Colloidal and surface phenomenal aspects of Ice cream

Yusuo Bob Chang

Joseph Kuechle
Travis Reese
Pierre SaintLouis
pril !" #$$#
Table of Contents
I. Introduction - 3
II. History - 4
III. Design Considerations - 6
IV. Main components and composition - 9
V. Basic structure of Ice cream - 1
VI. Ingredients contri!uting to - 11
p"ysica# properties
VII. $rocessing and Manufacture - %4
VIII. Mar&eting Considerations - 31
I'. (upp#iers - 36
'. Conc#usion - 3)
'I. *eferences - 3+
%
I% I&TR'()CTI'&
Homogeni,ed dairy emu#sions suc" as ice cream are genera##y co##oids containing
fat drop#ets as t"e dispersed p"ase. Ice cream is a comp#e- food co##oid in t"at t"e mi-
emu#sion is su!se.uent#y foamed/ creating a dispersed p"ase of air !u!!#es/ and is fro,en/
forming anot"er dispersed p"ase of ice crysta#s. 0ir !u!!#es and ice crysta#s are usua##y
in t"e range of % 1 2 micrometers in si,e. 3"e serum p"ase consists of t"e unadsor!ed
casein mice##es in suspension in a free,e-concentrated so#ution of sugars/ unadsor!ed
4"ey proteins/ sa#ts and "ig" mo#ecu#ar mass po#ysacc"arides. In addition/ t"e partia##y-
crysta##ine fat p"ase at refrigerated temperatures undergoes partia# coa#escence during t"e
concomitant 4"ipping and free,ing process/ resu#ting in a net4or& of agg#omerated fat/
4"ic" partia##y surrounds t"e air !u!!#es and gi5es rise to a so#id-#i&e structure. Various
steps in t"e manufacturing process/ inc#uding pasteuri,ation/ "omogeni,ation/ ageing/
free,ing and "ardening/ contri!ute to t"e de5e#opment of t"is structure. 3"is paper
discusses t"e "istory/ design considerations/ components/ structure/ co##oida# aspects and
contri!uting e#ements/ processing/ and mar&eting considerations of ice cream.
3
II% *IST'RY
Very #itt#e is &no4n of t"e ear#y "istory of ice cream. It is &no4n "o4e5er/ to
"a5e !een introduced from 6urope. 3"e origins of ice cream can !e traced !ac& to t"e 4t"
century B.C. 3"e *oman emperor 7ero ordered ice to !e !roug"t from t"e mountains and
com!ined 4it" fruit toppings. During C"ina8s 3ang period 90.D. 61+-9): ;ing 3ang of
("ang "ad a met"od of creating ice and mi#& concoctions. It is t"oug"t t"at ice cream 4as
!roug"t from C"ina !ac& to 6urope. <5er time/ recipes for ices/ s"er!ets/ and mi#& ices
e5o#5ed and 4ere ser5ed in t"e fas"iona!#e Ita#ian and =renc" roya# courts.
0fter t"e dessert 4as imported to t"e >nited (tates/ it 4as ser5ed !y some famous
0mericans inc#uding ?eorge @as"ington/ 3"omas Aefferson/ and Do##ey Madison. In
1)/ ?o5ernor B#aden of Mary#and 4as recorded as "a5ing ser5ed ice cream to "is
guests. 0 Bondon caterer named $"i##ip Ben,i announced in a 7e4 Cor& ne4spaper t"at
"e 4ou#d !e offering for sa#e 5arious confections/ inc#uding ice cream in 1))4. 3"e first
ice cream par#or in 0merica opened in 7e4 Cor& City in 1))6.
In t"e ear#y years of ice cream/ sa#t 4as mi-ed 4it" ice to #o4er and contro# t"e
temperature of t"e mi-. 3"e in5ention of t"e 4ooden !uc&et free,er 4it" rotary padd#es
faci#itated its manufacture. It 4as in 1+3% t"at 0ugustus Aac&son/ a confectioner from
$"i#ade#p"ia/ in5ented an ice cream recipe and a met"od for manufacturing it. In 1+43/
7e4 6ng#and "ouse4ife 7ancy Ao"nson in5ented t"e "and-cran&ed ice cream c"urn. ("e
patented "er in5ention !ut #ac&ed t"e resources to ma&e and mar&et t"e c"urn "erse#f.
Mrs. Ao"nson so#d t"e patent for D% to a $"i#ade#p"ia &itc"en 4"o#esa#er 4"o/ !y 1+4)/
made enoug" free,ers to satisfy t"e "ig" demand. =rom 1+4) to 1+))/ more t"an )
4
impro5ements to ice cream c"urns 4ere patented. 3"e first #arge-sca#e commercia# ice
cream p#ant 4as esta!#is"ed in Ba#timore in 1+21 !y Aaco! =usse##.
2
III% (+SI,& C'&SI(+RTI'&S
3aste/ te-ture/ !ody/ co#oring/ addition of fruits and candies/ me#t resistance/
rigidity/ and ma##ea!i#ity are some of t"e .ua#ities t"at a consumer #oo&s for in a good ice
cream. Most of t"ese properties can !e manipu#ated t"roug" t"e use of sta!i#i,ers and
emu#sifiers.
3"e f#a5or of t"e ice cream is pro!a!#y its most important .ua#ity. =#a5or is
manipu#ated t"roug" t"e use of s4eeteners/ corn syrup/ natura# and artificia# f#a5ors.
=#a5or defects can !e c#assified according to/ t"e f#a5oring system 9#ac&s f#a5or or too
"ig" f#a5or/ unnatura# f#a5or:/ t"e s4eetening system 9#ac&s s4eetness or too s4eet:/
processing re#ated f#a5or defects 9coo&ed:/ dairy ingredient f#a5or defects 9acid/ sa#ty/ o#d
ingredient/ o-idi,edEmeta##ic/ rancid/ or 4"ey f#a5ors:/ and ot"ers 9storageEa!sor!ed:.
0 .ua#ity ice cream needs to possess a smoot" and creamy te-ture/ 4"ic" is
inf#uenced !y si,e/ distri!ution/ s"ape and num!er of ice crysta#s. Ice crysta#s gi5e t"e
product a course/ icy te-ture. Ice crysta#s are usua##y formed 4"en t"e product goes
t"roug" F"eat s"oc&G or t"e temperature f#uctuations e-perienced from storage and
distri!ution. 3"e amount and si,e of ice crysta#s is inf#uenced !y t"e use of sta!i#i,ers/
addition of t"e rig"t amount of so#ids/ free,ing and "ardening time/ and t"e incorporation
of air and temperature f#uctuations. =#uffy and sandy te-tures are a#so c"aracteristics t"at
s"ou#d !e a5oided. 0 f#uffy te-ture is c"aracteri,ed as spongy and is caused !y t"e
incorporation of #arge amount of air as #arge air ce##s/ #o4 tota# so#ids and #o4 sta!i#i,er
content. 0 sandy te-ture is one of t"e most o!Hectiona!#e te-ture defects !ut easiest to
detect. It is caused !y #actose crysta#s/ 4"ic" do not disso#5e readi#y and produce a roug"
6
or gritty sensation in t"e mout". 3"is can !e distinguis"ed from IicinessI !ecause t"e
#actose crysta#s do not me#t in ones mout". 3"is defect can !e pre5ented !y many of t"e
same factors t"at in"i!it iciness.
0 crum!#y/ gummy or 4ea& !ody must !e a5oided to produce a .ua#ity ice cream.
0 crum!#y !ody is c"aracteri,ed as f#a&y or sno4y and may !e caused !y #o4 amounts of
sta!i#i,er and emu#sifier/ #o4 tota# so#ids or course air ce##s. 0 gummy defect is t"e
opposite of crum!#y in t"at it imparts a pasty or putty-#i&e !ody. It is a#so inf#uenced !y
t"e amount and .ua#ity of sta!i#i,er. Ice cream t"at #ac&s Ic"e4inessI/ me#ts .uic&#y into
a 4atery #i.uid and gi5es impression of #ac&ing ric"ness is referred to as "a5ing a 4ea&
!ody. 0 4ea& !ody may !e caused !y #o4 so#ids and insufficient sta!i#i,er.
Ice cream does not on#y need to 4it"stand temperature f#uctuations !ut a#so needs
to "a5e good me#ting c"aracteristics. 0 s#o4/ smoot" me#tdo4n is 4"at is desired !ut if
not processed and designed correct#y t"e ice cream product may e-"i!it curdy or 4"eying
me#t do4n c"aracteristics. 0 curdy me#t do4n is due to t"e coagu#ation of t"e mi#&
proteins and is affected !y factors 4"ic" inf#uence protein sta!i#ity suc" as/ "ig" acidity/
sa#t !a#ance/ "ig" "omogeni,ing pressures/ and o5er-free,ing in t"e free,er. @"eying off
is effected !y t"e sa#t !a#ance/ protein composition/ and carrageenan addition. If t"e ice
cream does not me#t/ t"e fo##o4ing factors are "e#d responsi!#eJ o5er emu#sification/
4rong emu#sifier/ "ig" fat/ e-cessi5e fat c#umping in t"e mi-/ free,ing to too #o4 a
temperature at free,er.
0 manufacturer of ice cream tries to produce a product 4it" an appea#ing/ uniform
co#or to it. $ro!#ems arise 4"en ice cream e-"i!its an une5en and unnatura# co#or.
)
>ne5en co#oring usua##y app#ies to ice cream in 4"ic" co#or "as added/ !ut may !e
noticed in 5ani##a ice cream under some circumstances. >nnatura# co#ors arise 4"en a
4rong s"ade of co#or used for a f#a5ored ice cream/ too muc" ye##o4 co#oring used in
5ani##a ice cream/ or 4"en neutra#i,ation causes a grayis" co#or.
("rin&age is a 5ery trou!#esome defect in ice cream since t"ere appears to !e no
sing#e cause or remedy. Defects s"o4 up in "ardened ice cream and manifest t"emse#5es
in reduced 5o#ume of ice cream in t"e container usua##y !y pu##ing a4ay from t"e top
andEor sides of container. (tructura##y/ it is caused !y a #oss of sp"erica# air !u!!#es and
formation of continuous air c"anne#s. (ome factors !e#ie5ed associated 4it" t"e defect
areJ free,ing and "ardening at u#tra #o4 temperatures/ storage temperature/ e-cessi5e
o5erruns/ pressure c"anges.
In recent years/ t"ere "as !een a "ig"er demand for t"e inc#usion of candies and
fruit in ice cream. Ice cream inc#usions can come in t4o different formsJ pieces or
5ariegates. $ieces range from sma## f#ec&s of 5ani##a !ean to partia# or 4"o#e !ite-si,e
pieces of materia# #i&e fruits and nuts. Variegates often are used instead of/ or in addition
to/ pieces. In t"e finis"ed ice cream/ 5ariegates appear as a ri!!on. 3"ese inc#usions
ma&e for more difficu#t processing. 7ot Hust any candy !ar can Hust !e added to ice
creamK t"e ingredient impacts t"e properties of t"e ice cream itse#f and often times t"e
free,ing process c"anges t"e ingredient.

+
I-% .ain components and composition
Ice cream contains fi5e main typica# ingredientsJ mi#&/ sta!i#i,ers/ emu#sifiers/
s4eeteners and 4ater. (4eeteners are o!5ious#y used to en"ance t"e s4eetness of t"e
fro,en treat. Mi#& consists of mi#& fats and mi#& so#ids. In 7ort" 0merica/ fats are
genera##y deri5ed from mi#& 4"ereas in ot"er parts of t"e 4or#d/ fats are more common#y
deri5ed from non-dairy sources. 3"e mi#& so#id non-fats contain #actose/ casein/ mice##es/
4"ey proteins/ minera#s 9as":/ 5itamins/ acids/ en,ymes/ and gases of t"e mi#& or mi#&
products from 4"ic" t"ey 4ere deri5ed.
(ta!i#i,ers are present in ice cream to produce smoot"ness in !ody and te-ture/
retard or reduce ice and #actose crysta# gro4t" during storage and pro5ide uniformity to
t"e product and resistance to me#ting. 6mu#sifiers are sometimes integrated 4it"
sta!i#i,ers/ !ut t"ey function to impro5e t"e 4"ipping .ua#ity of t"e mi-/ produce a drier
ice cream to faci#itate mo#ding for 5arious ice cream sty#es/ pro5ide smoot"er !ody and
te-ture in t"e fina# product and gi5e t"e product good standup properties and me#t
resistance.
3"e percent compositions of t"e ingredients are summari,ed in t"e ta!#e !e#o4.
Component
Range
(%)
Milkfat 10-16%
Milk Solids-not-fat 9-12%
Sucrose 9-12%
Corn Srup Solids !-6%
Sta"ili#ers$%mulsifiers 0-0&'%
(otal Solids )6-!'%
*ater ''-6!
9
-% BSIC STR)CT)R+
3"e comp#e- p"ysica# structure of ice cream presents a c"a##enge for food
c"emists/ 4"o readi#y concede itLs not fu##y understood. Despite t"is/ food products
designers &no4 "o4 to manipu#ate t"ese structures/ creating a 4ide 5ariety of products
pac&ing consumer appea#.
@ater/ ice/ air/ sugar/ mi#& fat and mi#& protein can !e assem!#ed into innumera!#e
com!inations/ eac" 4it" uni.ue p"ysica# c"emistry. Ice creamLs sensory attri!utes/
particu#ar#y mout"-fee#/ dictate t"at ingredient and processing 5aria!#es in its production
stri5e for as muc" "omogeneity as possi!#e/ e5en t"oug" ice cream is far from
"omogeneous.
(imp#y stated/ ice creamLs o5era## design goa# isJ incorporating se5era# different
inso#u!#e 9air !u!!#es/ ice crysta#s/ and fat g#o!u#es: into an a.ueous p"ase at t"e sma##est
si,es/ and in t"e greatest num!ers/ possi!#e. <ne gram of ice cream of typica#
composition contains 1.2 - 1
1%
fat g#o!u#es of a5erage diameter 1Mm t"at "a5e a surface
area of greater t"an 1 s.uare meter 9in a gramN:/ + - 1
6
air !u!!#es of a5erage diameter
) Mm 4it" a surface area of .1 s.. m./ and + - 1
6
ice crysta#s of a5erage diameter 2
Mm 4it" a surface area of anot"er .1 s.. m. 3"e importance of surface c"emistry
!ecomes o!5iousN
1
-I% Ingredients contributing to ph/sical properties as colloids on a molecular
3o create an ice cream product 4it" properties meeting
customer e-pectations/ eac" e#ement of it must contri!ute
to its properties. 7ot on#y t"e properties of t"e ingredients
a#one contri!ute to suc" a product !ut t"e ingredients as
t"ey interact in a co##oida# system a#so p#ay a great ro#e in
s"aping t"ese attri!utes.
=at and @ater
3"e most a!undant components in ice cream are t"e
most important. 3"ese are 4ater and fat. 3"e interaction
!et4een t"e fat and 4ater t"emse#5es is not 4"at is uni.ue a!out ice cream !ut it is t"e
manipu#ation of t"is interaction t"at pro5ides t"e .ua#ities of ice cream.
=at/ a#so &no4n as a triacy#g#ycero#/ is #arge in mo#ecu#ar 4eig"t. 3"e fat mo#ecu#e is
made up of t"ree fatty acids !ound to a g#ycero# mo#ecu#e. 3"is mo#ecu#e is most#y non-
po#ar and 5ery #arge in 4eig"t. It ad"eres to itse#f t"roug" Vander4aa#s interactions
imp#ying re#ati5e#y #arge co"esi5e properties. Due to t"e re#ati5e#y saturated nature of t"e
mo#ecu#es 4it" sing#e !onds in mi#&/ as 4e## as t"e #o4 temperatures t"ey are &ept at/
t"ey tend to !e more so#id #i&e t"an in ot"er types of foods t"at use unsaturated fatty
acids. 3"is is necessary to maintain t"e rigidity of t"e ice cream. 3"e trig#ycerides in mi#&
fat "a5e a 4ide me#ting range around O4

C/ and t"us t"ere is a#4ays a com!ination of

#i.uid and crysta##ine fat. 3"e fat used from mi#& is a#so important to ice cream due to t"e
fact t"at it increases t"e ric"ness of f#a5or in ice cream. It produces a c"aracteristic
11

smoot" te-ture !y #u!ricating t"e pa#ate. 3"e disad5antages in use of mi#& fat as a
component inc#ude "ig" cost/ "indered 4"ipping a!i#ity/ e-cessi5e ric"ness in f#a5or/ and
"ig" ca#orie 5a#ue. 3"e !est source of mi#& fat in ice cream for "ig" .ua#ity f#a5or is fres"
s4eet cream from fres" s4eet mi#&. Dup#icating t"e fat used in ice cream from ot"er
sources of fat is difficu#t.
@ater is a #o4 mo#ecu#ar 4eig"t po#ar su!stance 4it" "ig" co"esi5e properties due to
its a!i#ity to "ydrogen !ond. @"at !ecomes created 4"en a mi-ture of t"e proportions of
fat and 4ater used "ere is an emu#sion. Here t"ere is a dispersed p"ase of fat in a 4ater
en5ironment. 3"e proportions are genera##y suc" t"at $"i P .3. $"i is &no4n as t"e Bo4
interna#-p"ase ratio 9BI$*: 4"ere $"i Q Vi E 9Vi O Ve: 4"ere Vi Q 5o#ume of interna#
p"ase and Ve Q 5o#ume of e-terna# p"ase.
3"ese fats "a5e a muc" #o4er affinity to4ards t"e 4ater t"an it does for itse#f. 3"is
#eads to "ydrop"o!ic interactions/ 4"ic" promotes agg#omeration of t"e fats. 3"ey a#so
are #ess dense t"an 4ater and tend to f#oat. 3"ese fats "a5e a #o4 so#u!i#ity in 4ater
yie#ding to a p"ase separation of 14R 4E4. 3"e dispersed p"ase drop#et si,e ranges from
.1 - 1 Mm.
In ice cream t"e fat is mec"anica##y dispersed. Ho4e5er/ t"e emu#sions are unsta!#e
!ecause t"e "ydrop"o!ic interactions descri!ed a!o5e/ and "as a tendency to dri5e t"e
system to f#occu#ate. It is t"is a!i#ity t"at t"e fat "as to recom!ine t"at #eads to a net4or&
of fat g#o!u#es. It is promoted !y t"e fact t"at t"e fat g#o!u#es "a5e a decreased diffusion
c"aracteristic as co##oids as opposed to indi5idua# mo#ecu#es in t"e fro,en 4ater. 0#so/
t"ey "a5e a #arge surface to 5o#ume ratio/ 4"ic" natura##y #eads to t"is type of net4or&
formation as opposed to #arge g#o!u#es. 0t t"e temperature !e#o4 free,ing t"e fat
1%
partia##y crysta##i,es and its crysta##inity a#so aids in t"is p"enomenon. 3"is partia#
coa#escence or net4or& formation is an irre5ersi!#e agg#omeration of t"e fat g#o!u#es.
3"ey come toget"er in a s"ear fie#d as a resu#t of 4"ipping. It is t"e crysta#s at t"e surface
of t"e drop#ets t"at are t"oug"t to induce t"e connection. In partia# coa#escence t"ere is a
maintenance of identity of indi5idua# g#o!u#es as #ong as t"e crysta# structure is
maintained. 3"is means t"at 4"en t"e crysta#s me#t/ t"e c#uster 4i## e5entua##y coa#esces.
6mu#sifiers
3"is #ayer !et4een t"e 4ater and fat is furt"er modified !y t"e use of amp"ip"i#ic
mo#ecu#es t"at c"ange t"e interfacia# energies. 3"ese mo#ecu#es a#ter t"e concentration of
"ydrop"o!ic groups at t"e interface. 3ypica# interfacia# tensions in t"e ice cream system
range from 12 to %2 dynes E cm. @"en an amp"ip"i#ic 9containing "ydrop"i#ic and
"ydrop"o!ic ends: emu#sifying agent is added to an emu#sion system/ t"e emu#sifiers
concentrate at t"e #ipid-4ater interface and #ead to a reduction in interfacia# tension to
#ess t"an 1 dynes E cm. 3"e po#ar/ "ydrop"i#ic end decreases t"e amount of "ydrop"o!ic
c"ains at t"e interface. 3"ere is a#so an ionic re.uirement of emu#sifying agents. 0n
emu#sion system needs to !e e#ectrica##y neutra# to maintain a sta!#e co##oid or e#se ionic
13
interactions 4i## dra4 t"e mo#ecu#es toget"er. 3"e fat tissue in ice cream is not ionic !ut
t"ere are ions in t"e matri- and disso#5ed in t"e fats. Ionic surfactants are added to t"e
surface of drop#ets and esta!#is" an e#ectric dou!#e #ayer in t"e a.ueous p"ase sta!i#i,ing
t"e emu#sion. 3"ese emu#sifying agents increase t"e amount of fat g#o!u#es effecting fat
net4or& and sta!i#i,e t"e emu#sion.
0n additiona# effect of t"ese emu#sifying agents is t"e fact t"at t"eir addition #eads to
an inf#u- of protein mo#ecu#es into t"e serum p"ase during co#d aging. 3"e proteins tend
to adsor! to t"e fat serum interface and increases t"e concentration in t"e serum from t"e
fat. 3"is c"ange desta!i#i,es t"e fat g#o!u#es !y decreasing t"e protein steric sta!i#i,ation.
3"is 4i## !e addressed in t"e section considering t"e proteins.
Before t"e free,ing step emu#sifiers decrease t"e a!i#ity of t"e fat to coa#esce/ 4"ic"
4ou#d "appen natura##y due to t"e energy in5o#5ed. During t"e free,ing step t"ey add to
t"e partia# desta!i#i,ation of t"e #ipid p"ase. During 4"ipping/ t"e emu#sifier causes t"e
fat g#o!u#es to agg#omerate and form a net4or& in t"e continuous 4ater p"ase !et4een
air !u!!#es. 0s a resu#t/ air ce##s are sta!i#i,ed and stiffness of t"e foam can !e en"anced.
=oam is t"e second co##oida# p"ase of ice cream 4it" air and #i.uids !eing mi-ed. 3"e
interfacia# energy !et4een t"e fat and air 4it" emu#sifiers added is #o4er t"an t"e 4aterE
fat interface forcing t"e fat more into t"e air. 3"is assists in t"e de5e#opment of a good
aeration and fat distri!ution to maintain t"e correct smoot"ness and #ig"tness of te-ture in
t"e ice cream. @"en emu#sifier concentration is increased t"ere is a greater penetration of
fat into t"e air p"ase.
3"e tota# contri!ution of emu#sifiers is decreased free,ing time/ impro5ed 4"ipping
.ua#ity and a production of a dry/ fine/ stiff te-ture of ice cream t"at me#ts uniform#y.
14
3"e origina# ice cream emu#sifier 4as egg yo#& !ut t"e modern concoction uses t4o
!asic materia#s. 3"ese are sor!itan esters suc" as
po#y sor!ate + as 4e## as mono and di g#ycerides.
3"e main ingredient in egg yo#& t"at 4as and
is sti## used as an amp"ip"i#ic emu#sifier is
#ec"t"in. Bec"t"ins are a mi-ture of
p"osp"o#ipids inc#uding p"osp"atidy# c"o#ine/
p"osp"atidy# et"ano#amines or inosito# p"osp"atides and many ot"ers. 3"ey are a#so
deri5ed from soy!eans and can !e c"emica##y modified to pro5ide a 4ide range of
"ydrop"o!icEp"i#ic !a#ances for 5arious app#ications to pro5ide a range of interfacia#
tensions and effecti5e areas.
$o#ysor!ates are deri5ed from a sor!itan ester consisting
of a g#ucose a#co"o# 9sor!ito#: mo#ecu#e !ound to a fatty acid/
o#eic acid/ 4it" o-yet"y#ene groups added for furt"er 4ater
so#u!i#ity. $o#y sor!ate + is sma## in mo#ecu#ar 4eig"t and
produces a #o4 interfacia# tension disp#acing more protein
resu#ting in a 5ery t"in mem!rane around t"e fat and a
ma-imum amount of fat desta!i#i,ation
$o#y sor!ate is a#so a drying agent t"at adsor!s 4ater increasing t"e concentration of
sugars and proteins in t"e serum p"ase.
Mono and dig#ycerides are deri5ed from t"e partia# "ydro#ysis of fats or oi#s of anima#
or 5egeta!#e origin. Disti##ed monog#ycerides/
especia##y ones !ased on fu##y "ydrogenated fats/
12
act a#so as starc" comp#e-ing agents due to t"eir straig"t car!on c"ain. 3"is c"ain is
en5e#oped !y t"e "e#ica# configuration of amy#ose to form a comp#e- t"at is inso#u!#e in
4ater. 0#tering t"e c"emica# properties of ot"er mo#ecu#es in ice cream.
(ta!i#i,ers
3"e #i.uid 4ater or serum p"ase a#so "as structures in it t"at are affected !y
co##oids and surface p"enomena as 4e## as p"ysica# nature of diffusion.
<ne suc" co##oida# attri!ute is t"e interaction !et4een t"e ice crysta#Emi-ture
p"ase. (ta!i#i,ing agents affect t"e !a#ance of mo#ecu#es !et4een t"ese t4o p"ases. 3"e
sta!i#i,ers are a group of compounds/ usua##y po#ysacc"arides t"at affect t"e 5iscocity of
t"e unfro,en 4ater mi-ture. 3"ey retard or reduce ice crysta# gro4t" during storage !y
reducing t"e association of t"e crysta#s and t"eir diffusion !y increasing t"e 5iscosity. 3"e
s#o4er t"e rate of migration/ t"e more nuc#eation is promoted and t"e greater num!er of
crysta#s of sma##er si,e t"at 4i## resu#t. @it"out t"e sta!i#i,ers/ t"e ice cream 4ou#d
!ecome coarse and icy 5ery .uic&#y due to t"e migration of t"is free 4ater and t"e gro4t"
of e-isting ice crysta#s.
(ta!i#i,ers a#so firm t"e ice cream. 3"ey aid in suspension of f#a5oring partic#es
!y increasing t"eir so#u!i#ity in t"e serum p"ase. 3"eir t"ic&ness sta!i#i,es t"e foam in
t"e ice cream !y t"is same decrease in diffusiona# capa!i#ities. During storage/ sta!i#i,ers
p#ay a ro#e in resisting structura# c"anges during F"eat s"oc&/G t"e ine5ita!#e temperature
cyc#ing during structura# c"anges due to t"eir interaction 4it" diffusiona# capa!i#ities.
0 fe4 suc" sta!i#i,ers t"at are used are Car!o-ymet"y# ce##u#ose 9CMC:J Bocust
Bean ?umJ CarrageenanJ ?uar gum and ge#tatin. 3"is and many ot"er sta!i#i,ers are po#y
16
sac"arides. 3"is means t"at t"ey are po#ymers of simp#e sugars t"at are made of rings and
usua##y are in t"e formu#a C6H1%<6. 3"ese mo#ecu#es re.uire many mo#ecu#es to so#5ate
t"em. 3"is "ydration is 4"at t"ic&ens t"e serum p"ase. 3"ey decrease ice crysta#s and
#actose crysta#s #eading to increased smoot"ness. ?e#atin and gums are not surface acti5e
at t"e interface. Ho4e5er since t"e sta!i#i,ers attract 4ater mo#ecu#es interfacia# tension
is #o4ered. 6mu#sion sta!i#ity is created due to decreased a5ai#a!i#ity of 4ater to t"e
interfaces. Increasing t"e 5iscosity of t"e continuous p"ase can sta!i#i,e an emu#sion
system. 0s ice crysta##i,ation !egins and 4ater free,es out in its pure form/ t"e
concentration of t"e remaining so#ution of sugar is increased due to 4ater remo5a#. 3"is
causes a furt"er #o4ering of t"e free,ing point. (ta!i#i,ers a#so produce an easy cutoff
and stiffness for pac&aging and pre5ent s"rin&age in t"e fro,en product 4"i#e a#so
s#o4ing do4n t"e moisture migration out of t"e fro,en product.
Mi#& (o#ids-not-fat
3"e serum so#ids or mi#& so#ids-not-fat 9M(7=: contain t"e #actose/ caseins/ 4"ey
proteins/ minera#s/ and as" content of t"e product from 4"ic" t"ey 4ere deri5ed. 3"ey
"e#p to gi5e !ody and c"e4 resistance to t"e finis"ed product and may !e a c"eap source
1)
of tota# so#ids. <ne dra4 !ac& inc#udes off f#a5ors. 3"e sources of serum so#ids for "ig"
.ua#ity products are s4eetened condensed 4"o#e or s&immed mi#&/ fro,en condensed
s&immed mi#&/ !uttermi#& po4der or condensed !uttermi#&/ condensed 4"o#e mi#&/ or
dried or condensed 4"ey. 6ac" of t"e components can a#so !e iso#ated and added
separate#y.
$roteins
$roteins a#so affect t"ese same !asic c"emica# properties as t"e sta!i#i,ers and
emu#sifiers inc#uding t"e fat sta!i#i,ation and t"e iceE serum p"ase. 3"ese mo#ecu#es are
#arger t"an t"e po#y sac"arides descri!ed a!o5e and "a5e "ydrop"o!ic and "ydrop"i#ic
parts to t"em. 3"ey tend to unra5e# at t"e interfaces !et4een p"ases associating different
pieces of its #ong c"ain to different p"ases. $roteins a#so "a5e t"e a!i#ity to adsor! 4ater
#i&e t"e po#y sac"aides and can form t"eir o4n mice##es. 3"e addition of sta!i#i,ers and
emu#sifiers increases t"e protein concentration in t"e #i.uid 4ater or serum p"ase
t"ic&ening it more and creating more mice##es and increasing t"e 5iscosity. $o#y
sac"arides tend to crysta##i,e at t"is temperature !efore t"e proteins. Bactose
crysta##i,ation can create defects 9ca##ed toma"a4& s"ape: t"at cause grainy ice cream/
proteins aid in correcting t"is defect. . It is &no4n from practice t"at po#ysor!ate + can
!e added su!se.uent to "omogeni,ation/ causing proteins to desor! 4it"in minutes. It "as
!een reported t"at t"e .uantity of a!sor!ed materia# in t"e a!sence of an emu#sifier is
appro-imate#y 16R of t"e tota# protein in t"e ice cream mi-/ and t"is decreases to P+R in
t"e presence of t"e po#ysor!ate +.
1+
Mi#& protein can !e categori,ed as caseins/ 4"ey proteins/ and proteins associated
4it" t"e #ipid p"ase.
Caseins are a fami#y of re#ated p"osp"oproteins precipitated from ra4 s&im mi#&
at a pH of 4.6 and at a temperature of %
o
C as casein mice##es 4it" associated ca#cium.
3"e casein fraction comprises a!out +R of t"e tota# protein content of mi#&. 0 so#u!#e
caseinate can !e o!tained !y raising pH to 6.). Caseins e-ist in #arge sp"erica# co##odia#
mice##es 4it" ca#cium p"osp"ate. 3"ese mice##es comprise 93R 94E4: caseins and range
in si,e from 2 to 3 0 in diameter. 3"e ca#cium and p"osp"ate p#ay a 5ery important
ro#e in maintaining t"e integrity of t"e casein mice##es/ and are common#y referred to as
co##oid ca#cium p"osp"ate. Caseins are p"osp"oproteins
@"ey protein is o!tained from s&im mi#& after separation of casein in c"eese
production. @"ey protein is so#u!#e at #o4 pH #e5e#s/ at 4"ic" proteins from ot"er
sources coagu#ate and sett#e out. Casein is preferentia##y a!sor!ed o5er 4"ey at t"e
interface.
3"ere is a certain #e5e# of protein dep#etion from t"e fat p"ase t"at must !e
e-ceeded !efore partia# coa#escence occurs. 3"is resu#ts in increased "ydrop"o!icity at
fat surface/ decrease of me#ting rate/ increased s"ape retention due to fat net4or& and a
degree of emu#sion desta!i#i,ation. $roteins a#so impro5e t"e te-ture of t"e ice cream

(4eeteners
3"e consumer usua##y desires a s4eet ice cream. 0s a resu#t/ s4eetening agents
are added to ice cream mi- at a rate of usua##y 1%-16R !y 4eig"t. (4eeteners impro5e
19
t"e te-ture and pa#ata!i#ity of t"e ice cream/ en"ance f#a5ors/ and are usua##y t"e c"eapest
source of tota# so#ids.
In addition/ t"e sugars/ inc#uding t"e #actose from t"e mi#& components/
contri!ute to a depressed free,ing point so t"at t"e ice cream "as some unfro,en 4ater
associated 4it" it at 5ery #o4 temperatures typica# of t"eir ser5ing temperatures/ -12 to
-1+

C. @it"out t"is unfro,en 4ater/ t"e ice cream 4ou#d !e too "ard to scoop. 3"is is a
simi#ar action as t"e sta!i#i,erL "ydration !ut it is t"ese mo#ecu#es concentration t"at
direct#y effects t"e free,ing point. 0n e-cess of #actose can #ead to t"e defect of sandiness
pre5a#ent 4"en t"e #actose crysta##i,es out of so#ution. 6-cessi5e concentrations of
#actose in t"e serum p"ase may a#so #o4er t"e free,ing point of t"e finis"ed product to an
unaccepta!#e #e5e#.
%
3"is process of free,e concentration continues to 5ery #o4 temperatures. 65en at t"e
typica# ice cream ser5ing temperature of -16S C/ on#y a!out )%R of t"e 4ater is fro,en.
3"e rest remains as a 5ery concentrated sugar so#ution. 3"us 4"en temperature is p#otted
against R 4ater fro,en/ one gets t"e p"ase diagram s"o4n !e#o4. 3"is "e#ps to gi5e ice
cream its a!i#ity to !e scooped and c"e4ed at free,er temperatures.
3"e effect of s4eeteners on free,ing c"aracteristics of ice cream mi-es is
demonstrated !y t"e p#ot on t"e ice cream free,ing cur5e.
%1
(ucrose is t"e main s4eetener used !ecause it imparts e-ce##ent f#a5or. (ucrose is
a disacc"aride made up of g#ucose and fructose. (ucrose is de-trorotatory 1meaning it
rotates a p#ane of po#ari,ed #ig"t to t"e rig"t/ O66.2

. @it" "ydro#y,ed sucrose t"e p#ane

of po#ari,ation is to t"e #eft/ Fin5ertedG -%

. 0n acid/ p#us "eat treatment/ at concentration

a!o5e 1R/ yie#ds in5erted sugar and increases t"e s4eetness.
<t"er Mo#ecu#es
Citrate and p"osp"ate ions decrease tendency for fat coa#escence 9(odium citrate/
Disodium $"osp"ate: and produce a 4etter product. 3"ese sa#ts decrease t"e degree of
protein aggregation 4"ic" effects t"e amount of protein ad"ered to t"e interfaces.
Ca#cium and magnesium ions "a5e t"e opposite effect/ in t"at t"ey promote partia#
coa#escence. Ca#cium su#fate/ for e-amp#e/ resu#ts in a drier ice cream. Ca#cium and
Magnesium increase t"e degree of protein aggregation. (a#ts may a#so inf#uence
e#ectrostatic interactions. =at g#o!u#es carry a sma## net negati5e c"arge/ t"ese ions cou#d
%%
increase or decrease t"at c"arge as t"ey 4ere attracted to or repe##ed from surface.
Desta!i#i,ation is a#so effected !y p"/ 4"ic" affects many of t"e mo#ecu#es and t"eir
a!i#ity to !e "ydrop"i#ic or "ydrop"o!ic.
0dditi5es
=ruits/ nuts/ candy add crysta# centers and may en"ance #actose crysta##i,ation.
7uts pu## out moisture from ice cream immediate#y surrounding t"e nut t"us
concentrating t"e mi-.
3o maintain t"e !a#ance !et4een t"ese many different p"ases is 5ery difficu#t.
Different concentrations of emu#sifiers/ sta!i#i,ers/ proteins and fats and t"e different
types of eac" mo#ecu#es used effect t"e properties e#icited.
%3
-II% PR'C+SSI&, &( .&)0CT)R+
Ma&ing ice cream is an art and a science 4"et"er in a processing p#ant or "ome.
In !ot" cases/ t"e ingredients are !asic. =irst/ you need co4Ls mi#& and cream. 7e-t come
sugar from cane and eggs from c"ic&ens. 3"en/ f#a5oring is added-5ani##a/ !eans/
peppermint/ or c"oco#ate/ for e-amp#e.
(afety Concerns
3"e ice cream you !uy at t"e store or at an ice cream par#or is carefu##y measured
and mi-ed/ and most certain#y c"ec&ed for safety at e5ery step. (cientists ma&e sure of
t"at/ safety inspectors ma&e sure t"at a## t"e mi-ing/ coo#ing/ storage/ and pac&aging
protects your "ea#t"/ too. Mi#& is pasteuri,ed and t"e eggs are coo&ed to ma&e sure t"e
fina# product is not on#y tasty/ not safe.
Basic steps in t"e manufacturing of ice cream
3"e !asic steps in t"e manufacturing of ice cream are genera##y as fo##o4sJ
-B#end t"e mi- ingredients
-$asteuri,e
-Homogeni,e
-0ge t"e mi-
-=#a5or
-=ree,e
-$ac&age
-Hard =ree,e
-(tore
%4
0lo1 diagram for ice cream processing
B#ending
=irst t"e ingredients are se#ected !ased on t"e desired formu#ation and t"e
ca#cu#ation of t"e recipe from t"e formu#ation and t"e ingredients c"osen/ t"en t"e
ingredients are 4eig"ed and !#ended toget"er to produce 4"at is &no4n as t"e Iice cream
mi-I. B#ending re.uires rapid agitation to incorporate po4ders/ and often "ig" speed
!#enders are used.
%2
$asteuri,ation
3"e mi- is t"en pasteuri,ed. $asteuri,ation is t"e !io#ogica# contro# point in t"e
system/ designed for t"e destruction of pat"ogenic !acteria. In addition to t"is 5ery
important function/ pasteuri,ation a#so reduces t"e num!er of spoi#age organisms suc" as
psyc"rotrop"s/ and "e#ps to "ydrate some of t"e components 9proteins/ sta!i#i,ers2%
Bot" !atc" pasteuri,ers and continuous 9H3(3: met"ods are used.
Batc" pasteuri,ers #ead to more 4"ey protein denaturation/ 4"ic" some peop#e
fee# gi5es a !etter !ody to t"e ice cream. In a !atc" pasteuri,ation system/ !#ending of t"e
proper ingredient amounts is done in #arge Hac&eted 5ats e.uipped 4it" some means of
"eating/ usua##y steam or "ot 4ater. 3"e product is t"en "eated in t"e 5at to at #east 69 C
9122 =: and "e#d for 3 minutes to satisfy #ega# re.uirements for pasteuri,ation/ necessary
for t"e destruction of pat"ogenic !acteria. Various time temperature com!inations can !e
used. 3"e "eat treatment must !e se5ere enoug" to ensure destruction of pat"ogens and to
reduce t"e !acteria# count to a ma-imum of 1/ per gram. =o##o4ing pasteuri,ation/
t"e mi- is "omogeni,ed !y means of "ig" pressures and t"en is passed across some type
of "eat e-c"anger 9p#ate or dou!#e or trip#e tu!e: for t"e purpose of coo#ing t"e mi- to
refrigerated temperatures 94 C:. Batc" tan&s are usua##y operated in tandem so t"at one is
"o#ding 4"i#e t"e ot"er is !eing prepared. 0utomatic timers and 5a#5es ensure t"e proper
"o#ding time "as !een met.
Continuous pasteuri,ation is usua##y performed in a "ig" temperature s"ort time
9H3(3: "eat e-c"anger fo##o4ing !#ending of ingredients in a #arge/ insu#ated feed tan&.
%6
(ome pre"eating/ to 3 to 4 C/ is necessary for so#u!i#i,ation of t"e components. 3"e
H3(3 system is e.uipped 4it" a "eating section/ a coo#ing section/ and a regeneration
section. Coo#ing sections of ice cream mi- H3(3 presses are usua##y #arger t"an mi#&
H3(3 presses. Due to t"e pre"eating of t"e mi-/ regeneration is #ost and mi- entering t"e
coo#ing section is sti## .uite 4arm.
Homogeni,ation
3"e mi- is a#so "omogeni,ed 4"ic" forms t"e fat emu#sion !y !rea&ing do4n or
reducing t"e si,e of t"e fat g#o!u#es found in mi#& or cream to #ess t"an 1 M m. 34o- stage
"omogeni,ation is usua##y preferred for ice cream mi-. C#umping or c#ustering of t"e fat
is reduced t"ere!y producing a t"inner/ more rapid#y 4"ipped mi-. Me#t-do4n is a#so
impro5ed. Homogeni,ation pro5ides t"e fo##o4ing functions in ice cream manufactureJ
*educes si,e of fat g#o!u#es
Increases surface area
=orms mem!rane
Ma&es possi!#e t"e use of !utter/ fro,en cream/ etc.
By "e#ping to form t"e fat structure/ it a#so "as t"e fo##o4ing indirect effectsJ
ma&es a smoot"er ice cream
gi5es a greater apparent ric"ness and pa#ata!i#ity
!etter air sta!i#ity
increases resistance to me#ting
%)
Homogeni,ation of t"e mi- s"ou#d ta&e p#ace at t"e pasteuri,ing temperature. 3"e "ig"
temperature produces more efficient !rea&ing up of t"e fat g#o!u#es at any gi5en pressure
and a#so reduces fat c#umping and t"e tendency to t"ic&/ "ea5y !odied mi-es. 7o one
pressure can !e recommended t"at 4i## gi5e satisfactory resu#ts under a## conditions. 3"e
"ig"er t"e fat and tota# so#ids in t"e mi-/ t"e #o4er t"e pressure s"ou#d !e. If a t4o stage
"omogeni,er is used/ a pressure of % - %2 psi on t"e first stage and 2 - 1 psi
on t"e second stage s"ou#d !e satisfactory under most conditions. Homogeni,ation
!egins t"e process of fat structure formation. 0fter pre"eating or pasteuri,ation/ t"e mi-
is at a temperature sufficient to "a5e me#ted a## t"e fat present/ and t"e fat passes t"roug"
one or t4o "omogeni,ing 5a#5es/ creating g#o!u#es of .2 to %. Tm. Immediate#y
fo##o4ing "omogeni,ation/ t"e ne4#y formed fat g#o!u#e is practica##y de5oid of any
mem!ranous materia# due to its tremendous increase in surface area and readi#y adsor!s
amp"ip"i#ic mo#ecu#es from so#ution. 3"e transit time t"roug" a "omogeni,ation 5a#5e is
in t"e order of 1
-2
to 1
-6
s. $rotein adsorption occurs .uic&#y/ !ut unfo#ding and
rearrangement at t"e interface may ta&e minutes or e5en "ours to !e comp#ete
0ging
3"e mi- is t"en aged for at #east four "ours and usua##y o5ernig"t. 3"is a##o4s time
for t"e fat to coo# do4n and crysta##i,e/ and for t"e proteins and po#ysacc"arides to fu##y
"ydrate. 0ging pro5ides t"e fo##o4ing functionsJ
Impro5es 4"ipping .ua#ities of mi- and !ody and te-ture of ice cream
It does so !yJ
%+
pro5iding time for fat crysta##i,ation/ so t"e fat can partia##y coa#esceK
a##o4ing time for fu## protein and sta!i#i,er "ydration and a resu#ting s#ig"t
5iscosity increaseK
a##o4ing time for mem!rane rearrangement and proteinEemu#sifier interaction/ as
emu#sifiers disp#ace proteins from t"e fat g#o!u#e surface/ 4"ic" a##o4s for a
reduction in sta!i#i,ation of t"e fat g#o!u#es and en"anced partia# coa#escence.
0ging is performed in insu#ated or refrigerated storage tan&s/ si#os/ etc. Mi- temperature
s"ou#d !e maintained as #o4 as possi!#e 4it"out free,ing/ at or !e#o4 2 C. 0n aging time
of o5ernig"t is #i&e#y to gi5e !est resu#ts under a5erage p#ant conditions. 0 IgreenI or
unaged mi- is usua##y .uic&#y detected at t"e free,er.
@"ipping
3"e ne-t stage of structure de5e#opment occurs during t"e concomitant 4"ipping
and free,ing step. 0ir is incorporated eit"er t"roug" a #engt"y 4"ipping process 9!atc"
free,ers: or dra4n into t"e mi- !y 5acuum or inHected under pressure. 0ir !eing
incorporated into t"e mi- at t"is time 9especia##y if pre-4"ipping de5ices are !eing used:
is t"oug"t to !e first surrounded !y a proteinaceous mem!rane. In addition to air
incorporation/ t"e 4"ipping process app#ies a considera!#e s"ear stress to t"e mi-/ and
t"at s"ear rate increases as ice crysta#s form during free,ing/ #i&e#y due to a com!ination
of t"e addition of partic#es and to free,e-concentration of t"e fat and a.ueous p"ase. 3"e
continued 4"ipping process and app#ied s"ear stress cause t"e emu#sion to undergo
partia# coa#escence or fat desta!i#i,ation/ during 4"ic" c#umps and c#usters of t"e fat
g#o!u#es form and !ui#d an interna# fat structure or net4or& into t"e fro,en product !y
%9
entrapping air 4it"in t"e coa#esced fat. 3"is coa#escing fat interacts 4it" t"e proteins at
t"e air !u!!#e mem!rane in a 5ery ana#ogous manner to t"e 4"ipping of "ea5y cream.
$artia# coa#escence occurs in t"e a!sence of air/ !ut t"e presence of air during s"ear stress
4i## increase partia# coa#escence considera!#y. Bi&e4ise/ t"e app#ied s"ear stress a#so
increases partia# coa#escence considera!#y compared to t"e sparging of air.
=ree,ing and Hardening
=o##o4ing mi- processing/ t"e mi- is dra4n into a f#a5or tan& 4"ere any #i.uid
f#a5ors/ fruit purees/ or co#ors are added. 3"e mi- t"en enters t"e dynamic free,ing
process t"at !ot" free,es a portion of t"e 4ater and 4"ips air into t"e fro,en mi-. 3"e
I!arre#I free,er is a scraped-surface/ tu!u#ar "eat e-c"anger/ 4"ic" is Hac&eted 4it" a
!oi#ing refrigerant suc" as ammonia or freon. Mi- is pumped t"roug" t"is free,er and is
dra4n off t"e ot"er end in a matter of 3 seconds/ 9or 1 to 12 minutes in t"e case of
!atc" free,ers: 4it" a!out 2R of its 4ater fro,en. 3"ere are rotating !#ades inside t"e
!arre# t"at &eep t"e ice scraped off t"e surface of t"e free,er and a#so das"ers inside t"e
mac"ine 4"ic" "e#p to 4"ip t"e mi- and incorporate air.
3
-II% .ar3eting Considerations
Demand
0ccording to a 7ie#sen sur5ey of supermar&et sa#es/ ice cream is 0mericaLs
fa5orite dessert. 3"e demand for ice cream a#4ays e-ists/ and it tends to gro4/ not to
decrease. 0nd many producers of ice cream are rig"t 4"en say t"at t"is !usiness is
paying/ !ecause eac" 0merican consumes a year#y a5erage of %3.)2 .uarts of ice cream/
ice mi#&/ s"er!et/ ice and ot"er commercia##y produced fro,en dairy products/ 4"ic"
trans#ates to 1.6 !i##ions ga##ons.
Ho4e5er t"e 7ort"ern Centra# states "a5e t"e "ig"est per capita consumption of ice
cream at 41.) .uarts. 3"e top t"ree cities in 0merica t"at purc"ase t"e most ice cream on
a per capita !asis areJ $ort#and/ <regonK (t Bouis/ MissouriK and (eatt#e/ @as"ington.
=#a5ors
3"e e.uipment is intended for ma&ing t"e ice cream !ased on natura# ingredientsJ
mi#&/ cream/ 4ater/ !utter/ sugar/ condensed mi#& and natura#s t"ic&ening agents. 3"e
#ines may !e used to produce many 5arieties of t"e ice creamJ Up#om!irL/ creamy/ dairy/
c"oco#ate and f#a5ored ice creams. 3"erefore/ t"e (upermar&et (a#es is di5ided !y =#a5or
Category.
1. Vanilla - 28 percent
2. Fruit favors - 15 percent
3. Nut favors - 13.5 percent
4. Candy mix-in favors - 12.5 percent
31
5. Cocolate - 8 percent
!. Ca"e and coo"ie favors - #.5 percent
#. Neapolitan - # percent
8. $ter - 5.5 percent
%. Co&ee'moca - 3 percent
Demand for Fnatura#G ice cream
Based on natura# "ydroco##oids/ t"e product portfo#io of =MC Biopo#ymer is 4e##
adapted to t"e companiesL customers and t"e consumer focus on products t"at are natura#/
!iodegrada!#e/ and sourced from 5egeta!#e origins.
3"e dri5ing forces !e"ind t"is continuous trend are t"e genera# impro5ement in
consumersL "ea#t" a4areness and ne4 tec"no#ogy. *ecent#y/ t"is trend "as !een fue#ed !y
more stringent food and safety regu#ations !eing enacted in many countries. 3"e trend is
a g#o!a# p"enomenon/ !ut t"ese forces "a5e traditiona##y !een most pronounced in
7ort"ern 6urope and 7ort" 0merica/ 4"ere consumers "a5e !een concerned a!out
rep#acing so-ca##ed Fun"ea#t"yG ingredients 4it" F"ea#t"yG ones for .uite some time.
0#ginate "as earned a reputation as a F"ea#t"yG ingredient. 0#ginate and
carrageenan are comp#ete#y natura#/ rene4a!#e and !iodegrada!#e. @"en used in foods or
p"armaceutica# products/ a#ginate and carrageenan are eit"er meta!o#i,ed or a!sorded in
t"e course of t"e !io#ogica# cyc#e. In #ine 4it" t"e opinions of 4estern researc"ers and
4eig"t reduction e-perts 4"o recommend cutting do4n on dietary fats and sugar/ in
recent years t"ere "as !een e-p#osi5e gro4t" in #o4-ca#orie and #o4-fat products.
3%
In ot"er 4ords/ t"ere is gro4ing demand for products containing #o4 #e5e#s of fat or
fat su!stitutes or no fat at a##. Cet it is not easy to rep#ace fat. Its appearance/ te-ture and
taste go5ern our perception of t"e food 4e eat/ and fat often p#ays an important ro#e in
t"ese factors. In fatty/ 4ater products/ it is essentia# t"at t"e te-ture remains sta!#e and
#ea5es a good Ufee#ingL in t"e mout".
<n t"e ot"er "and/ it is possi!#e to reduce fats during t"e production of goods suc" as
margarine/ mayonnaise/ dressing/ sauces/ creams/ yogurts and ice cream/ !y rep#acing it
4it" 4ater. Ho4e5er/ suc" su!stitution 4i## "a5e an effect on t"e productsL te-ture/ 4"ic"
must t"en !e reconstructed using te-turing agents suc" as ge#atin/ a#ginate/ carrageenan
and microcrysta##ine ce##u#ose.
In addition to its sta!i#i,ing properties/ t"ere are ot"er reasons t"at "ydroco##oids #i&e
carrageenan and a#ginate offer considera!#e ad5antages/ t"an&s to t"eir 5egetag#e origins/
as opposed to ge#atin/ 4"ic" is made from s#aug"ter"ouse offa#
;os"er 9no mi#& 4it" anima# proteins:
0t its most !asic #e5e# ice cream is a com!ination of cream/ mi#&/ sugar/ and !asic
f#a5oring. =or manufacturers/ t"e idea# ice cream "as a smoot" te-ture/ fu## f#a5or/ s#o4-
me#t .ua#ities/ and #ong free,er #ife. Due to a## t"e additi5es/ ice cream needs super5ision.
=ranc"ised retai# out#ets t"at ma&e t"e products in t"e store re#y on ice cream mi-es as t"e
!ase for t"eir ice cream and / t"erefore/ eac" of t"em re.uires super5ision.
3oday/ per"aps t"e primary pro!#em for &os"ers o!ser5ers is additions to ice cream/
most nota!#y mars"ma##o4s/ candies/ and !a&ed goods/ a## of 4"ic" independent#y
re.uire &os"er super5ision. 3"ere are current#y more t"an a t"ousand f#a5ors of ice cream
33
in t"e >nited (ates. 3oday a#most e5ery nationa# !rand is under &os"er super5ision
inc#uding Haagen-Da,s/ Ben V AerryLs/ ?odi5a/ (tar!uc&s and 6dyLs Dreamery.
Cost for production V purc"ase
Bi&e a## food products/ a premise is re.uired t"at conforms to t"e "ygiene
#egis#ation in t"e 6> Directi5e 9%E46E66C.
=or ice cream production/ one needs a processing area/ a co#d room and a free,er
room/ an area to store dry ingredients and an area to store pac&aging. 6.uipment for
processing is 5ery specific and .uite e-pensi5e. 0 mi-ing 5at/ "omogeni,er/ free,er/ and
fruit !#ender 4ou#d cost appro-imate#y D2/. 3"is 4ou#d "a5e a production capacity
of +-1 #iters of ice cream per "our.
Cost of 1 #iter of dairy ice cream mi- 93+R 3.(. V 1%R =at: Q D1.1
<5errun 1R
Cost of 1 #iter of dairy ice cream D.22
Cost of pac&aging D.12
Distri!ution V retai# margin D1.
3ota# *etai# D3.42
$roduct Margin D1.)2
Cost of Purchase
6-amp#es of ice cream $rices
Haagen-Da,s D).1+EB
34
Ben V AerryLs D).2EB
Carte DL<r D%.99EB
Darina 0##en D3.2EB
$aganni D%.29EB
(a#es
0ccording to a recent study conducted !y F 3"e >. (. Mar&et =or Ice Cream 0nd
<t"er =ro,en Desserts F/ ice cream and ot"er fro,en dessert sa#es tota#ed D11.2 !i##ion in
1999/ up %.9R from 199+. 3"e !iggest se##er in t"e fro,en dessert category is pac&aged
ice cream 4it" captured more t"an 2%R of t"e mar&et s"are in 1999 4it" sa#es tota#ing D6
!i##ion. =ro,en no5e#ties are second in sa#es 4it" a 32R mar&et s"are e.ua#ing 4.%2
!i##ion in 1999. (a#es of fro,en no5e#ties increased more t"an %R !et4een 1994 and
1999. <5era## sa#es proHections for ice cream and fro,en no5e#ties 4i## gro4 a#most +R
!et4een 1999 and %4.
Certain positi5e and negati5e factors are affecting mar&et gro4t" inc#uding t"e
rising cost of mi#& fat/ coo#er 4eat"er patterns/ "ea#t" conscious consumers/ t"e !a!y
!oom ec"o/ t"e >. (. economic !oom and g#o!a#i,ation of economy and cu#ture. 3"e
#atter/ is e5idenced !y t"e introduction of products from 0sia/ Batin 0merica and 6astern
6urope.
32
I4% Suppliers
-Ben and AerryLs
-$erryLs Ice Cream
-BreyerLs
-6ddyLs
- Haagen-Da,s
36
4% Conclusion
(omet"ing seeming so simp#e and yet sti## so comp#e- can sti## !e enHoyed as it
"as !een for centuries in pure s4eet !#iss !ut t"e enHoyment on#y gro4s 4"en one can
understand t"e p"ysica# principa#s !e"ind ice cream.
3)
4I% References
Books
Dic&inson/ 6./ and @a#stra/ $. =ood co##oids and po#ymersJ sta!i#ity and mec"anica#
properties 7e4 Cor&/ Springer Verlag/ 1993
Dic&inson/ 6./ Borient D. =ood macromo#ecu#es and co##oids 7e4 Cor&/ Springer Verlag/
1992
=ennema/ <4en *. =ood C"emistry. 7e4 Cor&/ Marce# De&&er/ 1996
Papers
Bo##iger/ (./ H. @i#dmoser/ H. D. ?off/ and B. @. 3"arp. %. *e#ations"ips !et4een ice
cream mi- 5isco-e#asticity and ice crysta# gro4t" in ice cream. Internat. Dairy A. 1J )91-
)9).
?off/ H. D and $. (pagnuo#o. %1. 6ffect of sta!i#i,ers on fat desta!i#i,ation
measurements in ice cream. Mi#c"4issensc"aft. 26J 42-423.
?off/ H.D. %. Contro##ing ice cream structure !y e-amining fat protein interactions.
0ustra#ian A. Dairy 3ec"no#. 22J )+-+1.
?off/ H. D. 199). Co##oida# aspects of ice cream - a re5ie4. Int. Dairy A. )J 363-3)3.
?off/ H. D. 199). Insta!i#ity and partia# coa#escence in dairy emu#sions. A. Dairy (ci. +J
%6%-%63.
?off/ H. D./ ;. B. Ca#d4e##/ D. @. (tan#ey and 3. A. Maurice. 1993. 3"e inf#uence of
po#ysacc"arides on t"e g#ass transition in fro,en sucrose so#utions and ice cream. A. Dairy
(ci. )6J 1%6+-1%)).
@e!sites
"ttpJEE444.foodsci.uogue#p".caEdairyeduEicecream."tm#
"ttpJEE444.po#sci.45u.eduEHenryEIcecreamEIcecream."tm#
"ttpJEE444.e#se5ier.comE#ocateEidairyH
"ttpJEE444.foodproductdesign.comEarc"i5eE199)E+9)0$."tm#
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