2.

1 EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
What do the fractions in example 1 have in common?
Example 1











{Each fraction in example 1 represents the same number. These fractions are equivalent.}
Definition: Equivalent fractions are different
fractions that name the same number.

Example 2











2.2 FRACTIONS










So a fraction is the number of shaded parts divided by the number of equal parts as shown below:
Number of shaded parts numerator
number of equal parts denominator
Looking at the numbers above, we have:
Two-thirds is equivalent to four-sixths.
Definition: A fraction names part of a region or part of a group. The top number of a fraction is
called its numerator and the bottom part is its denominator.


There are two equal parts,
giving a denominator of 2.
One of the parts is
shaded, giving a
numerator of 1.



There are three equal
parts, giving a denominator
of 3. Two of the parts are
shaded, giving a numerator
of 2.



There are four equal parts,
giving a denominator of 4.
One of the parts is shaded,
giving a numerator of 1.


2.2 DECIMALS








PLACE VALUE AND DECIMALS






Mixed Number ------------- E x p a n d e d F o r m ------------ Decimal Form

= (5 x 10) + ( 7 x 1) + (4 x ) + (9 x ) = 57.49






Below we have expressed the number in expanded form and in decimal form.
Definition:
A decimal is any number in our base-ten number system. Specifically, we will
be using numbers that have one or more digits to the right of the decimal point in
this unit of lessons. The decimal point is used to separate the ones place from
the tenths place in decimals. (It is also used to separate dollars from cents in
money.) As we move to the right of the decimal point, each number place is
divided by 10.

5 7 . 4 9


As we move to the right in the place value chart, each number place is
divided by 10. For example, thousands divided by 10 gives you hundreds.
This is also true for digits to the right of the decimal point. For example,
tenths divided by 10 gives you hundredths. When reading decimals, the
decimal point should be read as "and." Thus, we read the decimal 57.49 as
"fifty-seven and forty-nine hundredths." Note that in daily life it is common to
read the decimal point as "point" instead of "and." Thus, 57.49 would be read
as "fifty-seven point four nine." This usage is not considered mathematically
correct.





3.1 ORDER OF OPERATIONS
Problem: Evaluate the following arithmetic
expression:
3 + 4 x 2


Solution:
Student
1

Student
2
3 + 4 x 2 3 + 4 x 2
= 7 x 2 = 3 + 8
= 14 = 11


It seems that each student interpreted the problem differently, resulting in two different
answers. Student 1 performed the operation of addition first, then multiplication; whereas
student 2 performed multiplication first, then addition. When performing arithmetic
operations there can be only one correct answer. We need a set of rules in order to avoid
this kind of confusion. Mathematicians have devised a standard order of operations for
calculations involving more than one arithmetic operation.
Rule 1: First perform any calculations inside parentheses.
Rule 2: Next perform all multiplications and divisions, working from left to right.
Rule 3: Lastly, perform all additions and subtractions, working from left to right.
The above problem was solved correctly by Student 2 since she followed Rules 2 and 3. Let's look at
some examples of solving arithmetic expressions using these rules.
Example 1: Evaluate each expression using the rules for order of operations.












FORMULA: Brackets Order Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction
3.3 FINDING A FRACTION OF QUANTITY
Introduction
When finding a fraction of an amount, the key rule to remember is to divide the amount by the
denominator and multiply your answer by the numerator.
If asked to increase or decrease an amount by a fraction make sure you add or subtract from
the original amount at the end of the question!


>>>>Example questions involving fractions of amounts<<<<

Example 1 - Finding a fraction of an amount
Find 25 of 35.
Solution:
Order of Operations
Expression Evaluation Operation
6 + 7 x 8 = 6 + 7 x 8 Multiplication
= 6 + 56 Addition
= 62
16 8 - 2 = 16 8 - 2 Division
= 2 - 2 Subtraction
= 0
(25 - 11) x 3 = (25 - 11) x 3 Parentheses
= 14 x 3 Multiplication
= 42


First find 15 by dividing 35 by 5 to get 7.
Now to find 25 multiply by 2 to get 7 2 = 14.

Example 2 - Increasing or decreasing an amount by a fraction
Increase 240 by 16 .
240 6 = 40. So 16 of 240 is 40.
Since we want to increase the amount by 16 we add this on to the original amount of 240. So
240 + 40 = 280.

3.4 ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS


How do we add or subtract fractions?




The names of what we are adding or subtracting -- the
denominators -- must be the same. Add or subtract only the
numerators, and keep that same denominator.



Example1.



5
8
+
2
8
=
7
8
.
5 eighths + 2 eighths = 7 eighths."


The denominator of a fraction has but one function, which is to name what
we are counting. In this example, we are counting eighths.

Example 2.
5
8

2
8
=
3
8
.


3.5 MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING FRACTIONS
Remember that to multiply fractions, you need to multiply the numerators together,
and multiply the denominators together. Remember that you cannot cancel numbers
that are both on the top of a fraction. Have a look at the examples below.
Example
4
/
5
x
5
/
6
Multiply then cancel:
OR cancel between the top and the
bottom then multiply:






Dividing a fraction by a whole number
Three people share
3
/4's of a pie. They each get
1
/4.
This means
3
/4 divided by 3 would make the answer
1
/4.
Another way of writing 3 is
3
/1
So
3
/4
3
/1 =
1
/4
You get the same answer when you turn the fraction you divide by upside down, and
multiply instead. For example,
3
/4 x
1
/3 =
1
/4.

The same is true with a whole number.
15 3 = 5 and 15 x
1
/3 = 5
Dividing by a fraction
How do you divide 12 by
1
/3? This isn't the same as 12 divided by 3.
12
1
/3 means how many thirds are there in 12 whole units.
As there are 3 thirds in each whole unit, then there are 36 thirds in 12 whole units. Think
how many
1
/3's there are in one pie, then 12 pies.
A simple way to divide by a fraction is to turn the fraction upside down and multiply.
It works with all fractions. For example dividing by
2
/3 is the same as multiplying by
3
/2.
10
2
/3 =
10
/1 x
3
/2 =
30
/2 =
15
/1 = 15
Notice that when you divide by a fraction the answer is larger than the number you started
with.
4.1 ROUNDING OF WHOLE NUMBERS

How to Round Numbers?
Decide which is the last digit to keep
Leave it the same if the next digit is less than 5 (this is called rounding down)
But increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more (this is called rounding up)
Example: Round 74 to the nearest 10
We want to keep the "7" as it is in the 10s position
The next digit is "4" which is less than 5, so no change is needed to "7"
Answer: 70
(74 gets "rounded down")

Example: Round 86 to the nearest 10
We want to keep the "8"
The next digit is "6" which is 5 or more, so increase the "8" by 1 to "9"

Answer: 90
(86 gets "rounded up")
Why does 5 go up ?
5 is in the middle ... so we could go up or down. But we need a method that
everyone agrees to. So think about sport: we should have the same number of
players on each team, right?

.

A farmer counted 87 cows in the field, but when he rounded them up he had 90
4.2 ROUNDING DECIMALS
Rounding Decimals
First we need to know if we are rounding to tenths, or hundredths, etc. Or maybe to "so many
decimal places". That tells us how much of the number will be left when we finish.
3.1416 rounded to hundredths is 3.14
as the next digit (1) is less than 5
1.2635 rounded to tenths is 1.3
as the next digit (6) is 5 or more
1.2635 rounded to 3 decimal places is 1.264
as the next digit (5) is 5 or more

-If we want to round 4.732 to 2 decimal places, it will either round to 4.73 or 4.74-

0,1,2,3 and 4 are on team "down"
5,6,7,8 and 9 are on team "up"







4.732 rounded to 2 decimal places would be 4.73 (because it is the nearest number to 2
decimal places).

4.737 rounded to 2 decimal places would be 4.74 (because it would be closer to 4.74).

4.735 is halfway between 4.73 and 4.74, so it is rounded up: 4.735 rounded to 2 decimal
places is 4.74.

4.3 ROUNDING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant figures
Sometimes we do not always
need to give detailed
answers to problems - we just want a rough idea. When we are faced with a long number,
we could round it off to the nearest thousand, or nearest million. And when we get a long
decimal answer on a calculator, we could round it off to a certain number of decimal places.
Another method of giving an approximated answer is to round off using significant
figures.
The word significant means: having meaning.
With the number 368249, the 3 is the most significant digit, because it tells us that the
number is 3 hundred thousand and something. It follows that the 6 is the next most
significant, and so on.
With the number 0.0000058763, the 5 is the most significant digit, because it tells us that
the number is 5 millionths and something. The 8 is the next most significant, and so on.

Be careful however with numbers such as 30245, the 3 is the first significant figure and 0
the second, because of its value as a place holder.
We round off a number using a certain number of significant figures. The most common are
1, 2 or 3 significant figures.
Remember the rules for rounding up are the same as before:
If the next number is 5 or more, we round up.
If the next number is 4 or less, we do not round up.



5.1 PERCENTAGES-FRACTIONS
DECIMALS
Operation Explanation Example

Convert a
decimal to a
percent
Move the decimal point 2 places to the right and add a percent (%)
sign. If you need to, add a zero on the back to get the second
decimal place.
.123 = 12.3%


Convert a
percent to a
decimal
Move the decimal point 2 places to the left. If you need to, put a
zero on the front.
5% = .05

Convert a
fraction to a
decimal
Divide the numerator by the denominator, using your calculator. 1/8 = .125
Convert a
percent to a
fraction

First turn the number into a decimal. Then turn the number into a
fraction by putting it over 10, 100, 1000, or whatever number is
big enough to have enough zeroes for each place after the
decimal.
18% = .18 =
18/100 = 9/50
Decimals, Fractions and Percentages are just different ways of showing the same value:

A Half can be written...

As a fraction:
1
/
2

As a decimal: 0.5
As a percentage: 50%




5.2 CALCULATING A PERCENTAGE
How to Calculate
Here are two ways to calculate a percentage change, use whichever method you prefer:
Method 1
Step 1: Calculate the change (subtract old value from the new value)
Step 2: Divide that change by the old value (you will get a decimal number)

Step 3: Convert that to a percentage (by multiplying by 100 and adding a "%" sign)

Note: if the new value is greater then the old value, it is a percentage increase, otherwise it is
a decrease.
Method 2
Step 1: Divide the New Value by the Old Value (you will get a decimal number)
Step 2: Convert that to a percentage (by multiplying by 100 and adding a "%" sign)
Step 3: Subtract 100% from that

Note: if the result is positive it is a percentage increase, if negative, just remove the minus
sign and call it a decrease.

Example: There were 160 smarties in the box yesterday, but now there are 116, what is the
percentage change?


Answer (Method 1): 160 to 116 is a decrease of 44. Compared to
yesterday's value: 44/160 = 0.275 = 27.5% decrease.

Answer (Method 2): Compare today's value with yesterday's value:
116/160 = 0.725 = 72.5%, so the new value is 72.5% of the old value.
Subtract 100% and you get -27.5%, or a 27.5% decrease.
5.3 INCREASING OR DECREASING
QUANTITIES BY A PERCENTAGE


Example: 10% of 100
A 10% increase from 100 is an increase of 10, which equals 110
But a 10% reduction from 110 is a reduction of 11 (10% of 110 is 11)
So we ended up at 99 (not the 100 we started with)

What happened?
10% took us up 10
Then 10% took us down 11

Because the percentage rise or fall is in relation to the old
value:
The 10% increase was applied to 100.
But the 10% decrease was applied to 110.

How to do it properly
To "reverse" a percentage rise or fall, use the right formula here:
To Reverse: Use this Percent: Example 10%
An "x" percent increase: x/(1+x/100) 10/(1+10/100) = 10/(1.1) = 9.0909...
An "x" percent decrease: x/(1-x/100) 10/(1-10/100) = 10/(0.9) = 11.111...
5.4 EXPRESSING ONE QUANTITY AS A
PERCENTAGE OF ANOTHER


This means working out the percentage
Hannah scored 33 out of 40 marks in her History exam. James did a slightly different assessment,
and scored 60 out of 70 marks. Hannah remarks that James did better on his exam. James agrees,
pointing out he did nearly twice as well as Hannah!
A. Well they both did different assessments, so we need something to compare them fairly before we can
say for sure. This is really, really easy to do. All we need to do is the following:
1) Just divide each of their scores, by the total for the paper.
Hannah: 33/40 = 0.825 & Junaid: 60/70 = 0.857
Straight away, you can see James did perform better overall, but certainly not by as much double
Hannahs performance.
But, because decimals like this are awkward to work with, we came up with an idea of expressing the
decimal as a percentage (you can also do this with fractions)
2) Multiply numbers like that by 100, and well get a good measure that will reduce the amount of
decimals we have to work with. We then call that number a percentage.
Hannah: 0.825 x 100 = 82.5% & Junaid: 0.857 x 100 = 85.7%
For an assessment, that would be their percentage scores.
So to express one number as a percentage of another
1. Divide the first number by the second, and then
2. Multiply the result by 100.
5.5 SIMPLE INTEREST AND
COMPOUND INTEREST

Simple Interest

If the bank charges "Simple Interest" then Alex just pays another 10% for the extra year.

Alex pays Interest of ($1,000 10%) x 2 Years = $200
That is how simple interest works ... pay the same amount of interest every year.
Example: Alex borrows $1,000 for 5 Years, at 10% simple interest:
Interest = $1,000 10% x 5 Years = $500
Plus the Principal of $1,000 means Alex needs to pay $1,500 after 5 Years