided. Recovery from errors may be achieved with
techniques such as a watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the
software periodically notifies the watchdog.
User interfaces
125 Embedded systems range from no user interface at all - dedicated only to
one task - to full user Interfaces similar to desktop operating systems in
devices such as PDAs. In between are devices with small character- or
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Conclusion