Hardness Testing Basics

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the

resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation. More
simply put, when using a fixed force (load)* and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder
the material. Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or the area of the indentation
using one of over 12 different test methods.

Hardness Testing Considerations

The following sample characteristics should be consider prior to selecting the hardness testing method to
use:


Sample Size
Cylindrical Samples
Sample Thickness
Scales
Gage R&R
Sample Size

The smaller the part, the lighter the load required to produce the required indentation. On small parts, it is
particularly important to be sure to meet minimum thickness requirements and properly space indentations
away from inside and outside edges. Larger parts need to be fixtured properly to ensure secure placement
during the test process without the chance for movement or slippage. Parts that either overhang the anvil or
are not easily supported on the anvil should be clamped into place or properly supported.

Cylindrical Samples
A correction to a test result is needed when testing on cylinder shapes with
small diameters due to a difference between axial and radial material
flow. Roundness correction factors are added to your testing result based on the
diameter of convex cylinder surfaces. Additionally, it is important to maintain a
minimum spacing equal to 2~1/2 times the indentation's diameter from an edge
or another indentation.


Sample Thickness

Your sample should have a minimal thickness that is at least 10x (ten times)
the indentation depth that is expected to be attained. There are minimum,
allowable thickness recommendations for regular and superficial Rockwell
methods




Scales

Sometimes it is necessary to test in one scale and report in another scale. Conversions have been
established that have some validity, but it is important to note that unless an actual correlation has been
completed by testing in different scales, established conversions may or may not provide reliable
information. (Refer to ASTM scale conversion charts for non-austenitic metals in the high hardness
range and low hardness range). Also refer to ASTM standard E140 for more scale conversion information.

Gage R&R

Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility Studies were developed to calculate the ability of operators and their
instruments to test accordingly within the tolerances of a given test piece. In hardness testing, there are
inherent variables that preclude using standard Gage R&R procedures and formulas with actual test pieces.
Material variation and the inability to retest the same area on depth measuring testers are two significant
factors that affect GR&R results. In order to minimize these effects, it is best to do the study on highly
consistent test blocks in order to minimize these built-in variations.

Newage Testing Instruments hardness testers operate are ideally suited for these studies. Unfortunately,
since these studies can only be effectively done on test blocks, their value does not necessarily translate into
actual testing operations. There are a host of factors that can be introduced when testing under real
conditions. Some Newage testers excel at testing in real-world conditions by reducing the effects of
vibration, operator influence, part deflection due to dirt, scale, a specimen flexing under load.

Rockwell Testing
Stanley P. Rockwell invented the Rockwell hardness test. He was a metallurgist for a large ball bearing company and
he wanted a fast non-destructive way to determine if the heat treatment process they were doing on the bearing
races was successful. The only hardness tests he had available at time were Vickers, Brinell and Scleroscope. The
Vickers test was too time consuming, Brinell indents were too big for his parts and the Scleroscope was difficult to
use, especially on his small parts.
To satisfy his needs he invented the Rockwell test method. This simple sequence of test force application proved to
be a major advance in the world of hardness testing. It enabled the user to perform an accurate hardness test on a
variety of sized parts in just a few seconds.
Rockwell test methods are defined in the following standards:
ASTM E18 Metals
ISO 6508 Metals
ASTM D785 Plastics
Types of Rockwell Tests
There are two types of Rockwell tests:
1. Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf.
2. Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kgf.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or tungston carbide ball, depending upon the characteristics
of the material being tested.
Rockwell Scales
Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of a hardness number and a scale symbol representing
the indenter and the minor and major loads. The hardness number is expressed by the symbol HR and the scale
designation.
The Rockwell hardness test is based on an inverse relationship to the measurement of the additional depth to which
an indenter is forced by a heavy total (major) load beyond the depth resulting from a previously applied preliminary
(minor) load. Initially a minor load is applied, and a zero datum position is established. The major load is then applied
for a specified period and removed, leaving the minor load applied. The resulting Rockwell number represents the
difference in depth from the zero datum position as a result of the application of the major load. The entire procedure
requires as little as a few seconds up to 15 for plastics. In the Rockwell test, results are quickly and directly obtained
without the need for a secondary, dimensional measurement requirement.
The most common indenter type is a diamond cone ground at 120 degrees for testing hardened steels and carbides.
Softer materials are typically tested using tungsten carbide balls ranging in diameters from 1/16 in up to 1/2 in. The
combination of indenter and test force make up the Rockwell scale. These combinations make up 30 different scales
and are expressed as the actual hardness number followed by the letters HR and then the respective scale. A
recorded hardness number of HRC 63 signifies a hardness of 63 on the Rockwell C scale. Higher values indicate
harder materials such as hardened steel or tungsten carbide. These can have HRC values in excess of 70 HRC.
Rockwell test forces can be applied by either closed-loop load cell or traditional deadweight systems.

Vickers Testing
Macrohardness testing, also commonly referred to as Vickers testing, is performed by pressing an indenter of
specified geometry into the test surface. Unlike Rockwell testing, the Vickers test applies only a single test force. The
resultant impression or un-recovered area is then measured using a high powered microscope in combination with
filar measuring eyepieces, or more recently, automatically with image analyzing software. The Vickers diamond
produces a square based pyramidal shape with a depth of indentation of about 1/7th of the diagonal length. The
Vickers test has two distinct force ranges, micro (10 - 1000 g) and macro (1 - 100 kg), to cover all testing
requirements. The indenter is the same for both ranges, therefore Vickers hardness values are continuous over the
total range of hardness for metals (typically HV100 - HV1000).
Vickers tests are typically referred to as macroindentation tests and are used on a wider variety of materials including
case hardened, and steel components. Vickers indents are also less sensitive to surface conditions than the Knoop
test. The measured area is used in a formula that includes applied force to determine a hardness value. Tables or
automatic electronic or imaging measurements are a more common and convenient way to generate Vickers
hardness numbers.
Brinell Testing
Another common hardness test type, the Brinell test, consists of applying a constant load or force, usually between
500 and 3000 Kgf, for a specified time (from 10 - 30 seconds) using a 5 or 10 mm diameter tungsten carbide ball. The
load time period is required to ensure that plastic flow of the metal has ceased. Lower forces and smaller diameter
balls are sometimes used in specific applications. Similar to Knoop and Vickers testing, the Brinell test applies only a
single test force. After removal of the load, the resultant recovered round impression is measured across diagonals at
right angles and is usually recorded millimeters using a low-power microscope or an automatic measuring device.
The actual Brinell hardness (BHN) is calculated by factoring the indent size and the test force however it is not
necessary to make the actual calculation for each test. Calculations have already been made and are available in
tabular form for various combinations of diameters of impressions and load. In addition various forms of automatic
Brinell reading devices are available to perform these tasks.
Brinell testing is typically used in testing aluminum and copper alloys (at lower forces) and steels and cast irons at the
higher force ranges. Highly hardened steel or other materials are usually not tested by the Brinell method, but the
Brinell test is particularly useful in certain material finishes as it is more tolerant of surface conditions due to the
indenter size and heavy applied force. Brinell testers are often manufactured to accommodate large parts such as
engine castings and large diameter piping.

Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test
material under a preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium
has been reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements of the
indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to
a datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional
major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When
equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the
preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load
allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration (Fig. 1C). The
permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and
removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness
number.


HR = E - e


F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf
F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1 measured in
units of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130
units for steel ball indenter
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball


Fig. 1.Rockwell Principle



Rockwell Hardness Scales
Scale Indenter
Minor Load
F0
kgf
Major Load
F1
kgf
Total Load
F
kgf
Value of
E
A Diamond cone 10 50 60 100
B 1/16" steel ball 10 90 100 130
C Diamond cone 10 140 150 100
D Diamond cone 10 90 100 100
E 1/8" steel ball 10 90 100 130
F 1/16" steel ball 10 50 60 130
G 1/16" steel ball 10 140 150 130
H 1/8" steel ball 10 50 60 130
K 1/8" steel ball 10 140 150 130
L 1/4" steel ball 10 50 60 130
M 1/4" steel ball 10 90 100 130
P 1/4" steel ball 10 140 150 130
R 1/2" steel ball 10 50 60 130
S 1/2" steel ball 10 90 100 130
V 1/2" steel ball 10 140 150 130



Typical Application of Rockwell Hardness Scales
HRA . . . . Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel
HRB . . . . Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminium alloys, malleable irons, etc.
HRC . . . . Steel, hard cast irons, case hardened steel and other materials harder than
100 HRB
HRD . . . . Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
HRE . . . . Cast iron, aluminium and magnesium alloys, bearing metals
HRF . . . . Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals
HRG . . . . Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons HRH . . . . Aluminium,
zinc, lead
HRK . . . . }
HRL . . . . }
HRM . . . .} . . . . Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRP . . . . }
HRR . . . . }
HRS . . . . }
HRV . . . . }

Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness
number readout and rapid testing time. Disadvantages include many arbitrary non-
related scales and possible effects from the specimen support anvil (try putting a
cigarette paper under a test block and take note of the effect on the hardness reading!
Vickers and Brinell methods don't suffer from this effect).
Rockwell Hardness Testing

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the
resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation. More
simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder the
material. Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or the area of the indentation
using one of over 12 different test methods. Click here to learn more about hardness testing basics.

The Rockwell hardness test method, as defined in ASTM E-18, is the most commonly used hardness test
method. You should obtain a copy of this standard, read and understand the standard completely before
attempting a Rockwell test. The Rockwell test is generally easier to perform, and more accurate than other
types of hardness testing methods. The Rockwell test method is used on all metals, except in condition
where the test metal structure or surface conditions would introduce too much variations; where the
indentations would be too large for the application; or where the sample size or sample shape prohibits its
use.

The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced by a force/load on an
indenter. First, a preliminary test force (commonly referred to as preload or minor load) is applied to a
sample using a diamond indenter. This load represents the zero or reference position that breaks through
the surface to reduce the effects of surface finish. After the preload, an additional load, call the major load,
is applied to reach the total required test load. This force is held for a predetermined amount of time (dwell
time) to allow for elastic recovery. This major load is then released and the final position is measured
against the position derived from the preload, the indentation depth variance between the preload value and
major load value. This distance is converted to a hardness number.

Preliminary test loads (preloads) range from 3 kgf (used in the Superficial Rockwell scale) to 10 kgf (used
in the Regular Rockwell scale) to 200 kgs (used as a macro scale and not part of ASTM E-18; see ASTM E-
1842). Total test forces range from 15kgf to 150 kgf (superficial and regular) to 500 to 3000 kgf
(macrohardness).

Test Method Illustration

A = Depth reached by indenter after application of preload (minor load)
B = Position of indenter during major load
C = Final position reached by indenter after elastic recovery of sample material
D = Distance measurement taken representing difference between preload and major load position

A variety of indenters may be used: conical diamond with a round tip for harder metals to ball indenters
ranges with a diameter ranging from 1/16 to for softer materials.

When selecting a Rockwell scale, a general guide is to select the scale that specifies the largest load and the
smallest indenter possible without exceeding defined operation conditions and accounting for conditions that
may influence the test result. These conditions include test specimens that are below the minimum thickness
for the depth of indentation; a test impression that falls too close to the edge of the specimen or another
impression; or testing on cylindrical specimens. Additionally, the test axis should be within 2-degress of
perpendicular to ensure precise loading; there should be no deflection of the test sample or tester during the
loading application from conditions such as dirt under the test specimen or on the elevating screw. It is
important to keep the surface finish clean and decarburization from heat treatment should be removed.

Sheet metal can be too thin and too soft for testing on a particular Rockwell scale without exceeding
minimum thickness requirements and potentially indenting the test anvil. In this case a diamond anvil can
be used to provide a consistent influence of the result. Another special case in testing cold rolled sheet metal
is that work hardening can create a gradient of hardness through the sample so any test is measuring the
average of the hardness over the depth of indentation effect. In this case any Rockwell test result is going to
be subject to doubt, there is often a history of testing using a particular scale on a particular material that
operators are used to and able to functionally interpret.
Brinell Hardness Testing

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the
resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation. More
simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder the
material. Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or the area of the indentation
using one of over 12 different test methods. Click here to learn more about hardness testing basics.

The Brinell hardness test method as used to determine Brinell hardness, is defined in ASTM E10. Most
commonly it is used to test materials that have a structure that is too coarse or that have a surface that is
too rough to be tested using another test method, e.g., castings and forgings. Brinell testing often use a
very high test load (3000 kgf) and a 10mm wide indenter so that the resulting indentation averages out
most surface and sub-surface inconsistencies.

The Brinell method applies a predetermined test load (F) to a carbide ball of fixed diameter (D) which is held
for a predetermined time period and then removed. The resulting impression is measured across at least
two diameters usually at right angles to each other and these result averaged (d). A chart is then used to
convert the averaged diameter measurement to a Brinell hardness number. Test forces range from 500 to
3000 kgf.

A Brinell hardness result measures the permanent width of indentation produced by a carbide indenter
applied to a test specimen at a given load, for a given length of time. Typically, an indentation is made with
a Brinell hardness testing machine and then measured for indentation diameter in a second step with a
specially designed Brinell microscope oroptical system. The resulting measurement is converted to a Brinell
value using the Brinell formula or a conversion chart based on the formula. Most typically, a Brinell test will
use 3000 kgf load with a 10mm ball. If the sample material is aluminum, the test is most frequently
performed with a 500 kgf load and 10mm ball. Brinell test loads can range from 3000 kgf down to 1 kgf. Ball
indenter diameters can range from 10mm to 1mm. Generally, the lower loads and ball diameters are used
for convenience in combination testers, like Rockwell units, that have a small load capacity. The test
standard specifies a time of 10 to 15 seconds, although shorter times can be used if it is known that the
shorter time does not affect the result. There are other conditions that must be met for testing on a round
specimen, spacing of indentations, minimum thickness of test specimens, etc.

Test Method Illustration

D = Ball diameter
d = impression diameter
F = load
HB = Brinell result


Typically the greatest source of error in Brinell testing is the measurement of the indentation. Due to
disparities in operators making the measurements, the results will vary even under perfect conditions. Less
than perfect conditions can cause the variation to increase greatly. Frequently the test surface is prepared
with a grinder to remove surface conditions. The jagged edge makes interpretation of the indentation
difficult. Furthermore, when operators know the specifications limits for rejects, they may often be
influenced to see the measurements in a way that increases the percentage of good tests and less re-
testing.

Two types of technological remedies for countering Brinell measurement error problems have been
developed over the years. Automatic optical Brinell scopes use computers and image analysis to read the
indentations in a consistent manner. This standardization helps eliminate operator subjectivity so operators
are less-prone to automatically view in-tolerance results when the samples result may be out-of-tolerance.

Brinell units, according to ASTM E103, measure the samples using Brinell hardness parameters together
with a Rockwell hardness method. This method provides the most repeatable results (and greater speed)
since the vagaries of optical interpretations are removed through the use of an automatic mechanical depth
measurement. Using this method, however, results may not be strictly consistent with Brinell results due to
the different test methods an offset to the results may be required for some materials. It is easy to
establish the correct values in those cases where this may be a problem.

For more information, see our guide Selecting a Newage Brinell Hardness Tester or contact us
at newage.support@ametek.com.

Vickers Hardness Testing

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the
resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation. More
simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder the
material. Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or the area of the indentation
using one of over 12 different test methods. Click here to learn more about hardness testing basics.

The Vickers hardness test method, also referred to as a microhardness test method, is mostly used for
small parts, thin sections, or case depth work. The Vickers method is based on an optical measurement
system. The Microhardness test procedure, ASTM E-384, specifies a range of light loads using a diamond
indenter to make an indentation which is measured and converted to a hardness value. It is very useful for
testing on a wide type of materials as long as test samples are carefully prepared. A square base pyramid
shaped diamond is used for testing in the Vickers scale. Typically loads are very light, ranging from a few
grams to one or several kilograms, although "Macro" Vickers loads can range up to 30 kg or more. The
Microhardness methods are used to test on metals, ceramics, composites - almost any type of material.

Since the test indentation is very small in a Vickers test, it is useful for a variety of applications: testing very
thin materials like foils or measuring the surface of a part, small parts or small areas, measuring individual
microstructures, or measuring the depth of case hardening by sectioning a part and making a series of
indentations to describe a profile of the change in hardness. The Vickers method is more commonly used.

Sample preparation is usually necessary with a microhardness test in order to provide a small enough
specimen that can fit into the tester. Additionally, the sample preparation will need to make the specimens
surface smooth to permit a regular indentation shape and good measurement, and to ensure the sample can
be held perpendicular to the indenter. Usually the prepared samples are mounted in a plastic medium to
facilitate the preparation and testing. The indentations should be as large as possible to maximize the
measurement resolution. (Error is magnified as indentation sizes decrease) The test procedure is subject to
problems of operator influence on the test results.

For more information, see our guide Selecting a Newage Microhardness Tester.

Opposing indenter faces are set at a 136 degree angle from one another.