7

th
EUROMECH Solid Mechanics Conference
J . Ambrsio et.al. (eds.)
Lisbon, Portugal, September 7-11, 2009
WHEEL WEAR EVOLUTION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE
DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF RAILWAY VEHICLES
Joo Pombo
1
, Herv Desprets
2
, Riccardo Verardi
3
, Jorge Ambrsio
1
, Manuel Pereira
1
,
Caterina Ariaudo
3
and Naim Kuka
3

1
IDMEC Instituto Superior Tcnico
Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
e-mail: {jpombo,jorge,mpereira}@dem.ist.utl.pt
2
Department of Mechanics Ecole Polytechnique
91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
herve.desprets@polytechnique.org
3
Running Dynamics ALSTOM Ferroviaria S.p.A.
Via O. Moreno 23, Savigliano (CN), 12038, Italy
{riccardo.verardi,caterina.ariaudo,naim.kuka}@transport.alstom.com
Keywords: Railway Dynamics, Multibody Systems, VehicleTrack Interaction, Wheel-Rail
Contact Forces, Wheel Profile Updating.
Abstract. The railway transportation system is increasingly becoming a key-player in the
European transport policies. To improve the efficiency and competitiveness of the railway
transport, passenger trains have to travel faster, with high levels of safety and comfort. Fur-
thermore, the higher demands for transportation of goods require more efficient railway fret
systems, which imply that freight vehicles are required to carry larger loads per axle. As a
consequence, railway and infrastructure companies continuously increase the demands for
vehicle requirements. For railway manufacturers becomes an every day challenge to respect
the client specifications and to check that the vehicles are conforming to international stan-
dards. One of the most sensitive issues is the impact of train operations on infrastructure and,
conversely, the damages on vehicles provoked by the track conditions. This topic has a sig-
nificant economical impact on the vehicles maintenance, but also affects the life cycle costs of
tracks. In this work, a computational tool is used to predict the wear growth on railway
wheels. The objective is to obtain the wheel profiles evolution of a given railway system and
to analyse the influence that the different stages of worn shape have on the dynamic behav-
iour of a trainset. The vehicle performance is assessed based on several dynamic indicators
used by the railway industry.

J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
2
1 INTRODUCTION
Railway transportation is safer, more comfortable, less polluting and presents less energy
consumption per passenger/km when compared with road traffic. Additionally, for short and
medium distances, modern high speed trains are able to compete with the airplane, having the
advantage of presenting better energy efficiency and causing less pollution. To improve its
competitiveness with respect to air transportation it is necessary, among others, that the rail-
way vehicle dynamics allows maintaining top operational speeds during its life cycle, which
in turn requires that the wheel-rail contact quality is maintained. This is a key issue in vehicle
design and in train operation since it has a significant impact on the safety and comfort of the
railway systems and on the maintenance costs of the vehicles and infrastructures.
One of the most important issues arising during the design phase of a new railway system
is the optimisation of the dynamic performances of the railway vehicles and the construction
features of the infrastructure. Due to their complexity and multidisciplinarity, these studies
require the use of advanced computational tools. These tools must be able to characterize and
predict the performance of the vehicles by using reliable and validated mathematical models.
In addition, they should be able to represent accurately the railway infrastructure, including
the track geometry and its irregularities. The use of such tools is of paramount importance to
reduce the costs, the time and the risks associated to the development of new railway vehicles
and to refine the construction features for the novel infrastructures. During the design stage of
the project, the numerical tools allow to perform several simulations, under various scenarios,
and to test the performance of the different mechanical and structural solutions in order to
reach an optimized design. In addition, analysis can be carried out to evaluate the impact of
design changes or failure modes risks in a much faster and less costly way than the physical
implementation and test of those changes in real prototypes.
Computational tools with those characteristics can also be used to support the improvement
of existing rolling stock, by proposing optimized solutions for existing vehicles in order to
minimize the wear evolution and/or the vehicle-track interaction forces. In addition, such
tools can be used to enhance existing tracks by helping scheduling the track maintenance pro-
cedures and identifying the levels of track irregularities that promote the increase of wear
and/or the loads developed between the vehicles and the infrastructure.
The damage on vehicles caused by the track conditions and the infrastructure deterioration
due to the trains passage is an important and very sensitive issue in the railway industry. This
topic has a significant economical impact on the vehicles maintenance, but also affects the life
cycle costs of tracks. As a consequence, there is a growing tendency to define the track access
charges, i.e. the prices billed by the infrastructure managers to the railway operators, accord-
ing to the damage that the trainsets operation is supposed to cause to the tracks. Therefore, it
is essential to acquire a better understanding on how the vehicle characteristics and the track
conditions influence the wear progression and the vehicle-track interaction forces.
In this work, a computational is used to predict the wear evolution of wheel profiles and to
simulate the dynamic performance of integrated railway systems. The tool is applied to realis-
tic operation scenarios in order to study how the wheels wear affects the dynamic behaviour
of railway vehicles. For this purpose, a vehicle is assembled with wheels having new and
worn profiles and a comparative study is made. The vehicle dynamic performance is assessed
here based on several indicators: a) wheelsets motion; b) accelerations on wheelsets, bogie
frames and carbody, c) vehicle-track loads and; d) derailment coefficient Y/Q. The running
stability of the railway vehicles will also be emphasized in the studies carried out here and
conclusions will be set regarding the influence of wear growth on equivalent conicity.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
3
The work presented here results from the joint research effort between ALSTOM Ferrovi-
aria (IT), University of Sheffield (UK) and Technical University of Lisbon (PT), developed in
the scope of the Project AWARE (ReliAble Prediction of the WeAr of Railway WhEels).
2 OVERVIEW OF THE COMPUTATIONAL TOOL
The computational tool used in this work allows to simulate the dynamic behaviour of rail-
way vehicles and to predict the wear evolution of wheel profiles. It is composed of two parts,
the commercial software VAMPIRE [1,2] and the wear computation block. The commercial
code uses a multibody formulation [3-8] to simulate the dynamic performance of integrated
railway systems that include the vehicle, the track and the wheel-rail contact interaction. The
software allows simulating accurately the vehicle, including the masses and inertias of the
structural elements and the characteristics of suspensions. It is also possible to represent accu-
rately the track geometry. The vehicle-track interaction is studied through an appropriate
wheel-rail contact formulation [9-15] which is used to compute the normal and tangential
forces that develop in the contact area.
The second block of the computational tool is a purpose-built code [16-20] that is used to
manage the pre and post-processing data of the first block in order to compute the wheel pro-
files wear for a given railway system. The strategy consists of providing an initial profile to
the wheels of the trainset and use the commercial multibody software to run a simulation for a
pre-defined travel distance. Then, the wear prediction block collects the necessary data from
the dynamic analysis results and calculates the wear, i.e., the amount of material to be re-
moved from the wheel surfaces. The resulting updated profiles are then used as input for a
new railway dynamic analysis. This methodology, represented in Figure 1, is repeated as
many times as required by the user in order to be representative of the real operation condi-
tions of the railway vehicle.
Final
Distance
Input
Files
Update Wheels
Profiles
Worn Wheels
Profiles
Wear
Computation
Dynamic
Analysis
Yes
No
Final
Distance
Final
Distance
Input
Files
Update Wheels
Profiles
Update Wheels
Profiles
Worn Wheels
Profiles
Wear
Computation
Wear
Computation
Dynamic
Analysis
Dynamic
Analysis
Yes
No

Figure 1: Outline of the wear prediction tool
The core of the wear prediction block is the wear computation procedure that calculates the
amount of worn material to be removed from the wheel surfaces. This block is composed of
the contact model and of the wear function. The contact model processes the dynamic analysis
results to obtain the wheel-rail contact parameters. The wear function uses these contact pa-
rameters as input to compute the quantity of worn material to be removed from the wheel sur-
faces.
3 WHEEL WEAR PARAMETERS
During trainset operation, the wheels of railway vehicles are subjected to wear. The identi-
fication of a common method for wheel wear geometric analysis is, therefore, essential. The
purpose of such study is to monitorize periodically some geometrical parameters of the wheel
profiles in order to check if they reach the limit values. When that happens, it means that the
wheels have to be re-profiled.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
4
D D Sh
L
3
d
Sd
L
1
qR
L
2
D D Sh
L
3
d
Sd
L
1
qR
L
2

Figure 2: Wheel wear parameters
According to the international standards [21], a good and pragmatic approach for wheel
wear characterisation is based on the profile parameters Sd, Sh and qR, which are represented
in Figure 2 and defined in Table 1. The wheel wear representation based on programmed
measurements of these geometrical parameters is widely used by the railway industry. Such
assessment is a relevant criterion to evaluate the wear state of the wheels and to schedule the
re-profiling procedures.

Parameter Definition Notes
D Wheel Diameter
Measured on tread line at L
2
distance from flange
back
D Deviation on Roundness
d Wheelset External Gauge Measured at L
3
distance below origin of tread line
Sd Flange Thickness Measured at L
3
distance below origin of tread line
Sh Flange Height
Measured between the origin of the tread line and
the flange tip
qR Flange Slope Quota
Measured between L
1
from flange tip and L
3
below
origin of tread line
Table 1: Definition of wheel wear parameters
The wheel wear evaluation criterion based on the admissible values for parameters Sh, Sd
and qR are defined according to the technical specification requests. In UIC leaflet 510-2 [21],
the values that must be respected for wheel profile S1002 are represented in Table 2.

Wear Parameters (mm) Reference Quota (mm) Wheel Profile
S1002 Sd Sh qR L
1
L
2
L
3

Flange
Angle
New Profile
(760 <D <1000)
32.5 28 10.8 2 70 10 70
Allowable
(840 <D <1000)
22 36 >6.5 2 70 10
Allowable
(330 <D <840)
27.5 36 >6.5 2 70 10
Table 2: Admissible values for wheel wear parameters
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
5
The measurement of the wear parameters Sh, Sd and qR allows predicting the influence of
the wear state of the wheel profiles on the dynamic behaviour of the railway vehicles. For ex-
ample, the flange thickness is very important as it limits the lateral clearance of wheelset with
respect to the track, which influences the vehicle stability. The flange gradient (slope) is also
an important parameter. If it is too high, the wheel flange will be almost vertical, which im-
plies that the transitions (switches crossing) and the flange contacts will occur abruptly. Such
situation originates very high contact forces that damage both vehicle and infrastructure.
4 SIMULATION CONDITIONS
The simulation conditions for the dynamic analyses performed in this work to study the in-
fluence of the wheel wear state on the railway vehicle behaviour are presented in the follow-
ing. These include an overview of the railway vehicle, the description of the track geometry,
the wheel-rail contact characteristics and a characterization of the new and worn wheel pro-
files.
4.1 Railway Vehicle
The trainset considered for the studies conducted here is a non-articulated conventional
trainset composed by seven vehicles interconnected by linking elements, as represented in
Figure 3. In this trainset, the two compositions in both extremities are motor, whereas the
three middle coaches are trailer.
1 Motor 2 Motor 3 Trailer 4 Trailer
5 Trailer 6 Motor 7 Motor
1 Motor 2 Motor 3 Trailer 4 Trailer
5 Trailer 6 Motor 7 Motor

Figure 3: Non-articulated conventional trainset
Due to the trainset configuration, it is assumed that, concerning the studies performed here,
the dynamic behaviour of each vehicle has a non-significant influence on the others. Accord-
ing to this assumption, each vehicle of the trainset can be studied independently, as shown in
Figure 4. In this way, the vehicle model considered is composed only by one unit of the train-
set. This composition is a motor vehicle that is assembled with two trailer wheelsets, repre-
sented in white in Figure 4 and two motor wheelsets, represented in black.

Figure 4: Motor vehicle of trainset
The 3D model of the railway vehicle is build using a multibody approach [3-8]. This meth-
odology allows representing accurately the mass and inertia properties of the structural ele-
ments that compose the vehicle. It also includes the kinematic joints, which control the
relative motion between the bodies, and the force elements, that represent suspension compo-
nents of vehicle.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
6
The multibody model of the railway vehicle represented in Figure 4 is build here using the
VAMPIRE code [1,2]. The model is composed by 1 carbody, 2 bogie frames, 2 carbody bol-
sters, 4 traction rods and 4 wheelsets. These rigid bodies are connected by elastic and viscous
components, having linear and non-linear characteristics.
The primary suspension of the vehicle is composed of two vertical coil springs, assembled
laterally at each side of the axleboxes, and one vertical damper. It also includes an axle guide
link system to transmit the longitudinal forces between the wheelsets and the bogie frame.
The vertical displacements of the primary suspension elements are limited by a bumpstop and
a liftstop, mounted at each axlebox.
The carbody is sprung against each bogie frame via a bolster and four flexicoils. At both
sides of the bogies, and assembled in parallel with each pair of coil springs, there is a vertical
hydraulic damper. These elements are used for stabilization and also work as the vertical
bumpstop and liftstop device of the secondary suspension. In order to guarantee a small roll
coefficient, the bolsters are controlled in their roll movement by one anti-roll bar. The yaw
movement of the bogies is limited through two anti yaw dampers assembled between the car-
body and each side of the bogie frames.
In the railway vehicle considered here, the connection between the carbody and each one
of the bogies is realized by a pivot shaft. This element is rigidly fixed to the carbody and is
assembled vertically, passing through the bolster and bogie frame without contacting them
directly. A center plate is rigidly fixed to the extremity of the pivot shaft and is hinged to the
bogie frame by two longitudinal traction rods. This subsystem only ensures the vehicle steer-
ing functions, transmitting the in-plane loads between the carbody and bogie, but not the ver-
tical loads, which are transmitted through the secondary suspension elements. The low
attachment position between carbody and bogies minimizes the wheel load changes that de-
velop during the vehicle traction and braking. The traction rods are assembled with rubber
bushings at their extremities in order to ensure a better performance when the vehicle travels
in small radius curved tracks. The lateral stabilization of the carbody is achieved through two
pairs of transversal hydraulic dampers, assembled between the bogie frames and the carbody.
The relative lateral displacement between the carbody and each bogie is limited by two trans-
versal rubber bumpstops.
4.2 Track Geometry
In general, the railway tracks are composed of straight sections, transition curves and cir-
cular curves. When travelling in curves, the railway vehicles are influenced by centrifugal
forces, which act in a direction away from the center of the curve and tend to overturn the ve-
hicles. In order to counteract this force, the outer rail in a curve is raised. The difference of
height between the two rails is called cross level offset h (or cant). According to this construc-
tion features, the height of the track centerline in a curve is designated as vertical offset z
O
.
These two parameters are represented in Figure 5.
h
z
o
h
z
o

Figure 5: Cant and vertical offset
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
7
In the computational tool used here, the track layout is defined by the following design pa-
rameters [1,2]: a) plan view curvature; b) vertical offset; and c) cross level offset. The plan
view curvature c represents the curvature of the track in the horizontal plane, being defined as:

1
c
R
= (1)
where R is the radius of the curve.
The track considered for the dynamic studies conducted in this work corresponds to the
first 3500 m of the railway network between the Italian cities of Cuneo and Ventimiglia. The
track layout, represented in Figure 6, is composed of a straight segment L
1
followed by two
left circular curves L
3
and L
5
, with radii R
1
and R
2
respectively. Then, the track continues with
a tangent segment L
7
that is followed by a right curve L
9
, with a radius R
3
, and finalizes with a
straight segment L
11
.
R
1
R
2
L
1
L
2
L
3
L
4
L
5
L
6
L
7
L
8
L
9
L
11
L
10
R
3
R
1
R
2
L
1
L
2
L
3
L
4
L
5
L
6
L
7
L
8
L
9
L
11
L
10
R
3

Figure 6: Track layout
When trains are operated at normal speeds, a circular curve with cant cannot be followed
directly by a tangent track, and vice-versa [9,10]. A transition between these two types of seg-
ments, designated by transition curve, is required in order to guarantee the curvature continu-
ity and to minimize the variation of lateral accelerations on vehicles. Usually, the radius of a
transition curve is changed continuously, decreasing from an infinite value, at the tangent end,
to a radius equal to that of the circular curve, at the other end. The transition curves are also
used between circular curves with different radii. In Figure 6 the track segments L
2
, L
4
, L
6
, L
8

and L
10
, represented with dashed lines, are the transition curves of the track considered here.
Also the cant is changed gradually over the transition length, leading to the so-called su-
perelevation ramp. It represents the cant variation along the transition, ensuring a smooth cant
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
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evolution from a null value, at the straight track, to the nominal cant of the circular curve. The
design characteristics of the track depicted in Figure 6 are represented in Table 3.

Length Curvature Radius Vertical Offset Cant
ID Description
(m) (km
-1
) (m) (mm) (mm)
L
1
Straight 792 0 0 0
L
2
Transition 60 0 2.02 495 0 60 0 120
L
3
Curve 279 2.02 495 60 120
L
4
Transition 10 2.02 2.07 495 483 60 65 120 130
L
5
Curve 99 2.07 483 65 130
L
6
Transition 65 2.07 0 483 65 0 130 0
L
7
Straight 1197 0 0 0
L
8
Transition 53 0 1.36 735 0 40 0 80
L
9
Curve 241 1.36 735 40 80
L
10
Transition 53 1.36 0 735 40 0 80 0
L
11
Straight 651 0 0 0
Table 3: Design characteristics of the track
4.3 Wheel-Rail Contact Characteristics
The wheel-rail contact model, used in the railway dynamic analyses performed here, has
the following characteristics:
Fully non-linear creep law from VAMPIRE tool [1,2], i.e., with non-linear contact forces
and non-linear contact geometry.
Contact Table Calculation Data:
o Range of wheelset lateral displacement relative to track: 15 mm
o Step size of wheelset lateral displacement: 0.25 mm
o Fixed increments: Yes
Track Data:
o Rail profile: UIC 60 [22]
o Rail cant: 1/20
o Track gauge: 1435 mm
o Gauge point: European (14 mm below crown)
Wheelset Data:
o Wheel profile: S1002 [21]
o Flange-back spacing: 1360 mm
o Wheel diameter: 890 mm
o Axleload: 160 kN (normal load conditions)
o Wheelset yaw angle: 0 rad

J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
9
4.4 New and Worn Wheel Profiles
The purpose of this work is to analyse the dynamic behaviour of a railway vehicle assem-
bled with new and worn wheel profiles in order to assess how its performance is influenced
by the wheels wear. The wheel profiles considered in this study are represented in Figure 7.
-490
-480
-470
-460
-450
-440
-430
-820 -800 -780 -760 -740 -720 -700 -680
Y (mm)
z
(
m
m
)
NewWheel Profile
Worn Wheel Profile
Rail UIC 60 (1/20)
-490
-480
-470
-460
-450
-440
-430
680 700 720 740 760 780 800 820
Y (mm)
z
(
m
m
)
NewWheel Profile
Worn Wheel Profile
Rail UIC 60 (1/20)

a) b)
Figure 7: New and worn wheel profiles: a) Left wheel; b) Right wheel
As previously referred, according to the UIC 510-2 leaflet [21] the wear state of the wheel
profiles can be evaluated using the geometrical parameters Sd, Sh and qR, which are defined
in Figure 2. The values of these wear parameters, correspondent to the new and worn profiles
depicted in Figure 7, are presented in Table 4.

Wheel Profile Wear Parameters (mm)
S1002 Sd Sh qR
New Profile 32.24 27.80 10.73
Worn Profile 29.69 30.33 8.19
Table 4: Values of the wear parameters corresponding to the new and worn wheel profiles
4.5 Equivalent Conicity
The equivalent conicity [9,23,24] is an important parameter used to evaluate the running
stability of railway vehicles. The importance of this parameter results from the fact that the
steering mechanism of a wheelset is not due to conicity or change in rolling radius of one
wheel, but due to the difference in rolling radii between left and right wheels. In fact, if a
wheelset is moved laterally from a centred position, a difference in rolling radii arises. The
equivalent conicity is defined as:

2
e
y
=
r
(2)
where r is the instantaneous difference in rolling radii between left and right wheels and y is
lateral displacement of the wheelset with respect to the centre position. Notice that, for a
wheelset with straight cones, the equivalent conicity is equal to the conicity of its wheels.
In general, the equivalent conicity is a nonlinear function of the lateral displacement, espe-
cially for track gauges smaller than the nominal value. It is a function of the wheel and rail
profiles as it depends on the geometric combination of both surfaces. It also depends on the
wheelset inside gauge, flange thickness, rail cant and track gauge. Great wheelset inside
gauge and bigger flange thickness have the same influence as smaller track gauge, i.e. the lat-
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
10
eral clearance decreases. In such cases, the contact point moves to the flanges for smaller lat-
eral displacements and the equivalent conicity increases.
The equivalent conicity is affected by the wheel wear. In Figure 8 the evolution of the
equivalent conicity, for the wheelsets assembled with the new and worn wheel profiles form
Figure 7, is presented. These results correspond to the nominal operation conditions, i.e., for a
rail profile UIC60, with 1/20 cant, a track gauge of 1435 mm and a wheelset flange-back
spacing of 1360 mm.
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 3 6 9 12 15
Wheelset Lateral Shift (mm)
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

C
o
n
i
c
i
t
y
New S1002 & UIC 60 (1/20)
Worn S1002 & UIC 60 (1/20)

Figure 8: Equivalent conicity of new and worn wheels
Regarding the running stability of railway vehicles, the equivalent conicity must remain
below a value of 0.4 and, to ensure the centring effect of the wheelsets, it must be greater than
0.1 [23]. From Figure 8 it is observed that, for a wheelset lateral shift of 4 mm, the equivalent
conicity has a value of 0.01 when considering the new wheel profile S1002, whereas for the
worn profile it has a value of 0.064. These results show that the use of both profiles does not
lead to problems regarding the vehicle stability. Nevertheless, the low values obtained for the
equivalent conicity in the tread zone mean that the wheelsets do not have a meaningful rolling
radii difference between left and right wheels. This effect may originate a low gravitational
stiffness, i.e., difficulties for the wheelsets to center themselves on the track, especially when
the vehicle is assembled with new wheel profiles.
5 VEHICLE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR WITH NEW AND WORN WHEELS
In the following, the dynamic analyses results of the railway vehicle, represented in Figure
4, assembled with new and worn wheels are presented. The purpose of this comparative study
is to analyse several indicators in order to assess how the wheels wear growth influences the
vehicle dynamic behaviour. These indicators include: a) wheelsets motion; b) accelerations on
wheelsets, bogie frames and carbody, c) vehicle-track loads and; d) derailment coefficient
Y/Q.
The comparative studies with new and worn wheels are performed in the first 3500 m of
the Cuneo-Ventimiglia track, which is represented in Figure 6. A vehicle velocity of 95 km/h
along the track is considered as it corresponds to the real operation conditions of the trainset
in this railway network.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
11
5.1 Motion of the Wheelsets
The first indicator considered here to assess the influence of the wheels wear on the vehicle
dynamic behaviour is the wheelset lateral displacement with respect to the track centerline. In
Figure 9 this parameter is presented for the front wheelset of the railway vehicle. The results
show that, when entering the curves, the wheelsets with new and worn wheel profiles are dis-
placed laterally, towards the outer rail, as much as needed so that the difference in rolling ra-
dii corresponds to the difference in travelled length on outer and inner rails. Since no
sufficient difference in rolling radii is achieved, the lateral displacement increases until being
limited by the flange contact on the outer wheel. After reaching the flange, the lateral dis-
placement remains constant during the curve negotiation. It can be observed that the flange
clearance on the new wheelset is about 7 mm whereas, for the worn one, it is about 10 mm.
These results are in agreement with the new and worn profiles depicted in Figure 7.
-12
-9
-6
-3
0
3
6
9
12
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
WS 1 New
WS 1 Worn

Figure 9: Lateral displacement of front wheelset
The results from Figure 9 also show that, in the tangent track segments after both left and
right curves, both wheelsets present a low frequency lateral oscillation with decaying ampli-
tude. This phenomenon is known in the railway industry as vehicle lower sway and it occurs
when using new wheel profiles S1002 and rail profiles UIC 60 with 1/20 cant. In such condi-
tions, the equivalent conicity of the wheelsets is very small, as demonstrated in Figure 8, and,
consequently, after a perturbation the vehicle has more difficulty to center itself on the track.
It is also observed that, when using new profiles, the periodic lateral oscillations of the
wheelset have higher amplitudes. This is due to its lower equivalent conicity, which originates
a smaller gravitational stiffness and more difficulty for its self centring on the track. When
using the worn wheel profiles, the equivalent conicity is higher and the wheelset has a
stronger tendency to return to the centred position. Notice that this lower sway movement of
the railway vehicle does not raise safety issues as the oscillations decrease leading to a stable
running. Nevertheless, it can cause poorer comfort on the passengers compartment.
The lateral displacement of the rear wheelset of railway vehicle, assembled with new and
worn wheels, is presented in Figure 10. The results show that the worn wheelset exhibits a
higher lateral displacement during curve negotiation but none of them reaches the flange con-
tact. On the tangent track segments after the curves, it is also observed that both wheelsets
reveal the periodic lateral oscillation that originates the vehicle lower sway.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
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-12
-9
-6
-3
0
3
6
9
12
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
WS 4 New
WS 4 Worn

Figure 10: Lateral displacement of rear wheelset
When comparing the graph from Figure 10 with the results from Figure 9, it is observed
that the rear wheelsets have less lateral displacement than the front ones with the same wheel
wear state. As the lateral displacements are lower, also the sway amplitude of the rear wheel-
sets is smaller when compared with the homologous results on the front ones.
5.2 Accelerations on Carbody, Bogie Frames and Wheelsets
When travelling in curves, the vehicles are subjected to centrifugal accelerations which
originate forces that tend to displace the vehicle towards outside of the curve. In railway in-
dustry, this effect is counteracted by the track cant, i.e., by raising the outer rail with respect
to the inner one, as depicted in Figure 5. This solution reduces the perceived lateral accelera-
tion when negotiating a curve and, consequently, the respective forces.
The Non-Compensated Acceleration (NCA) on a given body represents the resultant lateral
acceleration in a local referential that rotates with the body in the roll direction. With refer-
ence to Figure 11, the NCA is defined as the difference between the lateral components of the
centrifugal acceleration a
c
and of the gravitational acceleration a
g
, being written as:

2

c g
V
NCA a a .cos g.sin
R
= = (3)
where V is vehicle velocity, R is the radius of the curve, is cant angle and g is the accelera-
tion of gravity. According with this definition, the NCA represents the lateral acceleration felt
by a passenger travelling in the carbody or registered by an accelerometer placed on a struc-
tural element of the railway vehicle.
The equilibrium cant, for a given curve radius and vehicle speed, corresponds to the cross
level offset that originates zero track plane acceleration. In general, the track curves are de-
signed to have an equilibrium cant for the nominal velocity conditions of the vehicles that op-
erate on that line. In such conditions, the vehicles run with zero NCA which is advantageous
for the passengers as they do not feel the centrifugal accelerations on curves. In addition, the
vehicles produce a resultant vertical force through the centerline of the track. Thus, the verti-
cal wheel-rail interaction forces are equal, so that maximum utilization of traction effort and
minimum wear on wheels and rails can be realized [10].
Other concept that is important to introduce when studying the vehicle performance on
curves is the notion of cant deficiency and cant excess. A railway vehicle is running with cant
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
13
deficiency when the track cant is not sufficient to assure zero track plane acceleration. In this
case, the NCA originates a resultant force pointing towards outside of the curve, the passen-
gers are pushed in that direction due to the centrifugal force and the vertical contact forces are
higher on the outer wheel of the wheelset. In general, the maximum value allowed for the
NCA in the carbody is 1 m/s
2
. Values above this one are considered uncomfortable for the
passengers.
g

a
g
a
Centrifugal
NCA
a
c

a
g
a
Centrifugal
NCA
a
c

Figure 11: Definition of the non-compensated lateral acceleration
When, for a given curve radius and vehicle speed, the track cant is higher than necessary to
guarantee zero track plane acceleration, it means that the railway vehicle is running with cant
excess. In such situation, the NCA originates a resultant force pointing towards inside of the
curve, passengers are pushed in that direction due to the lateral component of the gravitational
force and the vertical contact forces are higher on the wheelset inner wheel.
The NCA on the leading wheelset, front bogie and carbody are presented in Figure 12.
These results are obtained with the railway vehicle assembled with new and worn wheel pro-
files. Following the recommendations of the UIC 518 [25], these signals are post-processed
with a low pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 1 Hz and 2 poles. It is observed that the
wheels wear state does not influence the NCA in none of the structural elements that compose
the vehicle.
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
/
s
2
)
Carbody New
Front Bogie New
Front Wheelset New

-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
/
s
2
)
Carbody Worn
Front Bogie Worn
Front Wheelset Worn

a) b)
Figure 12: Non-compensated lateral acceleration: a) New profiles; b) Worn profiles
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
14
In order to check the results from Figure 12, equation (3) is applied to the three circular
curves of the track that are depicted in Figure 6. The values obtained for the NCA are pre-
sented in Table 5. It is observed that these values correspond to the railway dynamic analysis
results obtained for the new and worn wheelsets in Figure 12. Due to the flexibility of the
primary and secondary suspensions, the centrifugal forces that appear during the curve nego-
tiation originate a small roll rotation of bogie frame and carbody towards outside of the curves.
This roll rotation originates that these elements make a lower angle with respect to the hori-
zontal plane than the cant angle made by the wheelset. With reference to equation (3), this
explains why the NCA is higher on the bogie frame and carbody. The results from Figure 12
and Table 5 also show that the railway vehicle is running with cant deficiency in all curves of
the track but with NCA values below the limit of 1 m/s
2
.

Curve ID Velocity (m/s) Radius (m) Cant (mm) Cant Angle () NCA (m/s
2
)
L
3
495 120 4.59 0.62
L
5
26.389 483 130 4.97 0.59
L
9
735 80 3.06 0.42
Table 5: NCA for the track curves
In order to allow a more detailed assessment of the influence of new and worn wheel pro-
files on the NCA, the results obtained in the carbody of the railway vehicle are presented in
Figure 13. The only differences that are observed result from the vehicle lower sway that oc-
curs on the straight track segments after the curves. As discussed before, this periodic oscilla-
tion of the railway vehicle is more pronounced when the vehicle is assembled with the new
wheel profiles as a result of a lower equivalent conicity.
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
/
s
2
)
Carbody New
Carbody Worn

Figure 13: Non-compensated lateral acceleration on carbody
The vertical accelerations on the carbody, front bogie and leading wheelset of the railway
vehicle are presented in Figure 14. The results are obtained considering that the wheelsets are
assembled with wheels having new and worn profiles. This output data follows the same fil-
tering procedure used for the lateral accelerations. The results from Figure 14 show that the
wheels wear state has an irrelevant influence on the vertical accelerations registered on the
structural elements of the railway vehicle.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
15
-0.14
-0.12
-0.10
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
/
s
2
)
Carbody New
Front Bogie New
Front Wheelset New

-0.14
-0.12
-0.10
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
/
s
2
)
Carbody Worn
Front Bogie Worn
Front Wheelset Worn

a) b)
Figure 14: Vertical acceleration: a) New profiles; b) Worn profiles
The results from Figure 14 also show that, when running on curves, the mean values of the
vertical accelerations are higher on the wheelset and lower on the carbody. This reveals that
the primary and secondary suspension elements absorb part of the vibrations arising from the
vehicle interaction with the track. The oscillations observed in the results, which are charac-
terized by high peaks that originate the minimum and maximum values of the vertical accel-
erations, appear when the vehicle is travelling in the transition curves, as represented in
Figure 6. Notice that, in these transitions, the vehicle is running on superelevation ramps as
the track cant changes gradually from zero, at the straight track segments, to the nominal cant
values of the circular curves.
-0.12
-0.10
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
/
s
2
)
Carbody New
Carbody Worn

Figure 15: Vertical acceleration on carbody
The vertical accelerations on carbody of the railway vehicle are shown in Figure 15. The
purpose is to evaluate with more detail the influence of the new and worn wheel profiles. No
relevant differences are observed among the results presented, which exhibit the same mean
accelerations and similar variations for the maximum and minimum values.
5.3 Vehicle-Track Loads
The third indicator considered here to evaluate the influence of the wheels wear on the ve-
hicle dynamic behaviour is the load imposed to the infrastructure. It is characterized by the
wheelset ripage forces and by the vertical wheel-rail contact forces. The ripage force F
Ripage

represents the total lateral force transmitted to the track by a wheelset, being obtained as the
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
16
sum of the lateral contact forces exerted on the left and right rails. These forces are repre-
sented in Figure 16 for the cases in which the vehicle is running on a straight track and nego-
tiating a curve.
F
L
F
Ripage
F
R
F
L
F
Ripage
F
R
F
L
F
Ripage
F
R

F
Ripage
F
R
F
L
F
Ripage
F
R
F
L
F
Ripage
F
R
F
L

a) b)
Figure 16: Representation of ripage and vertical forces transmitted to track: a) Straight track; b) Curved track
The ripage forces originated by the four wheelsets of the railway vehicle are presented in
Figure 17. These results are obtained with the vehicle assembled with new and worn wheels.
According to the UIC 518 [25], these results have two steps of signal post-processing. First,
the lateral track forces data is processed with a sliding window 2 metre running average filter.
Then, a low pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 20 Hz and 2 poles is used to obtain the final
results for the ripage forces.
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
R
i
p
a
g
e

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 1 New
WS 1 Worn

-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
R
i
p
a
g
e

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 2 New
WS 2 Worn

a) b)
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
R
i
p
a
g
e

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 3 New
WS 3 Worn

-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
R
i
p
a
g
e

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 4 New
WS 4 Worn

c) d)
Figure 17: Ripage forces: a) Wheelset #1 (front); b) Wheelset #2; c) Wheelset #3; d) Wheelset #4 (rear)
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
17
The comparison of the graphs from Figure 17 shows that, when the vehicle is assembled
with worn wheels, the wheelsets 1 and 3 originate slightly higher lateral track forces on the
curves than when using new profiles. On the other hand, the wheelsets 2 and 4 with worn
wheels transmit lower ripage forces to the track than with new wheels.
The total lateral forces exerted on the track by the operation of the whole railway vehicle
are presented in Figure 18. These results correspond to the sum of ripage forces on the four
wheelsets of the vehicle. When comparing the values obtained with new and worn profiles,
the only differences that are perceptible result from the vehicle lower sway, which originates
the low frequency variation of the ripage forces on the straight track segments after the curves.
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
R
i
p
a
g
e

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
New Profile
Worn Profile

Figure 18: Ripage forces of the whole vehicle
The vehicle-track interaction loads are also characterized by the vertical contact forces on
the left F
L
and right F
R
rails. These forces are represented in Figure 16 for the cases in which
the vehicle is running on straight and curved tracks. The vertical forces on the four wheelsets
of the railway vehicle are presented in Figure 19. These results are defined in the local refer-
ential of the wheelsets and are post-processed with a low pass filter with a cut-off frequency
of 20 Hz and 2 poles, according to the UIC 518 [25].
The graphs from Figure 19 show that, when the vehicle is running in the curved sections of
the track, the vertical contact forces on the outer wheels are higher than on the inner ones.
These results are in agreement with the NCA values calculated in Table 5, where it is demon-
strated that the railway vehicle is running with cant deficiency in all curves of the track. In
such conditions, and with reference to Figure 11, a resultant centrifugal force pointing to-
wards outside of the curve arises, which implies that the vertical contact forces are higher on
the outer wheels of the vehicle.
Form Figure 19 is also possible to compare the vertical contact forces obtained with the
railway vehicle assembled with wheels having new and worn profiles. In curve, the results of
wheelsets 1 and 3 show that the wheels wear originate slightly higher vertical forces on the
outer wheels and lower loads on the inner ones. Furthermore, on wheelsets 2 and 4, no differ-
ences are detected between the vertical contact forces obtained with new and worn wheel pro-
files.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
18
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 1 Left New
WS 1 Right New
WS 1 Left Worn
WS 1 Right Worn

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 2 Left New
WS 2 Right New
WS 2 Left Worn
WS 2 Right Worn

a) b)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 3 Left New
WS 3 Right New
WS 3 Left Worn
WS 3 Right Worn

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

F
o
r
c
e
s

(
k
N
)
WS 4 Left New
WS 4 Right New
WS 4 Left Worn
WS 4 Right Worn

c) d)
Figure 19: Vertical contact forces: a) Wheelset #1 (front); b) Wheelset #2; c) Wheelset #3; d) Wheelset #4 (rear)

5.4 Y/Q Ratio
The resultant force acting at the wheel-rail contact area can be decomposed into longitudi-
nal, lateral and vertical components. The ratio between the lateral Y and vertical Q compo-
nents, represented in Figure 20, is referred to as the Y/Q ratio. This parameter is especially
important in predicting the risk of flange climbing and of rail turnover [9,10]. Flange climbing,
which is one common reason for derailment, means that the wheel flange climbs onto the top
of the rail and continues rolling over the rail head. Usually it occurs in combination with
flange steering in curve negotiating but it can also occur when the vehicle is running faster
than its critical speed.
Q
Y
Q
Y

Figure 20: Vertical and lateral components of the wheel-rail contact forces
The criticalness of a given Y/Q ratio value is a function of the prevailing dynamic condi-
tions. For example, Y/Q ratio values that represent a problem in high speed situations may not
be so important in low speed conditions. In general, large steady-state lateral forces are ac-
companied by large vertical loads tending to keep the Y/Q ratios below critical levels. How-
ever, large Y/Q ratios can occur transiently as a result of sudden dynamic reductions in
vertical loading.
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
19
In practice, an Y/Q ratio value in the range of 0.8 1.2 is generally considered as the
minimum for wheel climb to be likely to occur [9,10]. This maximum allowed value is func-
tion of the friction coefficient and of the contact angle at the flange contact point. Values in
excess of the double of these have been observed but, because of their short duration, wheel
climb did not occur [10]. Therefore, the duration of the occurrence is also an important pa-
rameter when studying this issue.
The values of the Y/Q ratio in the wheels of the four wheelsets of the railway vehicle are
presented in Figure 21. According to the UIC 518 [25], these results have two steps of signal
post-processing. First, the data is processed with a sliding window 2 metre running average
filter. Then, a low pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 20 Hz and 2 poles is used to obtain
the final results for the Y/Q ratio.
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
Y
/
Q

R
a
t
i
o
WS 1 Left New
WS 1 Right New
WS 1 Left Worn
WS 1 Right Worn
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
Y
/
Q

R
a
t
i
o
WS 2 Left New
WS 2 Right New
WS 2 Left Worn
WS 2 Right Worn

a) b)
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
Y
/
Q

R
a
t
i
o
WS 3 Left New
WS 3 Right New
WS 3 Left Worn
WS 3 Right Worn
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Track Distance (m)
Y
/
Q

R
a
t
i
o
WS 4 Left New
WS 4 Right New
WS 4 Left Worn
WS 4 Right Worn

c) d)
Figure 21: Y/Q ratio: a) Wheelset #1 (front); b) Wheelset #2; c) Wheelset #3; d) Wheelset #4 (rear)
The comparison of the graphs from Figure 21 shows that the highest values of the Y/Q ra-
tio occur on the right wheel of the leading wheelset, when it is running on the left curve of the
track. This is not surprising as the results from Figure 9 show that, when entering the curve,
the front wheelset is displaced laterally, towards the outer rail, until reaching flange contact
on the right wheel. Notice that this large value for the lateral force on the right wheel is also
accompanied by a higher vertical force, as shown in Figure 19, which is a consequence of the
vehicle running with cant deficiency. This combination of larger lateral force and higher ver-
tical load tends to keep the Y/Q ratio below critical level of 0.8.
From Figure 21 it is also possible to compare the Y/Q ratio values obtained with the rail-
way vehicle assembled with wheels having new and worn profiles. The results show that in
wheelsets 1 and 3 the Y/Q ratio is higher when using worn profiles. The opposite happens in
wheelsets 2 and 4, where the larger values of the derailment coefficient occur when the
wheelsets are equipped with new wheels. These results are in agreement with the data from
Figure 17 where it is observed that the wheelsets 1 and 3 originate higher lateral track forces
J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
20
when using worn profiles, whereas wheelsets 2 and 4 transmit higher ripage forces to the
track when assembled with new wheels.
6 CONCLUSIONS
During trainset operation, the wheels of railway vehicles are subjected to wear. When the
worn state of the profiles reaches a limit value defined by international standards, the wheels
have to be re-profiled. For a better understanding and a wider analysis of the wheel wear phe-
nomenon, it is important to tackle two issues: a) Assess the operation conditions that promote
the wheel wear growth, and; b) Evaluate the consequences of the changing wheel profiles on
the dynamic behaviour of the railway vehicles. This second problem is address in this work.
A computational tool that is able to predict the wheel wear evolution of railway vehicles
and to study their dynamic behaviour in realistic operation conditions is used here. The objec-
tive is to analyse how the wheel wear state influences the performance of the trainsets. For
this purpose, a vehicle is assembled with wheels having new and worn profiles. Then, a com-
parative study is made where several dynamic indicators, which are generally used by the
railway industry, are considered.
The analysis of the wheelsets motion shows that, during curve negotiation, they are dis-
placed laterally towards the outer rail. In the front wheelset in particular, no sufficient differ-
ence in rolling radii between left and right wheels is achieved and its lateral shift is only
limited by the flange contact on the outer wheel. It is also observed that, with both new and
worn wheels, the vehicle exhibits a low frequency lateral oscillation with decaying amplitude
on the straight track segments after the curves. This lower sway motion is more pronounced
when the vehicle is assembled with new wheelsets. Such behaviour is due to their lower
equivalent conicity, which originates a smaller gravitational stiffness and more difficulty for
the vehicle self-centring on the track.
The accelerations on the carbody, bogie frames and wheelsets of the railway vehicle are
also studied here. The purpose is to evaluate how the comfort on the passengers compartment
and the vibrations on the structural elements are affected by the wear growth on the vehicle
wheels. It is observed that the wheels wear state as a negligible influence on both non-
compensated and vertical accelerations.
The influence of the wheel wear state on the vehicle-track loads is also studied in this work.
The results show that, when travelling on curves, the vehicle assembled with worn wheels
originate higher ripage forces on wheelsets 1 and 3. On the other hand, the wheelsets 2 and 4
with new wheels transmit larger lateral track forces to the track. The results also reveal that, in
the straight track, the wheels wear has no influence on the vertical contact forces. When run-
ning on curve, the worn wheelsets 1 and 3 have slightly higher vertical forces on the outer
wheels and lower loads on the inner ones. On wheelsets 2 and 4 the vertical track forces are
not sensitive to the wear state of the wheels.
The results obtained for the derailment coefficient Y/Q show that in wheelsets 1 and 3 the
values are higher when using worn profiles. The opposite happens in wheelsets 2 and 4, where
the larger values of Y/Q occur when the wheelsets are equipped with new wheels. In all
wheelsets, the values obtained for the Y/Q ratio show that they are more than 50% below the
critical level of 0.8. This means that for the operation conditions considered in this work,
flange climbing and derailment are not likely to occur.



J . Pombo, H. Desprets, R. Verardi, J. Ambrsio, M. Pereira, C. Ariaudo and N. Kuka
21
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented here has been developed in the framework of the European Project
AWARE (Reliable Prediction of the Wear of Railway Wheels). The project is supported by
the European Community under the Sixth Framework Programme Marie Curie Actions: Host
Fellowships, Transfer of Knowledge (TOK-IAP) with the contract number MTKI-CT-2006
042358. The authors also want to acknowledge ALSTOM Transport by supporting the intern-
ship of Mr. Herv Desprets in Italy.
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