ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Assignment-2






Submitted By:
Abhishek Yadav
110101011
CS-C, 3
rd
YEAR
Submitted To:
Dr. Kiran Kumar Ravulakollu
Sharda University
Greater Noida
HILL CLIMBING:
The hill climbing search algorithm is a simple loop that continually moves in the direction of
increasing value that is: UPHILL.
It terminates when it reaches a peak where no neighbour has a higher value.
The algorithm doesnt maintain a search tree, so the current node data structure need only
record the state and its objective function value.
Hill Climbing doesnt look beyond the immediate neighbours of the current state.
This resembles trying to find the top of MT. Everest in a thick fog while suffering from
amnesia.
Sometimes called Greedy local search because it grabs a good neighbour state without
thinking about where to go next.
Hill climbing often makes a rapid progress towards a solution as it is quite easy to improve a
bad state.
Various variants include: 1. Stochastic Hill climbing
2. First choice hill climbing
3. Random Restart hill climbing

Obstacles Hill Climbing faces :
LOCAL MAXIMA: is a peak that is higher than each of its neighbouring states but lower
than global maximum. When algorithm reaches the vicinity of local maximum, it will be
drawn upwards towards the peak ad will stuck with nowhere else to go.
RIDGES: they result in a sequence of local maxima that is very difficult for greedy
algorithms to navigate.
PLATEAUX: is an area of state space where evaluation function is flat. It can be flat
local maximum from which no uphill exit exists or a shoulder from which its possible to
make progress.




SIMULATED ANNEALING SEARCH:

A hill climbing algorithm that never makes downhill moves towards states with lower value
or high cost is guaranteed to be incomplete as it can get stuck on local maximum.

Solution: A purely random walk- moving to a successor chosen uniformly at random
from set of successor is complete, but inefficient. Therefore it is reasonable to try to
combine hill combine with a random walk in a way that gives both efficiency and
completeness.

SIMULATED ANNEALING is such an algorithm in which random walk and
hill climbing is done together.

Annealing: is a process used to harden metal or glass by heating them to a very
high temperature and then cooling them gradually? It allows the material to
coalesce into a low-energy crystalline state.

The innermost loop of this algorithm is quite similar to hill climbing. But instead of
picking the best moves it picks a random move. If the move improves the situation then
its accepted else the algorithm accepts moves with probability less than 1.

BAD MOVES:
o The probability decreases with exponentially as the amount E by which the
evaluation is worsened.
o Bad moves are more likely when temperature increases.

Simulated Annealing has been extensively used to solve VLSI layout problems in early
1980s and has been widely used in factory scheduling and other large scale optimization
tasks.

GENETIC ALGORITHM:
Is a variant of stochastic beam search.
Stochastic search is a type of Local beam search which generates k random states
with the probability of choosing a given successor and increasing function of its
value.
In genetic algorithm the successor states are generated by combining two parent
states rather than by modifying a single state.
Procedure:
Begins with a set of k randomly generated states called population.
Each state or individual is represented as a string of 0 and 1.
Fitness function is a function which returns higher values for better states
CROSSOVER: for each pair to be mated a crossover point is randomly chosen
for reproduction.
MUTATION: one digit is mutated in the 1
st
, 3
rd
and 4
th
offspring generated after
mutation.

In practice, GAs have a widespread use in circuit layout and job-shop
scheduling.