Fossils For

FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS
FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS

A Gui de to Col l ect i ng
and Prepari ng I nvert ebrat e Fossi l s
RUSSELL P. MacFALL
& JAY WOLLIN
We are the Ancients of the Earth,
And in the morning of the times.
Tennyson
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company
NEW YORK CI NCI NNATI TORONTO LONDON MELBOURNE
Dedicated to all the fossils yet unfound
Van Nost rand Rei nhol d Company Regi onal Of f i ces:
New Yor k Ci nci nnat i Chi cago Mi l l brae Dal l as
Van Nost rand Rei nhol d Company Internati onal Of f i ces:
London Tor ont o Mel bour ne
Copyr i ght 1972 by Li t t on Educat i onal Publ i shi ng, I nc.
Li br ar y of Congress Cat al og Card Numbe r 7 4 - 1 4 9 2 5 9
I SBN 0 - 4 4 2 - 2 5 0 6 0 - 6 cl oth 0 - 4 4 2 - 2 5 0 6 1 - 4 paper
Al l ri ghts reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyri ght hereon
may be reproduced or used i n any f orm or by any meansgraphi c, elec-
t roni c, or mechani cal , i ncl udi ng phot ocopyi ng, recordi ng, taping, or i nf or-
mat i on storage and retrieval syst emswi t hout wri tten permi ssi on of the
publ i sher. Manuf act ur ed i n the Uni t ed St at es of Ameri ca.
Publ i shed by Van Nost rand Rei nhol d Company
450 We s t 33r d St reet , New Yor k, N. Y. 10001
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
FOREWORD
Some years ago, I clipped a sent ence f rom an abst ract in the program of the
annual meeti ng of the Geol ogi cal Soci et y of Ameri ca, and pasted i t to the
bookshel f by my desk. I no l onger remember who was the aut hor of this
quotati on, and I don' t know whet her his tongue was in his cheek when he
wrot e: " Geol ogi st s are the most literate of all techni cal wri t ers. Ski l l ed in a
descriptive sci ence, strong on grammar, they are beaut i f ul l y, even romant i -
cally f l uent . "
Perhaps there i s an affinity bet ween the earth and wr i t er sand bet ween
writers and the eart h. Perhaps the thrills and pl easures of di ggi ng up clues
to the hi story of our pl anet t angi bl e bi ts of the pl anet i t sel f requi re to
be shared.
Thi s sharing can be seen on many levels. Speci al i st s, popul ari zers, t yros,
teachers, hobbyi st s: all have somet hi ng to say, and all to more t han one
audi ence. Russel l MacFal l , f or many years an edi tor of the Chicago
Tribune, is a hobby col l ector of bot h fossi l s and mi neral s. Hi s amat eur
standi ng wi th respect to the l atter cat egory was shat t ered two decades ago
with the publ i cati on of his Gem Hunter's Guide. Hi s amat eur posi ti on in
pal eontol ogy i s shattered by the vol ume now bef ore us. J ay Wol l i n, briefly
a l andscape desi gner, holds degrees in horti cul ture and pal eobot any and
currentl y teaches earth sci ence at Oakt on Communi t y Col l ege i n Mor t on
Grove, Illinois.
Bot h authors remai n aut hent i c member s of the far-fl ung communi t y of
amateurs of pal eont ol ogy; f or bot h remai n keen col l ectors and happy
devotees of the thrill of uncoveri ng and preservi ng fossi l s. It is to their
fel l ow col l ectors that they address this book. In present i ng it, the publ i sher
has chosen wel l , f or one could l ook l ong and f ar to find aut hors so well
establ i shed i n the affecti ons of their f el l ows. Bot h have come up through
the ranks of local col l ecti ng soci eti es to the presi dency of the Mi dwest
Federation of Mi neral ogi cal and Geol ogi cal Soci et i es.
EUGENE S. RICHARDSON J R.
Curator, Fossil Invertebrates,
Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, Illinois
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The aut hors wi sh to acknowl edge a debt of grati tude to Dr . Ri chardson and
to the Field Mus eum of Nat ural Hi st ory whi ch they can never hope to
repay. Dr . Ri chardson read critical parts of the manuscri pt , masterful l y
ext ri cat i ng the aut hors f rom pi tfal l s of f act and phraseol ogy into which
t hey had bl undered. The museum staff pati entl y gave access to fossil col-
l ecti ons and preparat i on rooms and gave freel y of their own ideas.
The book also owes much of its value to the close cooperati on of Mrs.
Bet t y Cr awf or d of Mansf i el d, Ohi o, who supplied phot ographs and made
pencil drawi ngs and detailed state maps f or it. Dr . Dwayne St one of
Mari et t a Col l ege, Dr . Kennet h E. Cast er of the Uni versi t y of Ci nci nnati ,
and Dr . Frank M. Carpent er of Harvard Uni versi t y generousl y lent phot o-
graphs; and a number of state geol ogi cal surveys supplied useful material.
Hands appeari ng i n some phot ographs are visual evi dence of the coopera-
tion of Al i ce Wol l i n, Philip Ol sber g, and Orvi l l e Gi l pi n. The manuscri pt
was neat l y ret yped several ti mes by Mr s . Di ane Bowden, Mi ss Nadi ne
Abi cht , and Mi ss Bet h Burgess. Phot ographs, unl ess otherwi se credited,
were t aken by J ay Wol l i n and pri nted by Mi chael Gi bson and Tom
McCl ear y.
Fi nal l y, the aut hors wi sh to t hank the several editors of our publ i sher
who have guided the manuscri pt to compl et i on, and especially Patricia Hor-
gan of New Yor k, who has the supreme wi sdom t o know how and when
to ask the ri ght quest i ons.
vi
CONTENTS
I Treasures in the Dust 1
II The Nat ure of Fossils 12
The Earliest Pal eont ol ogi st s 12
How Fossils Are Formed 14
Mi scel l aneous Fossil Forms 32
III The Nami ng of Fossils 39
Cl assi f yi ng Pl ants and Ani mal s 39
I V Wher e Fossils Occur 45
Sedi ment ary Rocks 46
V Ti me Bef ore Ti me 69
Rel ati ve Ti me 71
Absol ut e Ti me 74
VI Wher e to Look for Fossils 79
Li mestone Quarri es 79
Shal e Quarri es 83
viii CONTENTS
Coal Mi nes 86
Pi ts 89
Was hi ng Pl ant s 90
Was t e Piles 91
Gravel Pi ts 94
Met al Mi nes 97
Road Cut s 99
Rai l road Cut s 103
Nat ural Exposures 104
Ot her Areas 112
VI I Practi cal Field Tri ppi ng 116
Prel i mi nary Preparat i ons 116
Saf et y Precaut i ons i n the Field 119
The Eti quette of Col l ect i ng 124
VI I I Maps and How t o Use The m 133
Road Maps 133
Topographi c Maps 134
Geol ogi c Maps 1 3 9
IX Prepari ng and Cl eani ng Fossils 142
Field Wor k 143
Cl eani ng at Home 148
X Speci al Techni ques 179
Thi n Sect i ons 179
Pl asti c Embedment 188
Cast i ng Fossils 192
X- Ray Exami nat i on 197
Fl uorescence 199
XI Cat al ogi ng and Di spl ayi ng Fossils 201
Label i ng 201
Cat al ogi ng 202
Di spl ayi ng 204
Phot ographi ng Fossils 209
Tradi ng and Swappi ng 215
XII Mi crof ossi l s 217
Conodont s 218
Ost racods 220
CONTENTS ix
Forami ni fera 220
Radi ol ari ans 222
Di at oms 222
Ot her Mi crof ossi l s 224
Col l ecti ng and Prepari ng Mi crof ossi l s 224
XI I I Fossils and their Families 231
Pl ants 233
Ani mal s 246
APPENDI X 287
St at e Maps Showi ng Fossil Areas 288
Publ i c Sources of Further I nf ormat i on by St at e 3 2 1
Deal ers i n Fossils 3 2 3
Recommended Books 324
I NDEX 333
I
TREASURES IN THE DUST
Some f i shermen have all the l uckl i ke Franci s Tul l y. Tul l y' s f avori t e
fishing spot i s i n the little l akes that punct uat e the st ri p- coal - mi ni ng re-
gion not many miles south of his home i n Lockport , Il l i noi s, near Chi cago.
Whe n the f i sh weren' t bi t i ng, Tul l y passed the ti me by breaki ng open
some of t he rusty br own i ronst one concret i ons that littered t he huge
dumps of wast e rock.
Occasi onal l y he woul d find a fossi l f ern f rond inside a concret i on, and
one day i n the earl y 1960s he f ound his first fossi l shri mp and, l at er, a
worm. Tul l y, a pipefitter at a Lockport oil refi nery, was curi ous enough
to seek f urt her i nf ormat i on about hi s di scoveri es, whi ch brought hi m and
his fossi l s to the at t ent i on of pal eont ol ogi st s at the Field Mus eum of
Nat ural Hi st ory i n Chi cago.
Then came a memorabl e day. Fi shi ng was poor but the red- brown
nodules were pl ent i ful . Tul l y cracked open a f ew, hopi ng to find anot her
fern or, as he once had, a dragonfl y ent ombed i n the rock. That di scovery
had cost hi m a bat t ered t humb f rom a carel ess bl ow of his hammer. But
this time what he f ound was not f ern or i nsect.
What was this strange outl i ne i n the rock that he hel d i n hi s hand? The
creature, if it was a creat ure, had an el ongat ed, ci gar- shaped body divided
into segment s. At one end was a spadel i ke tail and on the ot her a sl ender
1
2 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS
snout endi ng in a t oot hed cl aw. Behi nd the snout a bar termi nated by two
smal l l umps crossed the body. The st range creature was about five inches
l ong.
Tul l y was puzzl ed. So were the expert s when he t ook his di scovery to
the Field Mus eum. The y coul dn' t find a pl ace f or i t i n the fossi l pi c t ur e
the j i gsaw puzzl e of l i fe scrambl ed i n the rocks. Li ke all sci enti sts, they
were pri mari l y concerned wi t h recogni zi ng and t hen cl assi fyi ng the obj ect
i nt o a coherent body of knowl edge. Cust omari l y t hey do this by compar-
ing an undescri bed fossi l wi t h known, al ready classified, f orms until
rel ati onshi ps can be est abl i shed. The n the fossi l takes its place i n the
scheme of t hi ngs.
Dr . Eugene S. Ri chardson, J r . , the museum' s specialist i n i nvertebrate
f ossi l s, was i ntri gued by what a vi si tor called the " i mpi sh, benevol ent ,
al most schmool i ke expressi on on its cuddl y f r ame , " but he was also baffled
by the f ossi l ' s eni gmat i c appearance. Even a st ranger needs a name, so he
named it Tullimonstrum gregarium ( common Tul l y monst er) , using
the di scoverer' s name in Lati ni zed f orm for the genus and a common
Lati n adj ecti ve f or the trivial name. But even wi th a name, Tul l y' s monst er
l acked a pl ace; it did not even appear to bel ong to any known phyl um,
whi ch i s one of the most general of all groups of classification. It was an
orphan i n the f ami l y of t hi ngs, living and dead.
Si nce that day, Tul l y has been back to the site of his great discovery
hundreds of ti mes and has col l ected 3, 000 ani mal fossi l s there, including
1 5 0 Tul l y monst ers and nearl y as many sea cucumbers, as well as several
hundred worms of several speci es. He keeps t hem careful l y wrapped i n
paper towel s i n cabi net drawers.
Scores of ot her amat eurs have swarmed over the st ri p-mi ne spoil piles.
The y, t oo, have uneart hed Tul l y monst ers and added them and other
st range fossi l s t o thei r col l ect i ons. Ma ny of these col l ectors have shared
thei r speci mens wi t h Dr . Ri chardson. From the evi dence that such cooper-
ati on has made avai l abl e, he deduced that the monst er was an ani mal , a
mari ne ani mal that preyed on ot her life in an anci ent sea. It may have fed
on the st range creat ures that are dubbed " b l o b s " because of their vari abl e
shapes, somewhat l i ke wi l ted l ettuce l eaves. Thes e creat ures are found i n
the st ri p- mi ne concret i ons and are as little underst ood as the monster
itself.
Whe n the nat i onal pal eontol ogi cal convent i on was held at the Field
Mus eum i n the fall of 1969, hundreds of prof essi onal pal eontol ogi sts f rom
all over the worl d saw a special exhi bi t i on of cases full of the speci mens
t hat amat eurs had made avai l abl e to the museum.
Mos t of t hese schol ars had heard of the water-fi l l ed pits and sterile
gray cl ay hills south of Chi cago l eft by the huge dragl i ne bucket s as they
TREASURES IN THE DUST 3
stripped the f arml and to bare the coal seams. Thi s area had l ong been
worl d- f amous f or the vari ety of wel l - preserved Coal Age fossi l s f ound
there, especially the fossi l f erns and ot her pl ant s. As l ong ago as the
mi d- ni net eent h cent ury, eager amat eurs had waded i n shal l ow Mazon
Creek, si xty miles sout hwest of Chi cago, t o gat her such i ronst one
concret i ons.
Syst emat i c studies were based on the speci mens they col l ected, and ma-
j or museums of Europe and the Uni t ed St at es placed t hese fossi l s i n their
cabi net s. But the fossi l s really became abundant by t he t housands and
hundreds of t housandswhen the stri p mi ners br ought their gi ant drag-
lines to the cornfields af t er Wor l d Wa r I.
The coal beds were f ormed i n the Mi ddl e Pennsyl vani an period about
300 million years ago. At that ti me, f orest s grew on a f eat urel ess coastal
plain that lay bet ween a sea to the sout hwest and a hilly upl and f ar to
the nort heast . Gi ant tree f erns and horset ai l s, ancest ors of the puny
present - day represent at i ves of t hese f ami l i es, and ot her veget at i on flour-
ished i n the swampy plain bet ween sea and hills. Tr ees fel l , pl ant l i fe
died, and the advanci ng sea buri ed the debri s under l ayers of mud. I n-
stead of rotti ng away, as it woul d have done if it had been exposed to the
air, the veget abl e mass accumul at ed i n wat er and t hen was compressed
by the bl anket of mud and sand above i t whi l e i t sl owl y turned i nto
fossil fuel .
Tul l y' s monst er and its exoti c pl aymat es apparent l y lived i n the swamps
and shal l ow offshore wat ers, wi t h sand bars and mud flats. It was a
setti ng rich i n ani mal l i fe. Pect ens and snai l s, sea cucumbers, horseshoe
crabs, annelid worms, and even rare amphi bi ans lived here. I nsect s crui sed
overhead, and the little monst er paddled its way t hrough the mur ky, mi l k-
warm waters al ong wi th sharks, pri mi ti ve fish, shri mp, and squid. Li ke
the trees, these ani mal s died and thei r bodi es sank to the muddy bot t om.
Products of decay caused iron to preci pi tate f rom the sea wat er and to
harden the mud around their bodi es i n concent ri c l ayers. Seas rose and
fell, the coal f ormed, the mud hardened i nto shal e, gl aci ers pl aned the
land and l eft behi nd a ferti l e prai ri e. The concret i ons wai ted 300 million
years until someone finally tapped the rust y coffins and exposed thei r
flattened ghost s to the open air agai n.
Besides the monst er, the st ri p- mi ne dumps yi el ded ot her prized f os s i l s
j ellyfish. These are rare i n any rocks because the sof t , wat ery tissues of
j ellyfish l eave a fossil record onl y under the most f avorabl e condi t i ons.
They are excepti onal f ossi l s, and pal eont ol ogi st s prize t hem because pal e-
ontol ogi sts, like ot her peopl e, t reasure the i mprobabl e. Amat eurs agai n
made the two big di scoveri es. Ji m Turnbul l of Li bert yvi l l e, a suburb nort h
of Chi cago, brought to the Field Mus eum the fossi l of a j ellyfish f our
Fossilized squid from a coal mine concretion near Braidwood, Illinois. It was named
Jeletzkya douglassae for the young amateur who found it.
inches across. Like Tul l y, he was honored i n the name gi ven i t Ant hr a-
comedusa iurnbulli, whi ch in plain Engl i sh means " Coal Age j el l yfi sh of
Tur nbul l . " Dr . Ri chardson also di scovered ti ny j el l yfi sh among fossi l s
i n the col l ecti on of the Ted Pi eckos of Chi cago. Thes e, t oo, had come f rom
the strip mi nes. He named t hem Octomedusa pieckorum, or " ei ght - si ded
j ellyfish of the Pi eckos . " A museum vi si tor, one of the cooperat i ng ama-
teur col l ectors, vi ewed pi ctures of the j el l yfi sh and came back a week
later wi th 400 speci mens!
The Pi eckos l ater topped their j el l yfi sh di scovery by bri ngi ng to the
museum the first fossi l l amprey ever f ound, one of seven they had col -
Helen and Ted Piecko of Chicago, discoverers of several new fossils and owners of
one of the largest collections of fossils from the strip mines southwest of Chicago.
(Photo courtesy Mr. and Mrs. Piecko)
lected at the same strip mines that had yielded the jellyfish. It, too, was
named in their honor.
Tully, Turnbull, and the Pieckos are only examples of the hundreds of
amat eur collectors in the Chicago area who have "pursued their hobby
and the advancement of science at the same t i me, " as Dr. Richardson
says. In this way amateurs and professionals help each other to read the
story of the past written in the rocks that lie almost in the shadow of a
great city' s skyscrapers.
Finding marine monsters in a coal mine and jellyfish on a barren hill-
side a thousand miles from the sea is strange enough, but no stranger
than gathering a bouquet of 325-million-year-old lilies in a railroad stone
quarry. Crop after crop, t oo! Burnice H. Beane of Le Grand, Iowa, a
singularly frail-looking man for such a career, spent his lifetime cultivat-
ing his lily garden. He was born in 1879, five years after a blast in the
quarry at Le Grand laid bare a bed of " st one fl owers" on the dislodged
limestone slabs. These were fossils of crinoids, marine animals related to
starfish but bearing a deceptive likeness to daisies or lilies.
Beane spent many days of his boyhood in the quarry, asking questions
of the workmen and of collectors, and gathering crinoids himself until
B. H. Beane with a slab of crinoid fossils from a quarry at Le Grand, Iowa. (Photo
Des Moines Register & Tribune)
the exposed bed was exhausted in 1890. But he kept close wat ch for forty
years, waiting and hoping, until in 1931 another blast uncovered an even
more extensive fossil garden. One slab he saved from the crusher bore on
its face the fossil imprints of 183 starfish, 12 sea urchins, 2 trilobites, and
some other organisms. When Dr. A. L. Thomas, professor of geology at
the State University of Iowa, saw the slab he is reported to have ex-
claimed: " Good Lord, Mr. Beane! Wher e did you find t hem? " Professor
Charles Schuchert of Yale University described the slab as the greatest
known assemblage of fossil starfish.
Two years later, a third extensive bed came to light. In the next four
years, thousands of specimens were lovingly taken from it. They included
40 species of crinoids and many species of the closely related blastoids,
as well as brachiopods, bryozoans, and corals. In this way and in a single
lifetime, one of the world' s most spectacular fossil sources was opened
and made available to scientists everywhere. Had this amateur collector
not watched the quarry patiently and untiringly, the Le Grand crinoids
would have been crushed to gravel, ballast for the railroad tracks.
Crinoids were among the dominant forms of life in Mississippian times,
the geological period just before the time of Tully' s monster. Although
they grew abundantly, they were rarely preserved as complete fossils
because the crowns of " cal yx and pet al s, " formed of loosely connected
plates of brittle calcite, usually broke apart before they became fossilized.
The jointed stems that moored the flowerlike top to the sea bot t om also
separated into segments, which in many places became the raw material
of limestone.
The Le Grand crinoids presumably remained intact because they were
gently washed loose and moved by currents only a short distance before
they were deposited as a tangled mat in depressions in the limy ooze of
the sea bottom. While still intact, they were buried in the mud and lime,
which protected them as they became fossils. Besides their excellent state
of preservation, they have one other important quality of value to paleon-
tologists. The various species show some differences in color, and this is
possibly a clue to their color pattern when alive. Such clues are rare in
paleontology.
Preparation of the Le Grand fossils became a labor of love for the
Beane family. A slab showing evidence of a fossil layer inside was tapped
gently until a fine crack opened at the edge. Nails were driven in along
the crack to split the slab and expose the fossil-bearing surface. Brush
and needle then freed the fossil of adhering rock until its intricate detail
was fully visible and it was ready to grace a private cabinet or a museum
case. Before his death, part of Mr. Beane' s collection was placed in the
Iowa State museum in Des Moines. Here, as well as in other institutions
that have specimens of the Le Grand fossils, paleontologists can continue
the work of describing and studying them, just as they did in collabora-
tion with this inspired amateur during his lifetime. For, like many other
amat eurs, Mr. Beane made his greatest contribution by providing the
materials by which professionals could add to the world' s knowledge
of its past.
Mr. Beane' s lifetime of service lends point to the recent words of a
museum curator from his native state of Iowa, who wrot e: "I am amazed
at times that the Federal Antiquities Act has recently closed many areas
to amat eur collectors. I know there are abuses of fine fossil areas. But,
on the other hand, most outstanding finds have been the work of ama-
teurs, and is it not better, except for preserve areas, that these go into
amat eur collections and eventually to museums rather than to disintegrate
under natural pr ocesses?"
"Enlightened amateurs can make worthwhile contributions to mineral-
ogy and pal eont ol ogy, " wrot e Ralph H. King of the Mont ana Bureau of
Mines and Geology, " i f they know enough to recognize significant finds
and to report them to public agencies. Mineralogists and paleontologists
working for public agencies would rather take time to look at hundreds
of specimens of ordinary material than to have one significant specimen
escape t hem. "
One striking instance of such a rewarding collaboration of the sharp-
eyed amateur and the professional occurred in 1966 in New Jersey. Mr.
and Mr s. Edmund Frey were collecting on the beach at Cliffwood when
Mrs. Frey saw something shining in a clay bank. It was a piece of amber.
When the Freys got the specimen home and washed it, they discovered
several insects embedded in the fossil resin.
They lent the specimen to Professors Edward O. Wilson, F. M. Car-
penter, and W. L. Brown, Jr. of Harvard University. When one face was
polished, t wo ants were disclosed, one head-on with a bubble of air be-
side its mout h and the other presenting a full side view. Study revealed
that these worker ants were intermediate between primitive ants and
wasps and were the "first undisputed social insect remains of Mesozoic
age and extend the existence of social life in insects back to approximately
100 million year s . " Social ants live in colonies and divide the work of
the colony among the soldier ants, the worker ants and the queen, who
is the mot her of them all. In addition, these scientists were delighted to
find confirmation of their "fondest speculations about what a Mesozoic
ant might be like and thus demonstrate to us anew the predictive power
of phylogenetic reasoni ng. " In laymen' s language, this means that the-
oretical biology had scored a coup by confirmation in fossil form of
predicted characteristics of the wasp- ant common ancestor.
In honor of the Freys, the Harvard scientists named the amber- ent ombed
insects Sphecomyrma freyi, or " wasp- ant of Fr ey. "
These examples mean something more than the discovery of fossil
species, important though that is. Tully might have tossed his strange
fossil back into the pond, or the Freys might have placed their bit of
amber on the shelf. But they didn' t, because they possessed a persistent
trait of the true col l ect orst ubborn curiosity. They were curious enough
to want to know more, to learn all they could about their specimens and
to deepen their understanding of the science of paleontology and the
craft of collecting.
Collectors learn in many ways. They learn from other amat eurs, from
professional paleontologists, and from books, which preserve the accumu-
lated experience and knowledge mankind has painfully won. When the
young Charles Darwin went aboard the Beagle in 1 8 3 1 he carried with
him Sir Charles Lyell's newly published Principles of Geology. Whi l e he
sailed around the world, Darwi n read, and what he learned from Lyell' s
Sphecomyrma freyi, in amber, the primitive ant that appears to be a link between
ants and wasps. (Photo courtesy Dr. F. M. Carpenter)
book opened his eyes to new meanings in the fossils he discovered in
South Ameri ca and the Galapagos Islands. From understandingand
geni usgrew the theory of evolution.
The book you are now reading presents the essential background and
the practical techniques that will enable the amateur collector to get more
pleasure and intellectual satisfaction from his activities. As a glance at
the table of contents shows, it describes what a fossil is and how to
distinguish it from other rocks. It speaks briefly about the vast extent
of geologic time and the patient workings of geologic processes, and
it maps, state by state, the rocks that are likely to contain fossils, with
particular emphasis on areas known to be productive.
From such basic information, the book turns to preparations for a
collecting trip, interpretation of maps, and a summary of state and fed-
eral laws regulating the collecting of fossils. Once the fossil is collected
it must be prepared for study or display; so the book describes the
latest techniques for freeing fossils from the matrix and protecting them
on the long trip home. It also describes in detail how to clean, prepare,
preserve, exhibit, and photograph specimens.
The last chapter outlines the procession of life from the most primitive
plants and animals to those invertebrates that prepared the way for the
development of the mammal s. It mentions the major fossils the amateur
will be likely to collect and is designed to serve him as a quick reference
source for identifying and classifying his treasures.
The scope of the book has purposely been limited to invertebrate
fossils for two reasons: first, because these are generally the fossils that
amateurs collect, and second, because in collecting, preparing, and ex-
hibiting vertebrate fossilsespecially the bones and teeth of large animals
pr obl ems are presented that can be solved only with the facilities of a
museum or university. The amateur who collects vertebrate fossils may
destroy material that is of major scientific value and may also subject
himself to penalties for violating the law.
Dr. I. R. Macdonald, curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Los
Angeles Count y Museum, offers sound counsel on this point. After citing
instances of destruction of vertebrate fossils by thoughtless or unskilled
collectors, he wri t es: " One would almost get the feeling that I am against
rockhounds, pebble pups and the rest of that large group of hobbyists.
This is not t rue; rather than fight them I'd much rather see them join us.
It is from these outdoor enthusiasts that we get much of our scientifically
valuable material and leads on sites which help us to expand our knowl-
edge of life in the past . "
Dr. Macdonald mentions several important discoveries made through
this kind of cooperation in California. Nor was the gain all on the side
of the professionals, for the amateurs enjoyed the experience of helping
to excavate a major fossil, of working on it in the laboratory, and even,
in some instances, of having fossils named for them.
" To collect most fossil vertebrates properl y, " Macdonal d writes, "a
great deal of time, training and skill is required. Once collected, it is not
a scientific specimen but just a curiosity unless the specimen is accom-
panied by complete geographical and geological data. . . . Why can' t the
hobbyist join us in our search for knowledge and in the reconstruction
of the history of earth' s pas t ? "
There is plenty of room for the amateur to have his fun and the
scientist his knowledge. For, as the eminent Harvard paleontologist George
Gaylord Simpson once wr ot e: "Fossil hunting is far the most fascinating
of all sports. . . . The hunter never knows what his bag may be, perhaps
nothing, perhaps a creature never before seen by human eyes. Over the
next hill may lie a great discovery. It requires knowledge, skill, and some
degree of hardihood. And its results are so much more important, more
worthwhile, and more enduring than those of any other sport. The fossil
hunter does not kill; he resurrects. And the result of his sport is to add
to the sum of human pleasure and to the treasures of human knowl edge. "
II
THE NATURE OF FOSSILS
Simply defined, fossils are the remains or traces of organisms that lived
prior to historic times. They most commonl y preserve the shape or im-
pression of the organism itself in rock, but they may be actual bone, or
flesh preserved by freezing, or trails and other marks made by ancient
animals. Today it is generally accepted that life has existed on our earth
for more than two billion years, and that fossils are important clues to
understanding its history and development. These facts seem obvious t o-
day, yet men for centuries refused to believe the evidence before their
eyes that life had existed on earth for a very long time.
THE EARLIEST PALEONTOLOGI STS
The ancient Greeks recognized that marine shells found in outcroppings
around the Medi t erranean Sea marked areas that had once been under
water. Herodot us, the Greek historian and traveler, mentioned fossil sea-
shells he had seen in Egypt and drew the conclusion that the sea had
at some time covered Lower Egypt.
But other Greek thinkers left behind some mischievous ideas, such
as Aristotle' s teachings that there had been only a single creation. These
ideas became mingled with the Church' s dogma of the literal creation
in six days and effectively stifled men' s sense of inquiry until the 15t h
century.
Leonardo da Vinci ( 1 4 5 2 - 1 5 1 9 ) , the great painter and architect, rea-
soned rightly that the presence of fossils uncovered in Lombardy indicated
12
THE NATURE OF FOSSILS 13
that northern Italy had been repeatedly inundated by the sea. However,
he was one of the few free spirits of his age, an age when most men
described fossils as sports of nature (lusi naturae), as seeds of life that
had grown by accident in the rocks, or as the bones of unicorns, legendary
giants, or sinners drowned in the Biblical Flood.
But it was in this age that fossils got their name. Georgius Agricola
( 1 4 9 4 - 1 5 5 5 ) , the first professional mineralogist, used the Latin word
fossilis in his great work on systematic mineralogy, De natura fossilium,
published in 1546. To Agricola, fossilis meant anything dug up from the
eart h; later writers picked up the word from him and distilled its mean-
ing to include only what we now call fossils.
The Renaissance brought an intellectual climate that allowed a more
rational view of nature. Count George Louis Leclerc Buffon ( 1 7 0 7 - 1 7 8 8 )
recognized that the rocks of the Paris basin were the product of untold
ages of erosion and deposition. He also saw that they could not be
sandwiched into the estimate of the age of the earth, made from the
Biblical chronology, of about 6, 000 years. His cont emporary, the Scottish
geologist James Hutton ( 1 7 2 6 - 1 7 9 7 ) , went a giant step further. Whi l e
such men as Buffon were attempting to explain away the contradiction
by presuming that catastrophes had hastened the changes they plainly
saw, or else fancied that what the Bible spoke of as days should be read
as epochs of time, Hut t on boldly faced the facts. He put a solid founda-
tion under the study of geology and of fossils with his principle of
uniformitarianismthat geological forces in the past were like those
operating today and that no extraordinary forces or events need be in-
vented or conjured up to explain geological history.
Another Frenchman, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet , Chevalier
de Lamarck ( 1 7 4 4 - 1 8 2 9 ) , in his little book Hydrogeologie ( 1802) , first
definitely restricted the word " f ossi l " to " t he still-recognizable remains
of organized bodi es. " Elsewhere he made the first major study of inverte-
brate paleontology and advanced the theory that all life had developed
progressively from rudimentary forms to its culmination in ma na theory
of evolution.
At the same time, Baron Georges Chretien Leopold Dagobert Cuvier
( 1 7 6 9 - 1 8 3 2 ) was laying the foundations of vertebrate paleontology. He
had also discovered that a series of deposits made up the Paris basin
and that each one had characteristic fossils by which it could be recog-
nized wherever it appeared. This principle was confirmed by the inde-
pendent discoveries made across the Channel by William Smith ( 1 7 6 9 -
1839, ) who is usually described as the father of English geology. Smith,
a surveyor, examined the fossils found as his men dug canals, noted that
he could use them as indicators of the type of ground to be expected
elsewhere, and from this experience developed toward the end of the
eighteenth century his fundamental principle of correl at i ont hat like
rock strata have like fossils by which the strata can be recognized
wherever they are found.
Wi t h the work of such men, with the summing up of their discoveries
by Sir Charles Lyell in his Principles of Geology, and with acceptance of
Darwi n' s theory of evolution, men finally began to comprehend the mean-
ing of fossils.
HOW FOSSILS ARE FORMED
Becoming a fossil is no easy adventure. In the more than two billion
years of life on earth, an incalculable number of organisms have lived
and died. If all had been preserved, our earth would have become noth-
ing but a mass of fossils. Fortunately, most organisms have returned
to the earth from which they came and left no fossil litter behind.
A creature destined to become a fossil usually is one that possesses
hard parts, such as a shell, horny armor like a crab, or bones that will
resist the abrasive effect of water and wind and the appetites of bacteria.
As has been said, " You have to be hard and tough to get into the fossil
r ecor d. " Besides being tough the creature must come to rest in a place
where it stands a good chance of being buried before it decays or disin-
tegrates. If it is not buried deeply and quickly, aerobic bacteria will re-
duce it to rubble; or water, given enough time, will dissolve it.
For this reason, fossils of some kinds of organisms are rarer than
others. Butterflies, for example, are common in nature, but their soft
bodies and fragile wings leave few epitaphs in nature' s graveyard. The
soft tissues of jellyfish likewise stand little chance of becoming fossils
even though their marine environment is far more favorable for this
purpose then land.
The ideal place to become a fossil is at the bot t om of a quiet sea or
lake where the prospective fossil is safe from damage and where it is
covered rapidly with fine sediment. Clay is excellent. The sediment pro-
tects the tissues and helps to exclude predators and solvent water. If
the wat er is poisoned with dissolved chemicals that will keep predators
away, so much the better for the future fossil' s chances.
Consequently, fossils are most commonl y found in fine-grained sedi-
ment ary rocks, such as shale derived from the compressed clay and silt
of an ancient sea or lake bot t om, or in limestone formed in warm sea
water by chemical precipitation and the constant accumulation of car-
bonate shells of living organisms. Wave currents strong enough to wash
in sand and gravel are also strong enough to sweep away or damage
most shells and skeletons; hence only the toughest fragment s of fossils
are generally present in sandstones and conglomerates.
Fossils, then, are not only fairly rare as compared with the plenitude
of life through the long history of the earth, but they also give a dis-
torted view of it, because of nature' s favoritism to certain types of or-
ganisms. Furthermore, comparatively few of earth' s fossil resources have
been tapped. It has been said that all the fossils available to science
represent the variety of life of the past about as accurately as one mos-
quito represents the enormous variety of insect life today. Reconstructing
the past from fossils is like trying to recreate the Parthenon from a
basket of marble fragment s. Here a piece of column, there a tile from
the roof, here a limb of a st at uehow did they once fit together?
But imperfect though the fossil record may be, it is the definitive record
written in the rocks, and it is written in many ways. Fossils can be
divided into half a dozen categories of preservation. Most specimens
found by the average collector will fall into two or three categories, but
some acquaintance with the others is also his legitimate concern. These
divisions, in order of progressive change, include fossils preserved by
freezing, drying, original preservation, petrifaction, and carbonization, and
those preserved as casts and molds.
The person who brought this specimen to a museum identified it as a fossil cow's
head. It is a piece of flint, a pseudofossil.
Freezing
The best-preserved fossils are those of organisms that have been frozen
quickly. Onl y a few species of not - very- ol d fossils have been so preserved
to this day, notably some of the large Pleistocene mammot hs that were
mysteriously frozen while wandering about Siberia and Alaska about ten
thousand years ago. These mammot hs, still melting out of the permafrost,
Frozen mammoth from Alaska in refrigerator case. (Photo American Museum of
Natural History, New York)
were frozen so rapidly that the last mouthful a pachyderm was munching
before its unfortunate accident remains unchewed in its mout h. Such
fossils are difficult to collect and even more difficult to display. The Amer-
ican Museum of Nat ural History in New Yor k has the front part of a
small mammot h from Alaska on display in a glass-walled freezer. Similar
frozen fossils are eagerly collected by the Eskimos, who chop them up
and feed them to their dogs, a strange use indeed for fossils.
Drying
About the time the mammot hs were freezing in the northlands, other
vertebrates crawled into caves in southern desert regions and died. In
this aseptic environment they became mummified. Bones and tissues of
these desiccated denizens of the desert are preserved, although often they
fall apart at the slightest touch. Even skin and hair retain their original
color. Such fossils are the only accurate evidence available to the scientist
trying to restore a bag of bones and give it the proper clothing.
Original Preservation
Bones, teeth, shells, and wood can be buried and remain chemically un-
changed for millions of years. Most Miocene, Eocene, and Pleistocene
shells such as those found in Maryl and, Virginia, Florida, and California
are essentially the same as when they were buried. Oft en the only clue
to tell these 20-million-year-old shells from their modern counterparts
is loss of color and luster. Many bones dredged up in midwestern gravel
pits are little changed since they once held together ice-age animals.
One location in Tennessee produces 135-million-year-old Cretaceous
shells of remarkably modern appearance, even to the pearly luster. Some-
times the original aragonite of the shells has changed to calcite, chem-
ically the same but different in crystal structure. Logs embedded in
Eocene coal deposits often resemble a modern- day fireplace log and are
quite capable of being burned.
Relatively recent fossils of animals preserving flesh, skin, and hair have
been dredged from peat bogs, where tannic acid in the water has saved
them from decay. The body of a man so fossilized rests in the science
museum in Copenhagen, Denmark, his face clearly showing a three-day
stubble of beard. In Galicia, now part of the Soviet Union, a rhinoceros
carcass was found pickled in an oil seep.
18 FOSSIL5 FOR AMATEURS
Petrifaction
No cat egory of fossil preservation is so misunderstood as petrifaction
(sometimes spelled petrification). Everyone has heard of petrified wood.
The word "pet ri fi ed" comes from the Greek word petros, meaning " s t one, "
and petrifaction literally means " t ur ned to st one. " Unfortunately, many
persons consider any fossil petrified. But strictly speaking, a fossil is
petrified only when additional minerals have been deposited in pores or
cavities in the fossil, or when the fossil is entirely replaced by other ma-
terial. Consider a piece of wood. It can petrify in three distinct ways,
each with a distinctive result with a distinctive name:
1. By filling the empt y spaces with some mineral, as water fills the empty
spaces in a sponge. This is called permineralization. Dissolve this
mineral, and the original piece of wood remains.
2. By filling the empt y spaces with mineral, then dissolving the cellulose
and wood fibers and replacing them with mineral matter, often of a
different color. The result is a piece of stone that faithfully reproduces
Petrified wood first became common in the Pennsylvanian period. The lack of growth
rings on this Sigillaria trunk suggests an even climate with no seasons to affect rate
of growth. The wood is replaced by calcite. Knoxville, Iowa.
Wood replaced by quartz, found in Utah. Growth rings are indicated by alternating
brown and white quartz. Cracks filled by clear quartz suggest wood dried before
silicification.
every cell and detail. But dissolve away the mineral mat t er and there
is nothing. This is called histometabasis, or more commonl y, replace-
ment.
3. By surrounding the wood with mud or sand that hardens around it.
When the wood decays or is dissolved, a mold is left which fills with
Once driftwood, now quartz. This piece of petrified wood from New Mexico floated
long enough to wear away bark and soft wood before sinking and becoming a fossil.
-t
The wood was replaced by barite, which has crystallized into typical radiating masses.
Orlando, Oklahoma.
mi neral mat t er. The resul t i s a piece of what l ooks l i ke wood on the
out si de, but inside may be banded agate or even a geode wi th sparkl i ng
amet hyst cryst al s, showi ng no cellular detail at all. Thi s type of re-
pl acement i s of t en called pseudomorph ( " f al se f or m" ) . Thi s also occurs
i n mi neral s where one mi neral has f ai t hf ul l y repl aced anot her mi neral
cryst al , such as a cal ci te cryst al repl aced by quartz that retains the
cryst al shape of the cal ci te.
Al l t hree of t hese qui te di fferent processes are correct l y termed petrifica-
ti on or pet ri f act i on.
PERMI NERALI ZATI ON
Bone, pl ant mat eri al s, and many shel l s are porous enough f or permi neral i -
zati on or repl acement to occur. The best exampl e i s the coal bal l , f ound
i n some coal mi nes. Thi s i s not hi ng more t han a mass of Coal Age plant
f ragment s and seeds that has become permi neral i zed by cal ci te or some-
ti mes by i ron sulfide (pyri te or marcasi t e) . Whe n the coal ball has been
permi neral i zed by cal ci te, the col l ect or can perf orm the i nteresti ng opera-
Chonetes fragilis, a brachiopod from the Devonian shale of Sylvania, Ohio. Like most
brachiopods from this area, it is replaced by pyrite.
tion of peeling off a thin l ayer of the actual woody materi al of these
275- mi l l i on- year- ol d pl ant s. ( Det ai l s are expl ai ned i n Chapt er 10) .
Permi neral i zati on i s common i n petrified wood, but too of t en the mi n-
eral filling the empt y spaces is quart z, whi ch can be readily di ssol ved
only by hydrofl uori c acid. Peel s, however, have been made of silicified
wood i n the same way coal -bal l peels are made. Quar t z and cal ci te are
The small straight cephalopod Pseudorthoceras knoxense is often found brightly
pyritized like this one in Pennsylvanian black shales. Omaha, Nebraska.
the mi neral s most commonl y f ound i n permi neral i zed fossi l s, but others
include pyri t e, marcasi t e, bari t e, sel eni te, opal , and manganese oxi de.
REPLACEMENT
Repl acement i s of t en met wi th. Coal mi nes somet i mes produce beauti ful l y
" pyr i t i zed" snai l s, cl ams, and brachi opods. Act ual l y, most of this " pyr i t e"
is marcasi t e, the less st abl e f or m of iron sulfide. It is hard to draw the
line bet ween a repl acement and a pseudomorph, especi al l y in fossil shells,
al t hough, stri ctl y speaki ng, in repl acement onl y the shell is repl aced; in
a pseudomorph bot h the shell and its filling are replaced. Beauti ful l y
pyri ti zed brachi opods have been f ound i n the Si l i ca shal e ( Devoni an) of
Ohi o. Si l i ca-repl aced brachi opods occur i n New Mexi co, and silica-replaced
coral s, stai ned a beaut i f ul red, are f ound in Ut ah. Large col oni es of
Lithostrotionella, a Mi ssi ssi ppi an coral repl aced by col orful quartz, are
f ound i n sout heast I owa. Thes e retai n the fine detail of the original
organi sm. Anot her col oni al coral , Hexagonaria, occurs as handsome speci-
mens filled wi t h cal ci te i n Devoni an f ormat i ons i n Mi chi gan. Whe n
washed up, rounded by the waves, on Lake Mi chi gan beaches, these are
Petoskey stone, perhaps the best-known invertebrate fossil, the state rock of Michigan.
This Devonian coral, Hexagonaria, is replaced by calcite in contrasting colors. It takes
a fine polish, as in this piece.
known as " Pet os key s t ones " and are eagerl y col l ected. Thi s sof t , tan
materi al , whi ch pol i shes well to di spl ay the i nner worki ngs of the f ossi l ,
has been declared the official state rock of Mi chi gan.
The original matrix, limestone, as well as these clams, is replaced by hematite. Such
dark-brown fossils are common in the Minnesota iron range; however, this one is
from Missouri.
P S EUDOMORP HS
True pseudomorph plants are f ound i n l ava flows i n the Pacific Nor t h-
west, where trees engul fed by hot lava were burned away but l eft a
fai thful mold in the hardened l ava. Even a mol d of an unf ort unat e
rhi noceros, f ormed i n this fiery f urnace, i s known f rom t here. Such cavi ti es
may become filled wi th agate. A sl ab of this agate does not l ook l i ke a
slab of petrified wood f rom the Petrified Forest i n Ar i zona; i t l ooks l i ke
any banded agate because it had a chance to repl ace onl y the shape of
the tree, not the grai n of the wood.
Agat e pseudomorphs of coral are dug f rom the bot t om of Hi l l sborough
Bay at Tampa, Florida. They show traces of coral st ruct ure on the out -
side but the i nteri or cavi ty is lined wi t h vividly col ored l ayers of chal -
Silicified fossils may be replaced with transparent or translucent quartz that allows
light to pass through the fossil, such as this fossil snail from the Miocene of Florida.
cedony or wi t h drusy quartz cryst al s; the ori gi nal coral had compl etel y
di ssol ved bef or e the chal cedony arri ved.
H O W PETRI F ACTI ON OCCURS
The process of pet ri f act i on can most easily be underst ood by anal ogy t o
a wat er pi pe i n a house. Mos t wat er has some degree of " ha r dne s s "
that i s, i t cont ai ns mi neral s i t di ssol ved whi l e percol ati ng through rock and
soil underground. Gi ven enough t i me, wat er will di ssol ve al most any
mi neral . The process i s hast ened when wat er absorbs carbon dioxide
gas and becomes a weak acid. It pi cks up carbon dioxide while falling
t hrough the air as rai n, or by rel ease of the gas f rom decayi ng organi sms
in the soil. Furt hermore, wat er drai ni ng sl owl y through soil will pick up
such organi c ammuni t i on as tanni c or humi c acid. Thi s acid water seeps
sl owl y i nto the ground, where i t di ssol ves mi neral s i n its underground
passage.
Wat e r can hol d onl y so much di ssol ved mi neral mat t er bef ore i t i s
sat urat ed. As hot sat urat ed wat er cool s or evaporat es, the excess mi neral
mat t er crystal l i zes on any obj ect i n cont act wi t h the wat er. Thi s may be
a wat er pipe. Each surge of wat er passi ng through the pipe deposits an
i mpercepti bl e layer of mi neral . Thi s i s especi al l y true i n hot - wat er pipes.
Somet i mes pipes become so filled wi t h mi neral deposi ts that the pl umbi ng
must be replaced.
Wood and bone, and to a l esser ext ent shel l s, are composed of cl osel y
connected pipes through whi ch wat er can move. Whe n t hese organi c
remai ns are buri ed under a l ake or ocean, wat er has a chance to move
through these natural pipes and to deposi t l ayer af t er l ayer of mi neral
i n the channel s or cells. The cell filling may become bri ght l y col ored by
tiny amount s of dissolved met al s; the bri ght reds, yel l ow, greens, and
browns i n petrified wood are caused by i ron. Bl acks are of t en made by
trace amount s of manganese, and copper or ni ckel can creat e greens.
Little by little the tubes are pl ugged up, and the result is a permi neral i zed
fossil. If a mol d is filled, it is a pseudomorph.
Petrified wood and bone are commonl y filled by quart z- beari ng sol u-
tions, especi al l y when the fossi l is buri ed in vol cani c ash, whi ch is rich
i n silica. Wat er percol ati ng through the ash, whi ch may remai n warm
for a long ti me, dissolves the silica and i mmedi atel y deposi ts it in the
wood or bone fibers. Whet her this takes pl ace in a rel ati vel y short time
i s uncertai n. Nobody has ever been abl e to pet ri f y wood effecti vel y i n
a l aborat ory.
Carbonization
Carboni zat i on, also known as di sti l l ati on, i s one process that preserves
fossils of sof t - bodi ed ani mal s and l eaves and stems of pl ant s. Carboni za-
tion chemi cal l y alters the protei ns and cellulose of tissues t hrough degra-
dation by bact eri a, by chemi cal act i on, and by pressure and heat , until
only carbon films remai n. Ot her organi c mat eri al s are di ssi pated as gases
c ar bon di oxi de, met hane, hydrogen sulfide, and wat er vapor. For exam-
ple, a thi ck, fleshy fern l eaf of Pennsyl vani an ti mes fal l s i nt o mud. Hun-
dreds of millions of years l ater a paper- t hi n bl ack carbon copy of the
leaf is found, perfect l y preservi ng its detai l s in shal e. Coal is f ormed in
the same way, but on a much l arger scal e. Carboni zed pl ant s are common
in the shale overl yi ng coal seams.
Carboni zat i on preserved speci mens of the Si l uri an wor m Lecthyalus
gregarius whi ch wri ggl ed about Chi cago seas 400 mi l l i on years ago. Car -
bonized fossils are by no means confi ned t o such anci ent rocks. The
Cretaceous and younger f ormat i ons of Tennessee cont ai n pl ant l eaves of
this type, and so do the ash beds at Fl ori ssant, Col orado, the shal es at
Green Ri ver, Wyomi ng, and the Lat ah f ormat i ons near Spokane, Was h-
i ngton. Mor e commonl y, however, Cenozoi c pl ants exi st as i mpressi ons.
The original plant material of this fern has been reduced to a carbon film. This is
typical of plant fossils found near coal seams. Pennsylvanian period; Terre Haute,
Indiana.
Soft-bodied animals, such as this worm, are rarely preserved except as a carbon film.
Parts of this Silurian annelid, Lecthyalus gregarius, found near Chicago, are still at-
tached to the mold in the limestone.
These ants were trapped in resin which hardened into amber over the last 40 million
years. They are thin, carbonized films with hollow centers. Poland.
Casts and Molds
An organi sm, such as a shell, is buri ed in sedi ment , such as the ooze on
the bot t om of a sea. Wat er l ater di ssol ves the shel l , l eavi ng a hol l ow in
the hardeni ng sedi ment. The sedi ment becomes rock encl osi ng a cavi ty
that exactl y preserves the ext ernal pat t ern and shape of the shell. Thi s
is a mold.
Somet i mes a mol d becomes filled wi th sedi ment or ot her mi neral mat t er,
producing an exact duplicate of the ext ernal pat t ern and shape of the
shell. Thi s is a cast f rom the mol d. The pseudomorphs di scussed under
petri facti on are casts. The petrified wood pseudomorphs f ound i n west ern
lava flows are f or this reason commonl y called l i mb casts.
Di nosaur and bi rd f oot pri nt s are mol ds i n the sedi ment s that yi el ded
to their foot st eps l ong ago and then hardened. A rock l ayer that f ormed
above and filled them woul d, when pried apart f r om the l ower rock,
show a cast of the foot pri nt .
In some Pal eozoi c rocks, not abl y the Si l uri an Ni agaran dol omi tes i n
the Mi ddl e Wes t , unusual doubl e mol ds are encount ered i n fossi l s of
brachi opods, cri noi ds, snails, and tri l obi tes. Whe n a sl ab i s broken open,
a mold is f ound that shows the ext ernal detai l s of the creat ure. Rat t l i ng
Mold of a trilobite, Calymene niagarensis, in dolomite of Silurian age. This mold was
empty; no steinkern was found inside. Racine, Wisconsin.
This odd fossil is scarcely recognizable as a cup coral. This is a mold of the top of
the coral, like a piece of clay pressed into the hollow top and then removed.
Tracks of the Pennsylvanian amphibian found by Drs. Dick Patterson and Dwayne
Stone of Marietta College. (Photo by Betty Crawford)
Many early Paleozoic snails, such as this one, are found only as internal molds.
Such a snail may have been dull on the outside, or it may have been highly orna-
mented, but this fossil represented only the living chamber within the shell. Devonian;
Michigan. (Photo Michigan Conservation Department)
External mold of a straight cephalopod. Silurian; Illinois.
A drawing of Glycymeris, a clam from the Miocene of Florida. At left is a shell in
perfect preservation, a right a steinkern of a similar shell. A steinkern is a cast of
the interior of the shell. (Drawing by Betty Crawford)
inside the mol d is a l oose fossi l that has a superficial resembl ance to the
mold in the rock. Thi s is an i nternal mol d, a mol d of the inside of the
shell, or it can be t hought of as a cast of the inside of the shell. Pal eont ol -
ogists refer to these doubl e- dut y fossi l s by thei r Ger man name, steinkerns
( "st one ker nel s " ) .
Such doubl e mol ds are f ormed by an el aborat e maneuver of nat ure.
A cl am, f or exampl e, is buri ed and becomes filled wi t h mud. If the shell
i s dissolved away, an ext ernal mol d woul d be l eft . Insi de i t woul d be
the i nternal mol d of mud, t aki ng the pl ace of the body of the cl am and
fai thful l y reflecting the detail of the inside of the shel l , j ust as the ex-
ternal mold reflects the quite di fferent detail of the outsi de of the shell.
Such a pair of mol ds i s f ar more useful t han an ext ernal mol d al one,
because i t shows not onl y ext ernal detai l s, but such i mport ant thi ngs
as muscl e at t achment s in mol l usks, body- cavi t y shape and size in cri noi ds,
and thi ckness of the horny exoskel et on i n tri l obi tes.
The remarkabl e sof t - bodi ed ani mal s f ound near Chi cago and di scussed
in Chapt er 1 are casts and mol ds. I nsect s in amber are mol ds; the delicate
insects long ago turned to dust and gas, l eavi ng behi nd a cavi t y lined
wi th carbon so detailed that even the smal l est part s of the ant ennae are
visible. A f ew di nosaurs and fish have been f ound wi t h the bones in
place and an i mpressi on i n the shal e of the fleshy body of the ani mal
itself. Evidently the mud became hard enough bef ore the tissues decayed
to hold the i mpressi on made by the bul ky body as i t sank i n the ooze.
To a like ci rcumst ance we owe preservat i on of fine detail of the bodi es
A steinkern, or internal mold of Calymene. Silurian period; Lemont, Illinois.
of the l arge mari ne i cht hyosaurs i n the J urassi c rocks at Hol zmaden, Ger -
many. Even the sof t fleshy paddles of the reptiles made their mark i n
the rock.
Archaeopteryx, a J urassi c link bet ween reptile and bi rd, had never been
recogni zed as a bi rd until speci mens came to light in the l i mestone quar-
ries near Ei chst at t , Ger many. The bones were i n pl ace on the sl abs, and
so were di sti nct i mpressi ons (mol ds) of the f eat hers, wi ngs, and tail of
this earl y toothed bi rd.
MI SCELLANEOUS FOSSIL FORMS
Fossi l s include not onl y the remai ns of actual living creatures but all
t hose bi ts and pieces that show evi dence of the exi st ence of such creatures.
Among these mi scel l aneous f or ms are trace fossi l s, bori ngs, and coprolites.
Ot her fossi l f or ms are organi c st ruct ures composed of al gae or bacteri a.
Trace Fossils
These include trails and burrows and ot her fossi l evi dence of the acti vi -
ties of once-l i vi ng creat ures. A tidal mud flat at l ow tide is an amazi ng
sight, covered wi t h i nnumerabl e trails l eft by cl ams, crabs, and worms
and speckl ed wi t h hol es that are the tops of burrows of a mul ti tude of
worms and cl ams. Shoul d this area dry sufficiently to harden, the next
tide mi ght not destroy these mar ki ngs but i nstead gent l y cover t hem
with a l ayer of mud. Whe n turned i nto rock and split apart , these l ayers
would reveal the trails and burrows of ext i nct organi sms. Some of the
oldest known fossi l s are burrows and trai l s, evi dence that somet hi ng
crawl ed in Pre- Cambri an seas but never was preserved as a fossi l .
Occasi onal l y the nat ure of such a trail becomes cl ear t hrough the l ucky
discovery of its fossilized creat or, too. J urassi c horseshoe crabs have been
found in Ger many in this si tuati on at the end of their last crawl .
In the early days of pal eont ol ogy, ri dgel i ke and t ubel i ke swel l i ngs in
rocks that showed definite i ndi cati on of havi ng been f ormed by some-
thing living were classified as mari ne al gae. Because many showed definite
A variety of trails, burrows, and resting places are the only fossils in this thin
sandstone.
branchi ng, this mari ne- al gae t heory gai ned support. Many generi c names
still end in -phycus, such as Arthrophycus or Dolatophycus, si gni fyi ng
algal ori gi n. In the same way, such names as Fucoides, Algacites, and
Chondrites cling to remai ns not now bel i eved to have any connecti on
wi t h the pl ant ki ngdom.
Gradual l y t hese trace fossi l s became accepted as burrows and trails
af t er their resembl ance to those made by modern worms and pelecypods
was not i ced. Ma ny are bel i eved t o be subsurf ace burrows that filled
wi t h a di fferent sedi ment . Thi s sedi ment now appears in relief on the
surf ace of a sl ab. A thi n, buri ed l ayer of sedi ment of different texture
of t en created a pl ane of weakness that offered an easy path f or the bur-
rowi ng creat ures. It al so offered an easy parti ng pl ane when the rock
was split some mi l l i ons of years l ater by a fossi l col l ector.
A single individual may have made a series of qui te different marki ngs
i n the sea bot t om, dependi ng on whet her i t was crawl i ng, runni ng, f eed-
i ng, or burrowi ng. Thus it is difficult to rel ate these probl emati cal fossils
t o thei r creat or. The syst em proposed by Adol f Sei l acher f or classification
of these fossi l s seems to be the most reasonabl e. He has grouped trace
fossi l s by their ecol ogi cal si mi l ari ty whet her their propri etors were similar
or not . A tubel i ke burrow made by a tri l obi te is si mi l ar to one made by
a wor m. The y cannot be told apart unl ess a very dead worm or trilobite
i s f ound at the end of one. So this syst em has meri t. Hi s five basi c groups
ar e:
1. Dwel l i ng bur r ows: Tunnel s made as living quart ers, usual l y at right
angl es to the beddi ng of the l ayers, ori gi nal l y openi ng out on the
surf ace.
2. Feedi ng bur r ows : Tunnel syst ems, ori gi nal l y dug bel ow the surf ace,
excavat ed by sedi ment - eat ers whi l e searchi ng f or food.
3. Feedi ng t rai l s: Tunnel s and bands that are ext remel y wi ndi ng and very
numerous, probabl y made on t he surf ace, rarel y crossi ng each ot her,
made by organi sms al so i n pursuit of food or on their way somewhere.
4. Rest i ng t rai l s: Isol ated i mpressi ons wi th a vague outl i ne of their pro-
ducer, probabl y represent i ng resti ng spots or nap sites.
5. Crawl i ng t rai l s: Showi ng vari abl e di recti on and i mpri nts of legs, usu-
ally made on the surf ace.
Borings
Bored hol es are quite common, part i cul arl y i n shel l s, bot h modern and
fossi l . Some are the work of predat ory snails that rasp a tapering hole
t hrough the shell to get at the del i cate meal inside. Bori ngs are made in
These California snails show neat holes bored by a cannibalistic cousin to reach the
meal inside. Pleistocene.
The clam that bored into this ancient Florida coral became a fossil while resting in its
burrow. Miocene; Tampa, Florida.
The tube inside this silicified Miocene coral from Florida was bored into the living
coral by a clam similar to the teredo.
living and dead shells (also coral s and even solid rock) by barnacl es,
whi ch l eave behi nd a charact eri st i c sac- shaped hol e, of t en very small.
Moder n shells worked over by barnacl es are common on Florida beaches.
Wor ms l eave ti ny, narrow tubul ar bori ngs that may be curved or branch-
Coal is not often thought of as a source of recognizable fossils. This Eocene fish was
found in a coal seam near Frankfurt, Germany.
ing. Small sponges have left si mi l ar bori ngs, of t en radi ati ng f r om some
central point. Bryozoans and bori ng coral s l eave ti ny tubel i ke hol es, agai n
most commonl y i n shells.
Everyone i s fami l i ar wi t h teredo wood, whi ch has become the official
state rock of Nor t h Dakot a. The teredo (or shi pworm) i s j ust as acti ve
today as it has been ever si nce it first made its appearance in the fossi l
record in the J urassi c peri od. The teredo is not a wor m but a cl am turned
l umberj ack. It is a member of the pel ecypod (cl am) suborder Adesmacea,
compri si ng cl ams that bore. The teredo drills into wood, qui ckl y riddling
unprotected wooden piling, docks, and ship hulls. Ter edo- bor ed l ogs are
not uncommon in petrified wood, and occasi onal l y a piece is f ound wi t h
the teredo still in pl ace, its burrow, l i ke i tsel f, turned to solid agate.
Coprolites
Coprol i tes are fossi l excrement of anyt hi ng f rom a mi ght y di nosaur to a
fish or worm. Fish and shark coprol i tes are of parti cul ar i nterest because
they of t en preserve ti ny scales and teeth that reveal what the predat or
ate and what lived in the area where it dined. Such teeth and scales some-
times represent fish never f ound as fossi l s el sewhere.
A fish coprolite nearly filling a concretion. Small bones, scales, and teeth from past
meals are sometimes found in coprolites. Pennsylvanian; Braidwood, Illinois.
Such unmistakable coprolites of mammal origin are rare, but are found in a Wash-
ington locality.
Organic Structures
Pr e- Cambr i an swel l i ngs that have a l ayered appearance l i ke a gi ant bi scui t
apparent l y were f ormed by algae that removed carbon dioxide f rom l i me-
ri ch wat er, causi ng preci pi tati on of cal ci um carbonat e. The vast iron de-
posi ts of Mi nnes ot a are bel i eved to owe their ori gi n to bact eri a that t ook
i ron out of sol uti on in the wat er and carri ed it to the bot t om as an oxide
when they died. For this reason, these i ron- ri ch sedi ment ary l ayers may
be consi dered a gi gant i c fossi l graveyard.
Ill
THE NAMING OF FOSSILS
Underst andi ng the nat ure of fossi l s i s the first st ep; recogni zi ng t hem by
their names i s the second. Thi s second step requires acquai nt ance wi t h
the syst em for cl assi f yi ng living thi ngs and once-l i vi ng thi ngs devi sed by
a Swedi sh natural i st, Carl von Li nne. He perf ect ed his syst em over many
years and publ i shed the t ent h edition of his book, Systema Naturae, in
1758. Thi s i s the basi s of zool ogi cal nomencl at ure.
CLASSIFYING PLANTS A ND ANI MALS
In what i s known as the Li nnaean syst em, each or gani smani mal or
pl ant, living or f ossi l i s identified by two names. The first i s the generi c
or general name (the name of the genus) , whi ch i s wri t t en wi t h a capital
l etter; the second is the trivial name, whi ch is not capi tal i zed. Lati n and
Greek words are adapted to the purpose of nami ng organi sms so that
the names will be identical in all count ri es and all l anguages. Thus man is
Homo sapiens; the common cat is Felis domestica; and the common oyst er
Ostrea virginica. The two words, whi ch t oget her f orm the species or
specific name, are pri nted i n italics. The generi c name can be t hought of
as similar to the surname, such as Smi t h or Doe, and the trivial name
to the bapti smal or personal name, such as Mar ci a or J ohn.
39
The generi c name can be used onl y once wi thi n a related group of
organi sms, but the trivial name can be used wi th ot her generi c names.
For i nst ance, the trivial name " r obus t us , " of obvi ous meani ng, i s applied
to some two dozen genera (the plural of " ge nus " ) of i nvert ebrat e fossils.
At l east f our of the gener aScaphi ocr i nus, Zeacrinus, Protaxicrinus, and
Synbathocrinusare cri noi ds. But a generi c name such as Zeacrinus could
not be used f or any ot her ani mal . In practi ce, generi c names are not dupli-
cated. They must not be dupl i cated wi thi n a ki ngdomt hat is, they can-
not be used f or two ani mal s or two pl ant s.
An organi sm retai ns its trivial name even t hough reassi gnment to a
di fferent genus is necessary if the fossi l classification is reorgani zed when
bet t er i nf ormat i on about rel ati onshi ps becomes avai l abl e. For a full de-
scri pti on, the name of the person who ori gi nal l y descri bed and named
the fossi l and occasi onal l y the date when he did so are added to the
generi c and trivial names. A common Pennsyl vani an- peri od snail f rom the
Mi ssi ssi ppi Val l ey, f or exampl e, is called Worthenia tabulata ( Conrad) .
Conr ad named it Turbo tabulatus, but research later showed that it be-
l onged to the genus Worthenia. The trivial name was retai ned, though
changed i n grammat i cal gender to agree wi th the generi c name, and
Conrad' s name was put i n parent heses to show that the species has been
assi gned to a di fferent genus.
A third name, that of a subspeci es or vari et y, may be added to the two
terms f ormi ng the specific name. A subspeci es or vari ety is a f orm that is
not sufficiently di fferent, in the classifier' s j udgment , to stand as a distinct
speci es, yet i s morphol ogi cal l y di sti nct wi thi n the charact er range of the
speci es.
A next l argest unit above the genus is the f ami l y. Under general l y ac-
cepted rul es, names of fami l i es are now f ormed by adding -idae to the
st em of the name of the genus chosen as the type for the fami l y. Man,
f or exampl e, bel ongs to the f ami l y Hominidae, and the cat to the fami l y
Felidae. Subf ami l i es (smal l er groups) have names endi ng in -inae, and
superf ami l i es (l arger groups) have names endi ng in -acea. Larger group-
i ngs, in ascendi ng order of size, are the orders, the cl ass, and the phyl um.
Names i n t hese three l argest cl assi fi cati ons are capitalized but not itali-
ci zed. Det ai l ed descri pti on of the phyl a of i nterest to the fossil col l ector
has been post poned until the last chapt er of this book, a place more con-
veni ent for ref erence in i dent i f yi ng and cl assi fyi ng a puzzling speci men.
The Holotype
Cl assi fi cati on i s based on recogni t i on of si mi l ari ti es. The species, the
cat egory of cl assi fi cati on i mmedi atel y bel ow the genus, compri ses organ-
THE NAMING OF FOSSILS 41
isms that are similar to one anot her and are capabl e of i nt erbreedi ng and
producing fertile offspri ng. In order that ot her pal eont ol ogi st s will have a
concrete exampl e f or recogni t i on of the charact eri st i cs of the speci es, the
person who first descri bes and names it desi gnat es a speci men as the
holotype, or somet i mes he desi gnat es a group of l i ke speci mens as a type
series, including one individual speci men as the hol ot ype. Thi s is the
standard to whi ch col l ectors and classifiers can ref er, the keyst one of the
species.
Genus i s an abst ract concept by whi ch classifiers can associ ate species
in whi ch they have reason to recogni ze bi ol ogi cal rel ati onshi ps and si mi -
larities. The aut hor of a genus desi gnat es one of the species i ncl uded i n
his genus as the genotype, whi ch then becomes the standard for ref erence
to that genus. The cat, f or exampl e, i s placed i n the same genus as the
lion, tiger, and cougar, whi l e each bel ongs to its own speci es. Li ke the
genus, the l arger uni t sf ami l y, cl ass, and phyl umar e synt het i c group-
ings based upon more and more general resembl ances, j ust as the human
fami l y is included in the nat i on and the race.
A recent exampl e affords gl i mpses of pal eont ol ogi st s at work studyi ng
and cl assi fyi ng a fossi l . Near Bi shop, Cal i f orni a, 31 speci mens of a fossi l
resembl i ng the present - day sea cucumber were col l ected i n Lower Cam-
bri an shal e. The organi sm was associ ated wi t h f el l ow member s of the
echi noderms, to whi ch cri noi ds and starfish bel ong, and wi t h tri l obi tes.
Unl i ke the typical cri noi d, however, it apparent l y was not held to the
How a variety, or subspecies, differs from its parent species is not immediately ap-
parent. At left is Phacops rana; Devonian; Alden, New York. At right is Phacops rana
milleri; Devonian; Sylvania, Ohio. They differ mainly in the number of facets in the
compound eyes.
Helicoplacus gilberti, newly discovered echinoderm. (Photo courtesy Professor K. E.
Caster)
bot t om by a stal k but was free-l i vi ng. Its cl osest relative i n the
fossi l worl d appeared to be a group of starfi shl i ke ani mal s known as
edri oasteroi ds.
Wha t was uni que about this new organi sm was the spiral arrangement
of the ti ny hard plates of its body. Later i t was deduced aft er close study
that the organi sm coul d expand and cont ract its armored skin.
Two speci es were di st i ngui shedHel i copl acus gilberti and Helicoplacus
curtisi, f r om the Gr eek helix and plakos, meani ng " spi ral pl at es " and it
was proposed to pl ace t hem in a new cl ass, the Helicoplacoidea, in recog-
ni t i on of their maj or di fferences f r om al ready classified fossils. In their
announcement , Prof essor J . W. Dur ham of the Uni versi t y of Cal i f orni a at
Berkel ey and Prof essor K. E. Cast er of the Uni versi t y of Ci nci nnat i as-
serted that f rom the di scovery " i t i s apparent that consi derabl e doubt i s
cast upon the general l y accepted vi ew that the ancestral echi noderm was
at t ached. Need f or a reconsi derat i on of all subphyl a of the Echi nodermat a
hi t hert o proposed i s also i ndi cat ed. " Hol ot ypes of the two species were
deposi ted i n the Uni versi t y of Cal i f orni a museum.
THE NAMING OF FOSSILS 43
Convergence
Fossils were at one time classified pri mari l y by similarities of structure of
the hard parts of organi sms. Thi s was f ound to be mi sl eadi ng as pal eon-
tologists discovered that some enti rel y unrel ated creat ures had devel oped
similar structures, presumabl y because they were useful to di fferent or-
gani sms that had adopted similar ways of l i fe. Thi s tri ck of nat ure, whi ch
Professor George Gayl ord Si mpson has called the " ba ne of the t axono-
mi st , " is called convergence.
Perhaps the most obvi ous exampl e i s that i ntel l i gent ani mal the por-
poise, whi ch has evol ved a body shape and structure first adopted by the
i cht hyosaur 100 mi l l i on years ago. Si ze, shape, and pl acement of f ront
flippers are similar. Yet the i cht hyosaur was a reptile rel ated to the di no-
saur; the porpoi se is a mammal , albeit a sea-dwel l i ng one, related to man.
I f bot h were known onl y f rom their gross outl i nes, t hey mi ght have been
classified i n the same f ami l y or even the same genus, when i n reality t hey
are not even of the same cl ass.
Convergence of a type more potenti al l y conf usi ng to the pal eont ol ogi st
occurs in a case such as that of the horn coral s, whi ch are coel ent erat es,
the rudistid cl ams, whi ch are mol l usks, and some brachi opods, all of
whi ch i n some exti nct species t ook the f orm of a cone at t ached by its
small end to the sea bot t om or some ot her anchorage. Al t hough t hey bel ong
to three different phyl a, they can be told apart onl y aft er cl ose st udy.
The phenomenon of convergence i s onl y one of the probl ems that
classifiers of fossi l s f ace, worki ng as they of t en must wi t h the f ragment ary
or i mperfect evi dence that time has l eft t hem. But occasi onal l y t hey have
a stroke of luck. Thi s happened to Dr . H. B. Fell of Vi ct ori a Uni versi t y,
Wel l i ngt on, New Zeal and, i n the course of a l ong study of the evol ut i on
of starfish. From the Bri ti sh museum he obt ai ned part of a " l i vi ng f ossi l , "
the dried arm of a sea star or somast eroi d, an ani mal previ ousl y known
only f rom fossi l s of 400 million years ago, when i t was presumed to have
become exti nct.
From a detailed anatomi cal study of the tissues (not possi bl e f rom fossi l s)
and later of speci mens caught alive i n the Pacific off Ni caragua, he con-
firmed that the arms of somast eri ods had structures l i ke the arms of
crinoids but that the body was flat and shaped like a starfi sh. He de-
scribed the "l i vi ng f ossi l s" as " t he ol dest t ype of ast rozoan (starfi sh)
echi noderm yet di scovered" and suggested that " t he marked resembl ance
to crinoids now evi dent in somast er oi ds" made it probabl e that all st ar-
shaped echi noderms had descended f rom cri noi ds.
Such geneol ogi cal researches exci te the spirit of di scovery and tax the
skills of prof essi onal s. The y are beyond the reach of amat eurs, but the
thrill of finding a beaut i f ul fossi l by hard work and the pl easure of pre-
pari ng i t are the col l ect or' s reward. They are his school and his deepest
pl easure.
Furt hermore, he can enj oy his speci mens f or t hemsel ves, f or fossils are
of t en beaut i f ul , l i ke anci ent scul ptures or rare gems and mi neral s. Amber ,
pale and waxy, or vi brant wi t h gl owi ng hues of reddish br own, a show-
case of anci ent i nsects. Pyri ti zed brachi opods and snails mi racul ousl y
t ransf ormed to brassy gol d, and the theatri cal cont rast s of pyritized star-
fish and tri l obi tes on coal - bl ack slates f rom Ger many. The i mpudent
f aces of tri l obi tes, l i ke Af r i can carvi ngs i n ebony, peeri ng f rom their
t ombs of 400 mi l l i on years ago, and the bol d spl ashes of color i n an
agati zed log f rom Ari zona.
Besi des this aest het i c appeal , fossi l s have an appeal rooted deep i n life
itself. The y once lived. To be abl e to hol d a fossi l i n your hand, to i magi ne
what sunri ses and sunset s it saw eons ago in a worl d that we can only
di ml y i magi ne, i s somet hi ng that t ranscends ordi nary experi ence. Thi s is,
as Wi l l i am Bl ake wr ot e:
To see the world in a grain of sand,
And a Heaven in a wild flower;
Hold infinity in the palm of your hand,
And eternity in an hour.
In a l i ke mood, Prof essor Si mpson wr ot e: " Our al l otted span i s a f ew
years, and most of us can see wi t h our own eyes onl y a mi nute part of
the eart h around us. But our mi nds need not be restri cted to t hese narrow
limits of ti me and space. The y can range t hrough the past and can see all
the curi ous creat ures and scenes of l i fe' s hi st ory i n ever- changi ng se-
quence. A fai r title f or a book on pal eont ol ogy mi ght be, ' How to Live a
Bi l l i on Year s . ' "
IV
WHERE FOSSILS OCCUR
Sedi ment ary rocks, parti cul arl y shal es and l i mest ones, are the st orehouse
of 99 percent of the worl d' s fossi l s. One of the three maj or types of rocks
that f orm the crust of the eart h, these rocks are di sti ngui shed f rom the
other two types because they are f ormed of sedi ment s. Some are com-
posed of silt, sand, and pebbl es deposited mechani cal l y by wi nd and
wat er; some are chemi cal sedi ments preci pi tated f rom wat er or t aken f rom
water by pl ants and ani mal s and then deposi ted wi th their bodi es; and
others are sedi ments that arise f rom combi nat i ons of these agent s. Such
rocks are commonl y stratified or l ayered, and t hey are f ormed of mat e-
rials and under condi ti ons that are part of our everyday l i fe.
The ot her two types of r ocksi gneous and met amor phi car e the
products of more deep-seated dynami c earth f orces. I gneous rocks ori gi -
nate as mol t en magma. The y may pour out on the surf ace as l ava and
harden, or they may sl owl y crystal l i ze deep wi thi n the earth and t hen be
exposed by erosi on. Basal t i s an exampl e of vol cani c i gneous rock, and
grani te of crystal l i ne i gneous rock. Igneous rocks rarel y cont ai n f ossi l s;
grani te never does.
Met amorphi c rocks, the third t ype, are those f ormed f rom ot her rocks
by heat and pressure. These agent s change the st ruct ure of the rock,
oft en recombi ni ng its const i t uent chemi cal s i nto new mi neral speci es.
45
Volcanic ash may preserve fossils. While excavating solidified ash that covered
Pompeii, archaeologists found strange cavities. Plaster forced into them made intricate
casts of the bodies of men and animals. In this cast of a dog, details such as the collar
are still visible. No bones were found.
Such a worki ng- over is not a f avorabl e si tuati on for the preservati on
of f ossi l s, al t hough marbl es, met amorphosed f rom fossi l i ferous l i mest one,
of t en are cut f or ornament al use to di spl ay fossil i ncl usi ons. Sl at e
( met amorphosed shal e) f rom Bundenbach, Ger many, i s noted for its spec-
tacul ar pyri ti zed starfi sh, tri l obi tes, and ot her fossi l s.
SEDI MENTARY ROCKS
Sedi ment ary rocks, however, are the principal bank on whi ch the fossi l
col l ect or will draw. Knowl edge of the principal t ypes, the condi ti ons under
whi ch t hey were f ormed, the rel ati onshi ps of the strata he will work i n
WHERE FOSSILS OCCUR 47
Fossils in slate are often distorted. This trilobite, Ogygopsis klotzi, comes from Cam-
brian slates exposed on Mt. Stephen in British Columbia. It is flattened but shows
little distortion otherwise.
the field, and the fossi l s he mi ght expect to find in a specific sequence of
sedi mentary rocks is, t heref ore, part of the capi tal he will need i f he i s to
make profitable use of his efforts.
Conglomerate
The coarsest -grai ned sedi ment ary rock i s called congl omerat e. It cont ai ns
particles larger than sand, al t hough i t may cont ai n finer parti cl es, too.
It l ooks very much like concret e. One vari et y i s called puddi ng st one,
f rom its resembl ance to a pudding studded wi th frui t. In f act , the gas-
t ronomy- mi nded French use the word poudingue f or congl omerat e. The
pebbl es and rock f ragment s are usual l y cement ed t oget her by cal ci te or
quartz. If the rock is made up of rounded pebbl es, it is called congl omer-
at e; if the pieces are broken and angul ar, it is brecci a.
Waves and currents strong enough to drag i n pebbl es and whi sk away
sand and silt are also strong enough to break up potenti al fossi l materi al
that becomes mi xed wi t h the gravel . A congl omerat e l ayer f ormed in this
way i s usually poor hunt i ng ground for fossi l s, al t hough i t may contai n
pieces of petrified wood, bone, coral , or tough shel l s. But whi l e crossi ng
areas where congl omerat e occurs, l ook for fossi l s i n the pebbl es t hem-
sel ves; you may make a rich haul .
Coarse-textured conglomerate is a poor medium for preserving fossils.
Sandstone
Sandst one i s j ust that, st one f ormed of cement ed sand. It i s usual l y too
coarse to preserve delicate fossi l s, but many l eaves l urk i n the Dakot a
sandst one of Mont ana, and hundreds of brachi opods i n the Or i skany
sandst one of New Yor k. Forami ni f era and ost racods, little fossi l s that are
t hemsel ves the size of sand grai ns, are abundant i n mari ne sandst ones of
the Cenozoi c era.
Some mari ne sandst ones include poorl y preserved fossi l shell mol ds.
Wat er moved f reel y t hrough these sands bef ore they became st one, dis-
sol ved the shells cont ai ned in the sand, and l eft behi nd a grai ny mol d.
Sandst one can al so be the hardened relic of a sandy ri verbank or l ake
shore that exi sted mi l l i ons of years ago. In Connect i cut and Texas, di no-
saurs ambl ed across t hese anci ent shores and l eft behi nd their ampl e
f oot pri nt s. Some even l eft their mi ght y bones, t oo, and shi fti ng river
channel s covered t hem wi t h sedi ment . Such deposi ts of dinosaur bones
are f ound i n many west ern states. Heedl ess of such company, worms and
bot t om dwel l ers crawl ed on and i n the sandy bot t om, leaving behi nd
thei r own fossi l trails.
Shal l ow ocean bays that exi sted 2 7 5 mi l l i on years ago collected quant i -
Fossils are usually poorly preserved in sandstone, and identification is difficult. These
clams are from Kansas.
ties of Coal Age plants, torn loose from swamps near the shore during
flood stages and floated out into the bay. There they became buried in
sand. This occurred so rapidly in some areas, such as near Ot t awa, Kan-
sas, that the plants are found buried upright or at odd angles in the thick
sandstone. The plants are preserved as carbon films, detailed enough so
This crab is an example of a well-preserved fossil found in sandstone. Oligocene;
Washington.
that the genus of the pl ant can be identified, but not i n as fai t hful detail
as fossi l s of l i ke pl ant s preserved in the fi ner-grai ned shal e j ust a f ew
f eet bel ow the sandst one. Large upri ght logs and st umps were uncovered
i n Indi ana i n the last cent ury where sandst one was mi ned to make
mi l l st ones.
Shale
Shal e i s composed of cl ay, silt, or mudmat er i al s smal l er i n size than
the sand and pebbl es of sandst one and congl omerat e. Cl ay i s made up of
mi croscopi c parti cl es of al umi num si l i cates, such as mi ca, and of clay
mi neral s such as kaol i n, wi t h fine parti cl es of fel dspar, quart z, and iron
oxi des. Shal e cement ed by cal ci um carbonat e i s appropri atel y called l i my
shal e, but i f there i s more cal ci um carbonat e than cl ay, i t i s shal y l i me-
st one. Bot h will fizz when touched by a drop of hydrochl ori c acid, but
pure shal es will not .
Bl ack shal e was f ormed where organi c muds accumul ated on the bot t om
of qui et wat ers l i ke the Evergl ades, the Okef enokee swamp i n Georgi a,
and some nort hern l akes. The bul k of the shal e i s composed of coallike
rotted parti cl es of pl ants and ani mal s wi th a small amount of clay as a
bi nder, now hardened into rock.
The muddy bot t oms of earl y seas were home t o brachi opods, cl ams,
cri noi ds, and t ri l obi t es; al most every t ype of fossi l can be f ound i n mari ne
shal es. The cri noi ds of Crawf ordsvi l l e, Indi ana, lived and died and were
buri ed i n such deposi ts. So were the Cambr i an tri l obi tes of southern
Ut ah and Cal i f or ni a: Elrathia kingi f rom a Ut ah l ocati on is common in
col l ect i ons. The handsome bl ack Phacops rana of Syl vani a, Ohi o, is col -
l ected f rom a shal e seam. The fine grai n of cl ays preserves the structure
of f l eshy part s of sof t ani mal s as no ot her rock can. The unique Cambri an
fossi l s of sof t ani mal s f ound i n 1 9 1 0 by C. D. Wal cot t i n Canada were
carbon films in the sl aty bl ack Burgess shal e. A fi ne-grai ned shale is the
mat ri x of the concret i ons that yield the Tul l y monst er and other members
of the Essex f auna of the Illinois strip mi nes.
Pl ant fossi l s are commonl y f ound i n shal es. Carpet i ng the coal seams
of the Illinois basi n, the I owa fields, and the eastern Uni t ed St at es is a
l ayer of shal e f ormed, so geol ogi sts bel i eve, where mud was washed i n
on top of t hi ck l ayers of f al l en veget at i on. Thi s must have occurred as
the area sank sl owl y, drowni ng and ki l l i ng the pl ants and turning the
f orest i nto a shal l ow, bracki sh l agoon or bay. Leaves, seeds, branches,
cones, and t runks of the drowni ng trees and pl ants were buried and l ater
carboni zed. The y are so well preserved that even the hairs that grew on
A road cut near Florissant, Colorado, cuts through thick layers of shale formed of
volcanic ash. It contains fossil leaves from top to bottom.
the leaves of Neuropteris scheuchzeri, a seed-bearing fern, can be meas-
ured and counted.
At Puryear, Tennessee, clay shales are quarried that contain quantities
of carbon-coated impressions of leaves that look like those from modern
trees. This was probably a lake deposit, since a leaf will not drift very
far in a stream before decaying or disintegrating.
The extensive Green River formation in Wyomi ng, outcropping in hills
over a large area, was once the site of an Eocene lake where fish swam.
Fish sank to the bottom and were preserved in Eocene shales of the Green River
formation, Kemmerer, Wyoming. Scales and bones have been lost from the front half
where the specimen was weathered.
Killed by unknown causes, many thousands periodically sank to the
bot t om and were buried in a mud formed of volcanic dust. The water of
this lake must have become poisonous, because the fish show no sign that
they were killed by predators that certainly were present in the lake.
Shales, then, are an important source of fossils. Freshly quarried shales
laid down in quiet waters may yield specimens in which all the delicate
detail of the living animal is preserved. In weathered shale, however,
nature leaves only the hard parts for the collector.
The fish-bearing shales are easily pried from hillsides west of Kemmerer, Wyoming.
Limestone weathers slowly, shale rapidly, so that the limestone in a road cut juts
out over the shale layers, which are often rich in fossils. Massive limestones such as
these are usually poor in fossils.
Limestone
Li mestone is exceedi ngl y common, is exposed over a wi de area, and is
abundantl y fossi l i ferous. It has the f urt her vi rtue of preservi ng its fossils
A limestone composed principally of one type of fossil may be named after that
fossil; an example is this crinoidal limestone. Pennsylvanian; San Saba, Texas.
with little crushing and in fine detail. Limestone is so widely quarried to
produce crushed rock, agricultural lime, and building stone that exposures
of both fresh and weathered material are easy to find.
Limestone differs from other sediments in the way it is formed. Sand-
stone, conglomerate, and shale are made up of fragment s, granules, or
silt washed in or otherwise deposited in the place where they were con-
solidated into stone. These the geologist calls clastic sediments. Most
limestone, however, is basically a precipitate of calcium carbonate from
calcium salts dissolved in water, usually salt water, although there are
freshwat er limestones. The precipitate, in the form of microscopic crystals
of calcite, settles on the bot t om. In time it is capable of forming layers
miles thick.
In this limy ooze, shells of brachiopods, clams, oysters, and snails
accumulate. They, too, construct their homes of calcium carbonate stolen
from the water. In the same way, cephalopods, crinoids, calcareous
sponges, some algae, protozoa, blastoids, echinoids, bryozoa, and even
starfish add their calcareous hard parts to the ooze. Coral reefs, made up
in a like manner of the accumulated remains of the tiny coral animal, form
islands miles in diameter. Such fossil coral reefs from the Silurian period
are often quarried in the Midwest where they outcrop at the surface as
prehistoric islands.
Fine-grained limestone preserves fossils remarkably well. The Jurassic limestone of
Eichstatt, Germany, has faithfully preserved even the antennae of this lobster-like
crustacean.
The empty shells and hard parts become incorporated in the limy mud
on the bottom. Animals and plants lacking calcareous structures, such as
trilobites, graptolites, and plant leaves, are buried in it, too. Calcium car-
bonate recrystallizes easily, so that the layer of soft lime with its em-
bedded organisms gradually turns into limestone.
Some limestones are massi ve; they do not part easily into thin slabs.
These are limestones that have formed over a long period of time and
under constant conditions. But conditions in other prehistoric seas must
have been more changeable, because in them formed thin layers of lime-
stone interbedded with thin shales or limestones of different composition.
These thin layers are often rich in fossils or almost entirely composed of
them. Thick layers of Burlington limestone, quarried in Iowa and Mi s-
souri, are made up of clearly visible crinoid stem segments and plates of
the crinoid cups. Scarcely any cementing material is visible in the
limestone.
Shells of clams make up most of the substance of a distinctive limestone
found in Florida that is used as a building stone. A limestone whose major
A drop of hydrochloric acid will fizz violently when placed on limestone. This is the
best test for limestone or shale with a high percentage of calcium carbonate as
cementing agent.
constituent is one type of fossil is known by the name of this fossil; ex-
amples are crinoidal limestone, blastoidal limestone, and coquinal lime-
stone. What is commonl y called coquina rock is a rock formed not neces-
sarily of coquina clams, but of broken pieces of any shell, or of coral
fragment s with little visible cement and little filling of cavities between
shells.
Limestone is a good final resting place for organisms. While mollusks
and trilobites are often flattened and disorted in shales, they remain plump
in limestone. Shale is still the place to find fossils of the soft-bodied and
rare animals, but limestone is not a bad second in this respect. The Bertie
limestone, through which canals were built a century ago in New Yor k
State, yielded beautifully carbonized fossils of eurypterids, complete in
detail even to their legs.
The quarries of Solnhofen, Germany, have produced a fine-grained lime-
stone for more than 400 years. It is still used for lithographic stones. On
these slabs of Jurassic sediments are occasionally found extraordinary
fossils, such as the feathers of birds. Fish with all scales in place are
These small nodules of limestone occasionally contain tiny silicified insects remark-
ably well preserved. California.
fairly common, as well as insects and shrimp with antennae intact, horse-
shoe crabs, and even jellyfish.
The famous crinoid locations at Le Grand, Iowa, discussed in Chapt er
1, and at Gilmore City, Iowa, occur in layered limestone. Thousands of coral
specimens have been collected from Devoni an limestone beds in northern
Iowa and at the Falls of the Ohio River near Louisville, Kent ucky. Much
of the state of Texas exposes a fossil-rich layer of Cret aceous chalk, which
is a soft limestone. The word Cret aceous, in fact, comes from the Latin
word for chalk. Anot her kind of limestone formed of a soft, very limy
mud is called marl. It is often filled with fossils.
Many of the same types of fossils can be collected from the limestone
as from shale, with a few exceptions. Graptolites are commonl y found in
dark shales, always compressed. They were not found in limestone until
1890, when complete, uncrushed specimens were etched from the rock.
These provide good material for scientific study, but they are rare. Leaf
fossils are mostly confined to shales, probably because most of them were
deposited in freshwater or ocean- shore environments where limestone
would not be likely to form.
Large corals are generally found in the limestone formations which
they helped build. Pyritized fossils are rare in limestones but are not
uncommon in shales. On the other hand, silicified fossils are rare in shales,
while beautiful specimens have been collected from limestones, such as
the exquisitely preserved brachiopods from the Glass Mountains of Per-
mian age in Texas, or silicified Ordovician trilobites from Wes t Virginia.
Miocene limestone nodules found in one area of California often contain
silicified insects, preserved as perfectly as the insects in Baltic amber, with
every antenna and eye facet in place.
Dolomite
Dolomite is a half brother of limestone. It is a calcium magnesium car-
bonate in which part of the calcium of limestone has been replaced by
magnesium. This replacement is believed to have taken place while the
carbonat e precipitate on the sea bot t om was still soft. Much recrystalliza-
Poorly preserved snail typical of fossils found in dolomite. This specimen is both
mold and cast ; the mold of the outer shell is apparent as radiating lines; the cast
of the inside of the first whorls protrudes in the rear.
tion of the stone occurred, a process which damaged or even destroyed
most of the small, delicate fossils.
Casts and molds are more common in dolomite than in limestone, so
much so that it is rare in dolomite to find fossils that still show original
hard parts. Dolomite is usually grayer than limestone and may show
crystal-lined cavities that once contained fossils. A drop of dilute hydr o-
chloric acid in limestone will produce violent bubbling and an audible
fizzing; a drop on dolomite will produce only a bubble or two unless the
acid is warmed or the rock is powdered.
Calymene, the trilobite so widely collected from Milwaukee, Chi cago,
and Grafton, Illinois, is found as an internal cast, or steinkern, in the
dolomite. Steinkerns of snails, corals, and brachiopods are associated with
the trilobites, as well as poorly preserved internal casts of crinoids and
cystoids. This belt of Silurian dolomites is exposed from Iowa to New
York. Ot her Paleozoic dolomites outcrop in the Rocky Mount ai ns.
Chert
Nodules of chert, an impure flint, are found in limestone formations.
Chert is light-colored and opaque and breaks readily into sharp flakes.
It is one of the materials the Indians used to make arrowheads and spear-
heads. It is found as fist-sized lumps scattered irregularly throughout some
limestones, particularly those of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian age.
After years of weathering, the nodules stand out as bumps and prickles
on the strata, accumulate in the talus below the limestone bluff, or remain
defiantly in the soil to annoy the farmer.
Chert must have formed when the limestone sediments were still rela-
tively fresh and unconsolidated. The Burlington limestone of Mississippian
age has several prominent chert-bearing horizons in it. The surrounding
limestone is coarse-grained, and contains only occasional tough, hardy
fossils such as fish teeth, crinoid cups, and heavy brachiopods. The chert
nodules, when broken open or sectioned, disclose large, delicate brachio-
pod shells which are perfectly preserved. They extend to the edge of the
chert nodule but do not continue into the limestone. The protozoa,
brachiopods, and delicate, lacy bryozoa that are common in the chert are
not found in the limestone, though obviously they must have been there
before being dissolved away where not protected by the siliceous chert.
A chance break may expose enough of a fossil to identify it, but full
realization of the beauty of chert fossils comes only from thin sections
carefully cut, ground, and polished. " Ri ce agat e, " neither rice nor agate,
is a brownish-gray chert loaded with protozoa found in Pennsylvanian
Chert may contain well-preserved fossils, such as these protozoa Triticites, named
"ri ce agat e" because of the shape and size of the protozoa. Pennsylvanian; Red
Oak, Iowa.
Ammonites from the Cretaceous of South Dakota. These were found in concretions.
The specimen in lower right still has part of the concretion attached. Lower left is a
specimen showing suture lines where the mother-of-pearl layer of the shell is missing.
(Photo South Dakota Department of Highways)
deposits of western Iowa and occasionally turned into cuff links or ring-
stones. It polishes well, as will any fossil-bearing chert.
Concretions
Concretions are found in shale, occasionally in sandstone, and even in
coal. If coal balls are described as concretions, coal may also be included.
Concretions are most commonl y composed of calcium carbonat e or iron
carbonate, although they may occur in sediments that are lacking in either
carbonate. Their surface is usually curved and even spherical. They may be
compared in form to a french-fried shrimp or onion ring. Such an object,
dipped repeatedly in batter, builds around itself layer after layer until
gradually it loses all except the rudimentary outline of its shape. Some
concretions are plainly layered, while others may have grown more subtly
per haps, like the fat lady in the circus, adding to their bulk from
within. Wha t causes concretions to form around fossils still challenges
paleontologists.
Not all shales contain concretions, but those that do often contain pro-
Massive gray shale with concretion in place. The iron carbonate concretion quickly
weathers out of the soft shale and darkens to a reddish color. Pennsylvanian; Terre
Haute, Indiana.
Concretions may reach mammoth size, such as this one weathering free along a
Pennsylvania road.
Illinois and Indiana are famous for the superb plant fossils found in concretions such
as this. When struck on edge, they break along the fossil surface, exposing two
halves. Neuropteris gigantea; Pennsylvanian; Braidwood, Illinois.
Split concretion showing the rough outside and the seed-fern leaf Neuropteris scheuch-
zeri inside. The layering of the shale in which the concretion formed is evident in
this specimen. Pennsylvanian; Mazon Creek, near Morris, Illinois.
digious numbers of them. Concretions are not common in early Paleozoic
rocks, but they suddenly proliferated in the Pennsylvanian period. Many
shales exposed in midwestern coal mining contain them. Rocks of later
periods, particularly the Permian, Triassic, and Cret aceous, are good
sources of large concretions containing fossils of leaves and animals.
Concretions are easy to see and to collect from shale. They weather
free until they litter the shale banks, or they wash into nearby streams.
Any gray or reddish rounded rock found in shales or near shale exposures,
therefore, is worth breaking open.
Strip coal mining in the Midwest has exposed thousands of acres of
shale, from which millions of beautiful Pennsylvanian plant fossils have
been taken. The Mazon creek area in Illinois is the best known, but
similar plant fossils in almost identical concretions have been found
several hundred miles south in Illinois, in west ern Illinois, at Terre Haut e,
Not uncommonly, sandstone concretions containing large leaves are found weathering
out of Cretaceous formations in Kansas. Populites; Ellsworth, Kansas.
Indiana, and as far away as Mineral Wel l s, Texas. Some 500 species of
plants have been described from these concretions. " Fer n fossils" in
concretions have also been unearthed at Dudley, England. In the same
Pennsylvanian concretions that contain the plants are occasionally found
animal fossils, such as horseshoe crabs, insects, worms, fish, and, rarely,
amphibians.
Ot her coal mines of the Mi dwest yield extremely large concretions
which, when cracked open, often reveal a center filled with well-preserved
brachiopods, snails, clams, and goniatites (small coiled cephalopods).
Some of these are pyritized, particularly in western Illinois coal mines.
Among the most spectacular concretions are the septarian nodules of
Knoxville, Iowa, which are related to those described above because they
undoubtedly formed around a fossil. Shrinkage of the concretion caused
cracks to form, radiating from the center. Solutions dissolved the fossil
and deposited bright crystals of calcite along the walls of the cracks. It is
from these walls, called septaria from the Latin word for partition, that
the nodules get their name. Smaller nodules of this type, when sawed
across to show the starlike pattern, are prized by mineral collectors.
The Cretaceous period abounded in shales and their progeny, concre-
tions. Giant concretions weather out of shales in Sout h Dakot a, sometimes
with a beautifully preserved ammonite at their center. Ot hers contain large
clams, oysters, or belemnites. The concretion may also display a septarian
pattern, or it may contain golden barite crystals in the cavities.
Ot her marine fossils, notably ammonites, are found in large concretions
in the Eagle Ford shale of the Cretaceous period exposed and quarried
around Dallas, Texas. Coastal areas of California and Or egon have pro-
duced marine fossil-bearing concretions of similar age.
Fossil leaves similar to modern ones are found in concretions of Cr et a-
ceous age that weather out of sandstones and shales in a belt extending
from the Dakot as down into Kansas. These are often large and unwieldy.
Fossil fish, wonderfully preserved, are found in Brazilian concretions.
English shales of Cretaceous age abound in ammonite-bearing concretions.
Jurassic and Triassic concretions are uncommon in the United States
but elsewhere in the world carry fossils similar to the Cretaceous ones.
More recent rocks contain concretions, too. The fossil crabs of Was h-
ington State are found in cannonball-shaped concretions that lie in soft
sandstone of Oligocene age. These crabs are also found as well-preserved
Crab fossils are found in concretions from sandstones of Oligocene age in the Pacific
Northwest. Zanthopsis vulgaris; Washington.
fossils in the sandstone with no trace of concretion around them. Ot her
marine fossils are common in the sandstone, but the concretions rarely
contain anything but crabs. Even the recent Pleistocene has concretions:
in Ont ari o, small fossil fish are found in concretions of that period.
COAL BALLS
Coal balls can be considered concretions, as they are rounded masses of a
mineral different from the surrounding rock and deposited before consoli-
dation of the host rock, which is coal. The compost of Coal Age forests
settled in the swamps, and calcium carbonat e infiltrated masses of matted
vegetation, forming the coal balls. As the plant debris was compressed,
these rounded masses were already petrified and remained as swellings
in the coal seam.
These coal balls are rounded or lenticular, from fist size up to giants
weighing a ton, but they seem to average basketball size. They are un-
mistakable when found embedded in the coal seam: nothing else so large
and solid and round exists in the coal. The smaller ones are scooped up
with the coal, separated in the washing plant, and discarded on the dump.
Ver y large ones are left in the mine.
Coal balls occur sporadically. One Kansas coal mine ran into so many
This chalcedony-lined geode was once a coral. Covered with clay and soft limestone,
the coral dissolved, leaving only a mold of the outer surface. Later, silica-rich waters
deposited layers of agate and chalcedony in the cavity. This specimen has been cut
in half, showing exterior and interior. Miocene; Tampa, Florida.
that it became uneconomical to rid the coal of them, and the mine was
closed. But in a nearby mine there were none. Mines in Iowa, Kansas,
Illinois, Indiana, and Kent ucky are particularly rich in these concretions.
The Mazon Creek region in Illinois, famous for its fern-fossil concretions,
is currently producing a number of coal balls. They are partly pyritized.
Many mines produce such pyritized coal balls; they are useless for re-
search as they cannot be properly " peel ed" or sectioned.
Coal balls can be appreciated only when they are examined under a
microscope. Their value lies in the perfectly preserved cell-for-cell petri-
faction of the original woody tissues. The cell walls are still there, as are
spores still in the spore sacs of 275 million-year-old fruiting bodies. Prep-
aration of these fossils is treated in Chapt er X.
Geodes
Geodes are not sources of fossils, but some were originally fossils. A
geode is a nodule of stone having a cavity lined with crystals or minerals.
Once fossils, now geodes with hollow, quartz-lined centers. In becoming geodized,
these unusual fossils grew greatly in size. This geodized crinoid stem was once the
size of the large crinoid stem segment in the foreground. Mississippian; Brown
County, Indiana.
It originated as a hol e: possibly a hole left in rock by a dissolved fossil,
or it may have been the hole inside an existing fossil. Wat er rich in silica
percolated through the rock, depositing layers of silica around the edges
of the cavity. Sometimes, this process continued until the cavity was filled
with layers of agate or crystalline quartz. Oft en it stopped before this
stage was reached, and a crystal-lined, hollow, quartz " geode" was left
in the cavity.
In a few areas of Indiana and Kent ucky, Mississippian shales release
geodes that are unmistakably of fossil origin, for they are shaped like
high-spired snails, crinoid cups, brachiopods, and corals. However, they
are giants. Crinoid stems may be as big as a man' s wrist and brachiopods
the size of oranges. The exterior is rough and cracked. It appears that the
fossils had swollen to five or ten times their normal size. This must have
happened while the silica was formi ngperhaps it formed on the outside
of the organism, pushing away the surrounding shale as it grew. The
center was then filled with quartz crystals. No actual shelly material
remains, only the obese casts of the fossils.
V
TIME BEFORE TIME
Some words used in this book, such as " Pal eozoi c" and "Mi ssi ssi ppi an, "
label fossils by one of their most important characteristicstheir place in
the span of time. When a fossil played its part in the parade of life is
just as significant in geological history as when certain men and nations
played their parts in human history. Geologic time, far longer than his-
toric time, reaches back into the past several billion years, and it is also,
of course, less definitely documented than written history.
Geologists work with two kinds of time: relative time and absolute
time. The difference in the two forms is simple. Relative time places or-
ganisms or earth events in a time sequence, in an orderly series, just as we
would call the roll of the rulers of England, saying that James I came
after Queen Elizabeth, and Charles I after James I, etc. The Bible chroni-
cles events in history in the same relative fashion, not by giving dates but
by placing men and events in chronological order.
Absolute time, on the other hand, reckons elapsed time since a rock or
fossil was formed by measuring the rate of decay of radioactive elements
and expressing the change in terms of years.
69
The major divisions of geologic time, their duration, and some of the major life forms
of each era.
TIME BEFORE TIME 71
RELATIVE TIME
Fossils and their associated rocks provide much of the data by which
relative time, or the relative sequence of events, is calculated. Study of the
evolution and interrelationships of fossils and of the nat ure, position,
continuity, similarity, and alteration of the rocks, interpreted in the light
of the assumption that conditions in the past were little different from
those of today, is the basis of the system of eras, periods, epochs, and
ages which is the framework of relative geologic time.
Relative geologic time is divided into five eras, beginning with the
Archeozoic ("beginning life") and the Proterozoic ("primitive life") eras.
These two eras occupy nearly 4 billion of the 4
1
/: ! billion years of the
estimated existence of the earth. Their fossils are few, faint, and often
problematical; they do not interest the amateur. But out of this dimly
understood void, life sprang abundantly with the dawn of the next era,
the Paleozoic ("ancient life") era. Like subsequent eras, the Paleozoic is
divided into shorter units, the periods, which themselves are divided into
epochs and ages. The first Paleozoic period is the Cambrian, and in fossil
literature the term " Pr e- Cambr i an" is often used to designate time before
the Paleozoic.
The Paleozoic era was followed by the Mesozoic ("middle life") era,
often referred to as the Age of Reptiles, then by the Cenozoic ( "recent
life") era, the Age of Man, in which we are living. The Cenozoic is di-
vided into the Tertiary and Quat ernary periods, but is more commonl y
described by reference to epochs, which are subdivisions of the periods.
The Grand Canyon of the Colorado river is a monument to relative
time. Here deposition built a remarkably complete series of strata lying
on ancient metamorphic schists. As earth forces slowly raised the plateau
formed by these strata, a dauntless river, fighting for its existence, cut
through the noble pile of rocks, exposing, like the sheets of a desk calen-
dar, the strata that record by their thickness, composition, and fossils the
geological history of this region for the last 2 billion years.
Some strata are missing altogether or appear at only one or a few
places in the Canyon. But these parts of the whole history can be tied into
one chronology by tracing a few key formations, such as the Redwall
limestone, and with it as a fixed point determining what is lacking. This is
the way a historian works, gathering his documents where he can, fitting
them into place, and then drawing conclusions. Similarly, the geologist
studies the composition and texture of the stone, studies the comparative
development and charact er of the fossils in it, and perhaps supplies a
missing fact from study of comparable formations elsewhere that may be
more complete in some detail. From these data he arrives at a place and
a time for the formation and its fossils in the larger context of facts,
marshaled by all geological and paleontological research.
The Grand Canyon is a magnificent record of such events in time be-
cause of the long vertical exposure of strata going back into the Pre-
Cambri an even though the Mesozoic record must be supplied from nearby
formations because it has been eroded from the path of the Canyon.
Furt hermore, even the Pre- Cambri an Grand Canyon system of sedimen-
tary rocks resting on the met amorphosed schists carries algae fossils, and
all the rocks above it contain fossils, which makes the work of correlating
them much easier. Certain fossils characteristic of a widely distributed
rock formation and present only in that formation are used to identify
that formation wherever it may appear. These are called index fossils.
Their presence in a formation helps geologists to tie together the evidence
of identity of formations even though they may be broken or disguised
by erosion, by geological faults, or by differing conditions.
One of the most useful tools used by the geologist to date formations
is correlation, which is the placing together of the relationships of unlike
rocks even though they may have been formed at the same time and in
adjacent areas. An ocean, a shore, and a brackish swamp may have been
geographical neighbors at some time far in the past, just as they are
today. Yet each would spawn its own particular fossils because conditions
in each made life possible for specific organisms.
Facies
Geologists have a name for a part of a rock body that has such a rela-
tionship to other parts of a rock body. They call it a facies, and define a
facies as the general appearance or nature of the one part as compared
with the other parts.
A series of modern- day facies could be created by instantly petrifying
a part of Florida and entombing its denizens in sediments hardened into
an unbroken sheet of rock of the same age. Part of the rock would repre-
sent a freshwater facies that might include fossils of freshwater fish,
clams, crayfish, and plants in a dark shale that was once mud from a river
that fed into a lake. Anot her nearby facies in the continuous rock layer
would include tidal-pool facies fossils such as starfish, tiny saltwater
fish, sea anemones, oysters, barnacles, and crabs. Several hundred yards
away a new facies might appear, the deep-water one, marked by certain
TIME BEFORE TIME 73
shellfish, corals, larger fish, jellyfish, shark teeth, etc. Each facies, although
all are contemporaneous, has a distinct fauna.
Comparable fossil facies exist, such as those in the Silurian coral reefs
that are exposed over a wide area from New Yor k to Iowa. A quarry wall
where such a reef is being worked may show the top of the ancient coral
island with its included broken fossils of mollusks and some arthropods.
Farther along in the quarry would be a facies of large, broken chunks of
corals, brachiopods, and tough-shelled clams from the edge of the reef,
where the surf once pounded. Next to it would be a third facies of the
deep water beyond the reef, perhaps a solid limestone with crinoids,
bryozoans, and trilobites.
Geologists have their own words to indicate the relationships of rocks
and the relative age of the rocks. The amateur will find reference in the
professional literature to rocks, for example, as being from the Lower,
Middle, or Upper formations of a period, but the period will be divided
chronologically into early, middle, and late. The Lower Cambri an rocks
will be from the early Cambri an, and will be the oldest of that period.
Rocks of a period are called a system and those of an epoch, the next
smaller unit, are a series.
Formations
But in practice and in principle, it is common and necessary to identify
rocks as a formation, the name of which is usually a compound of a
typical location and the rock type, such as " t he St. Peter sandst one" or
" t he Trent on l i mest one. " If the formation consists of more than one type
of rock, for instance, if it is of shale and limestone, it may be called by a
more general name, such as " t he Supai format i on, " which appears in the
walls of the Grand Canyon, or " t he Morri son f or mat i on, " famous for its
dinosaur fossils.
Even though in no one place do all rocks of all ages appear as a com-
plete chronicle of the past, in many ways geologists have questioned the
mute evidence of the rocks and have arranged it into a coherent story
that is concerned more with deeds than with exact dates. Ti me is reckoned
as incidental to the broad picture of earth history. But occasionally geolo-
gists are surprised with an incredibly detailed story written in the rocks.
Mecca, not the Moslem holy city in Arabia, but a hamlet in western
Indiana near the Illinois border, stands where a swampy forest grew 300
million years ago. Close by its forest of horsetails, tree ferns, and scale
trees lay an estuary of an inland sea that then covered much of Illinois
and parts of Indiana.
Today that ancient Pennsylvanian swamp is known only from a de-
posit of black shale, but in that deposit scientists from the Field Museum
read the story of four year sf our years far back in the hundreds of
millions that have passed since that time.
Some force, perhaps an earthquake, allowed great quantities of salt
water to flood into the swamp, felling the trees. Sharks, primitive fish,
and shelled creatures wandered into this new environment, probably
attracted by the food washed loose. They flourished until a dry season
came. Then the pools shrank, the trapped creatures gasped, fought, mu-
tilated each other, died, and were buried under the thick mat of floating
vegetation that turned to black mud and then to shale. The shales show
that this happened four times, four seasons of life in the rainy season,
death in the dry season. Then the coast settled, the waters grew per-
manently deeper, and brachiopods, cephalopods, and other invertebrates
left their quiet fossil record in the lighter-colored shale that tops the black
shale of the death pools. Museum experts under the direction of Dr.
Rainer Zangerl, chief curator of geology in the museum, excavated this
ancient pond and brought back the remains of huge sharks and thousands
of mutilated fish and other fossil creatures from Mecca.
ABSOLUTE TIME
Opportunities to come as close to a geological event as that at Mecca are
few. Certainly it is generally far beyond the scope of the system of rela-
tive dating described above, which is one of the two measures that geolo-
gists have when they speak of time. The other measure they use is a
clock that records absolute time by measurement of changes in radioactive
elements in the rocks. Such elements decay at a constant rate, the works
of an atomic clock that ticks steadily but so slowly that its face is marked
in thousands and millions of years. This great-great-grandfather of all
clocks is capable of timing the span of life from the amoeba to man.
Radioactive decay or nuclear fission, the force that powers the atomic
bomb and nuclear power plants, causes transmutation of a radioactive
element into a new element. Because this decay takes place at a predict-
able rate regardless of heat, pressure, and solution, measurement of the
amount of the parent radioactive element and the transmuted daughter
element in the rock makes it possible to set a quite exact age in years for
the rock.
Fission changes uranium into lead and helium, potassium into calcium
and the rare gas argon, and rubidium, an element chemically close to
sodium, into strontium, the element that puts brilliant reds into fireworks.
TIME BEFORE TIME 75
In the same way, one radioactive form of carbon turns into a more stable
form of the same element.
The Atomic Clock
Age determination by nuclear met hods has been well described by Dr.
Edward J. Olson of the Field Museum in the following quotation, which
is used by permission. He wrot e in the museum' s Bulletin:
Suppose we had a large box with 6,400 green marbles in it. Then im-
agine that by some process in exactly one year half of the marbles had
turned red. This leaves 3,200 green ones and 3,200 red ones. Suppose
that in one year half of the remaining green ones become red, leaving
1,600 green and a total of 4, 800 red. If the process continues in this
manner we may then construct a table:
Passage of Time Green Red Red Divided by Green
0 years 6, 400 0 0
1 year 3. 200 3, 200 1
2 years 1, 600 4, 800 3
3 years 800 5, 600 7
4 years 400 6, 000 15
5 years 200 6, 200 31
6 years 100 6, 300 63
7 years 50 6, 350 127
And so on
If we know that this process goes on with regular precision, we could
look at such a box, count the reds and the greens and then say how
long the marbles had been sitting there. For example, if we found 6,200
red ones and 200 green ones we could say that the process had been
going on for five years. In fact, we need not necessarily go through the
trouble of counting all the marbles. The right-hand column in the table
show the quotient of reds divided by greens. Thus, we need only take
out a random sample of a few hundred marbles and count the reds and
greens, divide the former by the latter and, if our sample is average, we
should obtain a value close to 3 1 a time of five years. This process
goes on until the last green marble has shifted to a red color. At that
time the clock may be considered to have run down. Whal we have just
described, in a fairly simplified form, is the so-called atomic clock upon
which the much publicized methods of radioactive dating are based.
Rat her than by marbles changing color, the actual atomic clock oper-
ates by at oms changing to other atoms. The time required for half the
population of atoms of one kind to change to another kind is called the
half-life.
Before going on let' s look once more at the box of marbles to clear
up another definition. Let us imagine that every time a green marble
converts to a red one it gives off a loud clicking sound. During the first
year we would observe 3 , 2 0 0 clicks, or an average of around 62 per
week. This is moderately noisy. During the second year, however, there
would be only 1 , 6 0 0 with 31 per week on the average. During the third
year there would be only 8 0 0 clicks, or about 15 per week; and so on.
Thus the rate of noise-making would drop off year by year until it
finally stopped. At any time during the life of this clock we would have
a definite noise level. This we call the level of activity. In the case of
at oms this is called the level of radioactivity. So far then we have two
methods to measure time. We might, as mentioned before, count a
sample of red and green marbles and figure the time from that; or we
might simply count the number of clicks per week, or per day, etc. , and
figure the time from the rate at which they are being produced. In the
first method we need not necessarily know how many green marbles
were present in the beginning since we are only measuring the quotient
of reds divided by greens, which will be the same no matter how many
greens were there originally (if you don' t believe me you might give
it a try, starting with, say, 1 0 , 0 0 0 green ones). We need to know only
the half-life, which in this example is one year. In the second method,
however, we have to know the original population of greens in order
to correlate the level of activity with the age of the system. If the half-
life is only a year, or an hour, or, as in the case of some atoms, only a
few seconds, it is obvious that such clocks will " r un down" in a short
time and be of little value. To use such weak-springed clocks we have
to have an extremely delicate chemical method to analyze exactly the
number of green atoms and red atoms. Once the number of green ones
has fallen below our ability to separate them in the laboratory, the
clock is, for all purposes, dead even though there might be some few
green atoms still present. The same is true if our ability to detect
the clicks per unit of time is limited by our laboratory devices.
Minerals from igneous rocks are generally the most satisfactory for
age determination, although an earthy mineral, glauconite, associated with
sedimentary rocks, is also used. The specimen to be tested should be a
single mineral, unaltered since it was formed, and it should contain a
measurable amount of both the parent and daughter elements.
TIME BEFORE TIME 77
Potassium changes into argon, a gas, with a half life of 1 . 3 2 billion
years, which makes measurements of these two elements a suitable means
of dating rocks as old as 4 . 5 billion years, the estimated age of the oldest
material in the crust of the earth. In this test, typical of several frequently
used, the rock sample, mica or a feldspar, is fused to free the argon gas,
and the amount of gas is measured by a mass spectrometer, which by
magnetic means isolates the element to be measured. Ot her methods
measure the ratio of rubidium and strontium, which have a similar rela-
tionship, or of uranium and thorium.
The Carbon-14 Method
For organic objects such as wood less than 4 0 , 0 0 0 years old, measurement
is made of a certain form of carbon, Ca r bon- 1 4 . This radioactive form
of carbon is the product of the action of cosmic rays in the upper air.
It unites with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide, which is taken
up by living plants and then by animals that eat the plants. It is found
in a constant proportion in all living tissues, decay of the radioactive
carbon being balanced by constant replacement of cells. The intake ceases
when the organism dies, but the decay of its radioactive carbon continues.
After 5 , 5 6 5 30 years (the sign means plus or minus that amount
for experimental error) half of the carbon will have changed to the stable
form. Measurement of Carbon 1 4 , therefore, makes possible precise age
determinations on some relatively recent fossils and carbon-containing
materials, including carbonate rocks. Archaeologists carefully remove
hitherto " wor t hl ess" charcoal or wood bits found along with pots and
arrowheads for CH dating of their finds.
Ca r bon- 1 4 dating of the wood of logs uprooted by the most recent con-
tinental glacier i n Wi sconsi n established that the event happened 1 1 , 4 0 0
2 0 0 years ago. Until this test set a more definite figure, it had been
assumed that the glacier made its call 2 5 , 0 0 0 years ago.
Many measurements have been made by these methods and have been
used to confirm and make more precise the findings of paleontologists all
over the world. Perhaps as good an example as any, which seems more
personal because it casts light on the genealogy of man, comes from the
discoveries made by Dr. L. S. B. Leakey in Africa.
When Leakey discovered fossils of precursors of man in Olduvai Gorge
in Tanzania, the age of the rocks in which they lay became a matter of
major paleontological importance. Luckily, the fossils were preserved in
volcanic ash, so that fresh igneous minerals were present right with the
fossils.
Pot assi um- argon tests set the age of the volcanic ash at 1 . 7 5 million
years. This determination was cross-checked by another met hod that made
use of fragments of volcanic glass in the rocks. These were polished and
examined under the microscope for tracks only a few atoms wide made
in the glass by fission of uranium atoms. Aft er the tracks had been
counted, the samples were irradiated to cause all their contained uranium
to produce tracks. These were counted, and comparison of the two sets of
numbers gave a measure of the extent of uranium decay. From it the age
of the rocks was estimated at 2 million 3 0 , 0 0 0 years. Aft er allowing
for innate sources of error in the two methods, the experimenters regarded
their results as substantial confirmation of an age for the fossils of nearly
2 million years.
Some ingenious fellow has reduced the incredible dimensions of geologic
time to more familiar terms by bringing it within the scale of a calendar
year. If the history of the earth were compressed into twelve months, the
first eight mont hs would be represented by virtually blank pages in the
calendar. These would be the Proterozoic and Archeozoic eras. September
and Oct ober would see the development of algae and bacteria and the
gradual appearance of the invertebrates as fossils. Mammal s would not
come on the scene until mid-December. Man himself would not have
evolved until the last few minutes of the last hour of the last day of
December in this hypothetical year, and what we know as written history
would span little more than the last minute of the year.
Such is geologic time; such is the theater of paleontology.
VI
WHERE TO LOOK
FOR FOSSILS
Much of the United States is underlain by sedimentary rock which con-
tains fossils, but the northern third of the nation is blanketed with glacial
debris, sometimes as much as one-hundred feet thick, and even the un-
glaciated regions wear a mantle of soil. For this reason, the fossil collector
will have to seek places where the rock is exposed by excavat i ons of one
sort or another.
These include quarries, coal and metal mines, roadcuts and railroad
cuts, foundation excavations, tunnels, and canals, as well as such natural
exposures as river banks, beaches, and mountain slopes. For certain special
types of fossils the collector will turn to bogs, tar pits, seeps, and the
like. This chapter will discuss each type of site, with suggestions about
methods of collecting and what may be expected in each.
LIMESTONE QUARRIES
A quarry is an open pit from which rock is removed for use in road build-
ing, construction, and concrete work, and for agricultural lime, stone slabs,
and the manufacture of cement.
79
Vertical or steeply tilted rock layers are sometimes found in quarries, especially in
mountainous regions. Kentland, Indiana.
The Geological Surveys of most states will supply a list of producing
quarries in their areas. Large-scale topographic maps show such excava-
tions, bot h working and abandoned quarries, but such maps are often old.
Local construction and paving companies can supply information, as they
depend on nearby quarries for material. Most quarries have a tall crusher
plant, surrounded by piles of rock, which is usually easy to find.
A typical quarry may be several square blocks in area and have a
working face from thirty to well over one-hundred feet high. Its depth
is dependent on the thickness of the usable layer of stone. The limestone
which is quarried is usually in thick layers and not very fossiliferous.
The rock may look the same from the top to the bot t om of the quarry,
but oft en two or three i mport ant formations are included in one quarry
wall. One format i on only t wo feet thick may carry numerous fine fossils,
while the rest of the rock is barren. Wi t h patience, these layers can be
recognized in the quarry wall, and then in the broken rock on the quarry
floor after blasting.
Generally, collecting from the freshly blasted rock is not very profitable
unless the quarry is in dolomite rather than limestone and most of the
fossils are casts and molds, which must be broken from fresh, un-
WHERE TO LOOK FOR FOSSILS 81
Freshly blasted limestone in a quarry will seldom be a good site for collecting. No
weathering has occurred to expose fossils, and the rock is usually coated with dust
or mud.
weathered material. Molds will break in half, and both halves should be
saved to make fossil casts with plaster, rubber, or plastic at home.
The mold itself will usually reproduce the outer shape of the fossil. But
it may contain an internal cast, a steinkern, which can properly be identi-
fied only if it has been found in the cavity of the external mold. It will
often bear little resemblance to the outer appearance shown in the books.
This is especially true of brachiopods. The relationship of a steinkern and
its parent mold should be made clear in labeling.
Some types of fossils will not stand weathering, so whenever they are
found in limestone, it must be in fresh material. These include carbonized
films of Crustacea or worms, or such delicate specimens as crinoid crowns.
Some fossils pop loose from freshly broken rock and can be collected
by breaking up the rock with a sledgehammer. The Mississippian crinoid
calyxes found in Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri are collected this way. Some
brachiopods also break out cleanly.
The best collecting in the quarry is from weathered material. Five years
of weathering on what once appeared to be an unfossiliferous block of
limestone can magically produce a coating of fossils. Furt hermore, soften-
ing of the limestone makes removal of these fossils much easier. If the
limestone weat hers even longer, the fossils may drop out and can be
collected on the ground. Too much weathering will obliterate fossils, but
new ones are constantly exposed.
Weat her ed limestone can be found in several spots. Occasionally,
elephant-sized boulders of solid rock are blasted out. These are too large
for the crusher and not wort h blasting to a usable size, so they are bull-
dozed into an unused area of the quarry floor. There they weather away,
waiting for a fossil collector. Older areas of the quarry will have a certain
amount of debris on the floor, including pieces that have scaled from the
quarry wall. Collecting along a wall is always a risky business; a fossil
from above may collect you on the way down. (See Chapter 7 for more
about safety precautions on collecting trips.)
At times new roads are built into the pit, requiring fill, and artificial
hills are built on one side of crushers so that the trucks can dump directly
into them. These roads and hills are made of the native stone, and years
of weathering may create fine collecting along their side slopes.
To quarry the merchantable rock the quarry operator must remove
A museum team collecting Devonian fish and scorpions at a small quarry in Montana
operated by the Field Museum.
overlying dirt and debris. He may also have to remove some layers of shale
or impure weathered limestone; some quarries have mountains of this
waste material. It may be the most fossiliferous, and it weathers the most
rapidly.
Gray, muddy-appearing piles are shales, and yellowish or dark- gray
rocky piles are limestones. All are wort h examining for fossils. Good
examples of such dumps are found at Wal dr on, Indiana, and Pegram,
Tennessee. In both quarries, a thick limestone lies under the thin but
highly fossiliferous Wal dron shale of Silurian age. The shale that is
scraped off and rejected is the real treasure trove. The barren limestone
is wort hl essexcept commercially.
Another place to look is below the bot t om of the quarry. Wat er con-
stantly seeps into any excavation and unless pumped out would flood the
quarry. It does not take many mont hs or years to turn a quarry into a
good place to hunt ducks or catch fish but not to get road material. To
keep the quarry dry enough to work, a deep pool or sump is needed. This
is dug in a low spot in the quarry floor, usually a soft shale or unmer-
chantable limestone underlying the quarry' s productive strata. Wha t is
unprofitable for the quarryman may be very rewarding for the fossil col-
lector who carefully examines the dumps around the edge of the sump
pit.
But the piles of crushed rock that are the quarry' s stock in trade hold
little of value for the collector. Fossils of any size have been disfigured
by the crusher' s jaws until only microfossils are left.
If at all possible, when collecting from dumps in quarries, first examine
the working face to determine what layer produced the fossils you are
collecting. This may be important in trying to date and identify the fossils
later. The quarry operator is rarely able to tell what formations or even
what age rock is being quarried. But some State Geological Surveys and
universities have yearly field trips. If you can obtain a field trip guidebook
that includes the quarry, there may be a picture or drawing of the quarry
face with the formations listed. Characteristic fossils from these layers
are listed by name or even illustrated in field trip guides. Annually the
Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists list guide-
books of this kind published during the year.
SHALE QUARRIES
Shale is sometimes quarried for the manufact ure of bricks and ceramics.
Some is mixed with ground limestone in making cement. For some reason,
shale quarries are usually called clay pits or brick pits. They are so desig-
nated on geologic maps.
Such pits can be located by inquiring of the Geological Surveys or by
asking questions locally. They are rarely as deep as limestone quarries and
are short-lived, designed to remove a thin layer of profitable clay near the
surface before being abandoned. Booklets from the state geological survey
list clay and shale producers of the state and may list the age and forma-
tion of the shale being removed.
Some fossils are best collected from fresh shale, and others are at their
prime after long weathering. Puryear, Tennessee, is a classic area for
collecting Eocene leaf fossils, but only by splitting extremely fresh shale.
A few days of weathering and rain will destroy a leaf that has been in
the rock for millions of years. Fragile carbon imprints of ferns are not
uncommon in midwestern and eastern strip coal mines but disappear after
the slightest weathering. Tougher creatures such as brachiopods, corals,
and crinoid stems, on the other hand, will be cleaned free of matrix by
weathering.
The recomended method is to find a fresh block of shale near the work-
ing face of the shale pit. Split it along bedding planes and look for soft-
bodied fossils, then search the weathered piles along old pit walls or
scattered around the area.
Shale pit (right center) of Rockford Brick & Tile Company, Rockford, Iowa, a notable
collecting site. (Photo courtesy Rockford Brick & Tile Company)
As in limestone quarrying, unsalable shale will be hauled aside and
left in heaps for fossil hunters. Thin limestone layers may occur in the
shale. Frequently these are very fossiliferous while the accompanyi ng
limestone layers are not. Usually inquiry at the quarry office while regis-
tering there will disclose where piles of the shale may be found.
Many clay deposits of Pleistocene age, particularly those in the northern
United States, formed at the bot t om of small frigid lakes near the ter-
minus of a glacier. They consist of finely ground rock dust produced by
the glacier. Few living things braved these arctic wat ers, either for living
or swimming, and such clays are only sparsely fossiliferous. In contrast,
clay quarries in Cenozoic, Mesozoic, or Paleozoic rocks are remarkably
fossiliferous. Ammoni t es are found in Cret aceous shale pits of Dallas,
Texas, brachiopods of Devonian and Mississippian age in Indiana and
Iowa.
It is profitable to check the working face of the shale pit carefully,
layer by layer, At the Medusa quarry at Sylvania, Ohi o, for example, a
thin, two-inch stratum of Devonian shale produces most of the rolled-up
trilobites in that area. Anot her thin layer a few feet above the trilobite
horizon yields most of the complete crinoids found in the quarry, while
a third layer is the final resting place of rare phyllocarids. Although the
product of the Medusa quarry is basically limestone, a thick layer of
shale lying above the limestone is removed separately. Trilobites and
crinoids can be collected from the shale dumps, but they are mixed with
barren material. If the horizon of the fossils can be located in the wall of
the quarry, it can be followed, and usually the shale is soft enough to
allow some digging into this layer.
Many shale quarries are worked down layer by layer. If the collector
is on hand when the proper layer is exposed it can be a bonanza. A shale
pit near Annapolis, Indiana, was worked in this way, and when one layer
was almost completely removed, a paleontologist from the Field Museum
in Chicago found that that particular layer was crowded with rare Penn-
sylvanian-period fish fossils. Thousands had been destroyed. Whi l e dig-
ging a ship canal on the south side of Chi cago, workmen dumped a thin
seam of shale along a quarter-mile of bank. Many years later a collector
found that this shale contained 400-million-year-oId worms preserved
faithfully as a carbon filmthe only ones of their kind in the world.
Most commercial shales and clays are light-gray or tan. These generally
will contain marine fossils. Black shales found in some clay pits and strip
mines are typical of near-shore deposits rich in organic material. They
may contain fish or plant fossils. Small concretions that weather free from
light-colored shales are wort h cracking open; a small fossil, perhaps pyri-
tized, may lie at the center. Clay pits operating in Cret aceous gray shales,
such as around Dal l as, Texas , cont ai n huge amoni t e- beari ng concreti ons
that are neat l y piled up i n the pit, awai ti ng the col l ector.
Whe n col l ecti ng f rom weat hered dumps, the col l ector can get a clue to
the l ayer f r om whi ch the shal e came by the col or of the weat hered mat e-
rial. A group of col l ect ors exami ni ng shal e piles in a sout hern- Indi ana
quarry f ound a f ew perf ect bl astoi ds weat hered f ree. One experi enced
col l ect or not i ced that the l arge, perf ect speci mens were al ways lying on
piles a shade l i ghter t han the ot her weat hered shal es. He searched for
t hese l i ght spot s, and f ound dozens of the bl ast oi ds, much to everyone' s
amazement .
COAL MINES
Among pl aces where man has broken the earth f or useful materi al s only
quarri es exceed coal mi nes i n number and ext ent . The Mi dwest i s par-
ti cul arl y rich i n bi t umi nous coal mi nes, f rom central Illinois southeast into
Indi ana and Kent ucky, and f r om mi d- I owa t hrough west ern Mi ssouri ,
east ern Kansas and on i nto Okl ahoma and Texas . Anot her broad bel t of
fields ri ses i n west ern Pennsyl vani a and spreads across We s t Vi rgi ni a into
east ern Kent ucky and Tennessee down into Al abama. Col orado and Ut ah
possess smal l er fields. Nort hward f rom Col orado lie fields of subbi t umi -
nous coal and l i gni te.
Coal deposi ts f ormed on the borders of the basi ns of i nl and seas, where
bracki sh swamps wi t h abundant veget at i on exi sted. Whe r e the waters
were deep, l i mest one was deposi ted, of t en i n thin strata crowded wi th
fossi l s of brachi opods, cl ams, gast ropods, cri noi ds, and cephal opods. As
t he seas drai ned away, the j ungl e flourished and then died, l eavi ng thi ck
masses of organi c materi al that l ater became coal .
Coal mi nes are ei ther shaf t or stri p mi nes. Coal seams no more than a
hundred f eet bel ow the surf ace can be profi tabl y mi ned by stripping away
the overl yi ng soil and st one to expose the coal seams at the bot t om of a
great pit. The coal i s scooped i nto t rucks or railroad cars and haul ed
away. Such mi ni ng i s less cost l y and less dangerous than underground
shaf t mi ni ng, where there i s al ways the peril of poi sonous f umes or
expl osi ve dust. Ther e is a f urt her advant age in that all the coal can be
recovered; i n shaf t mi nes, coal must be l eft i n the f orm of pillars to hold
up the roof .
St ri p mi nes are usual l y spread over a huge area ripped into rows of
herri ngbone hills and smal l ponds. In ti me, such a region l oses its raw,
gashed hi deousness; trees cover the hi l l s, and the small l akes become
fishing and recreat i on asset s. Ol d strip mi nes are desi gnated as such on
Complete crinoid crowns, showing stem, calyx, and arms, are prized specimens. This
is Rhodocrinites; Gilmore City, Iowa.
topographi c maps and are concent rat ed al ong the swampy shorel i ne of the
ancient basi n. The l argest coal field, the Illinois basi n, has been st ri p-
mined al ong the Indi ana-Il l i noi s border f r om Danvi l l e, Il l i noi s, t o Ken-
tucky, across sout hern Illinois and t hen nort hward al ong t he west ern
Illinois line to a poi nt opposi te to Danvi l l e, as wel l as east and west al ong
the Illinois river through La Sal l e and Ful ton count i es. The central part
of the basi n i s mi ned by shaf t s to reach deepl y buri ed coal .
Sout hern I owa f rom the middle of the state to t he west ern border al so
has many strip mi nes, and t here are some in nearby st at es, as well as in
southern Mi chi gan, Pennsyl vani a, and ot her Appal achi an st at es.
An operati ng strip mi ne will have a pl ant office where permi ssi on
should be obt ai ned, even t o ent er abandoned worki ngs. The col l ect or may
be asked to sign a rel ease f orm to rel i eve the operat or of responsi bi l i t y
for i nj ury. Stri p mi nes present certai n dangers. Vert i cal wal l s rise steepl y,
Coal strip mine in action. Big dragline scoops up the gray shale overlying the coal
and piles it to one side. Dugger, Indiana.
After weathering, the concretions litter the surface of the strip mine dump. Many will
contain fossil ferns. Near Terre Haute, Indiana.
and the edge may have been shat t ered by bl ast i ng. The wei ght of a f ew
persons near the edge may start a rock slide. The weat hered shal e be-
comes slippery i n wet weat her, and an unl ucky col l ect or may slide i nto
the deep, cold wat er of a pit if he is not careful .
PITS
The worki ng face of the strip mi ne i s a good pl ace to st art l ooki ng, as the
various strata can be exami ned there. If any prove f ossi l i f erous, l i ke rock
can be searched f or l ater in the dump, where it is easi er to break. It is al so
frui tful to ask permi ssi on to col l ect f r om newl y exposed coal seams.
Fossils may be l ocked i n the coal or ri ght on its surf ace.
Petrified, of t en pyri ti zed, l ogs and coal bal l s are f ound i n the coal seams.
The Coal Age trees did not have a wel l -defi ned woody st ruct ure l i ke
modern trees and show no growt h ri ngs. I nvari abl y the l ogs are crushed
and fl attened, suggesti ng not onl y sof t wood but great pressures. Whi l e
the wood will cut and pol i sh, there i s little pat t ern. Huge wood secti ons
f ound around Knoxvi l l e, I owa, are cut and pol i shed to show secondary
mi neral i zati on of cal ci te that created whi t e, f an- shaped pat t erns i n the
bl ack calcified wood.
Logs or coal bal l s repl aced by pyri te will soon di si nt egrat e and are best
left behi nd. Mi nes i n Indi ana and Illinois are the best pl aces to l ook f or
coal bal l s, as are a f ew mi nes i n Kansas and Kent ucky. The wood i s more
common, especially i n central Il l i noi s, sout hern I owa, and Pennsyl vani a.
A f ew coal seams may cont ai n pyri ti zed gast ropods, cephal opods, and
brachi opods. Near Farmi ngt on, Il l i noi s, the mi ners were amazed by the
week- end armi es of col l ectors who came t o brush off every square i nch
of the newl y exposed coal seam wi t h br ooms. Embedded hal f i n the
coal and hal f in a bl ack shal e resti ng on the coal were f at gast ropods
(Shansiella), and occasi onal smal l brachi opods, strai ght cephal opods, and,
rarely, large coiled cephal opods. The fossi l s were f ound i n smal l depres-
sions i n the surf ace, suggesti ng that the organi sms were washed i n when
sea wat er flooded the coal swamp. Iron and sul fur, preval ent i n areas of
decayi ng veget at i on, provided the chemi cal s f or repl acement of the fossi l s
by pyrite or marcasi t e.
Bl ack organi c shal e occurs in some mi nes in a thin l ayer ri ght above
the coal. It will usual l y cont ai n fossi l s of ani mal s abl e to survi ve i n
shal l ow, bracki sh wat er, such as some fish, scal l ops l i ke Dunbarella,
brachi opods (Lingula, Orbiculoides), and cephal opods. Pl ant fossi l s are
uncommon i n bl ack shale. The bl ack shal e i s usual l y finely l ayered and
easily split. Fossils f ound in it are of t en pyri ti zed, and unl ess the shal e
Shansiella carbonaria, the golden snail, its substance replaced by pyrite. From a
Pennsylvanian coal seam at Farmington, Illinois.
br eaks cl eanl y around the fossi l they are difficult to prepare. Such pyri -
tized fossi l s tend to di si ntegrate even af t er cl eani ng and sprayi ng.
Fish fossi l s are perhaps the most sought - af t er fossi l s i n the bl ack shale.
The y are al most never f ound i n any ot her rock l ayer i n coal mi nes. Si nce
t he bl ack shal e i s qui ckl y weat hered i n the dumps, fossi l s must be col -
l ected f r om the f reshl y exposed shal e and coal seams. Besi des the thous-
ands of fish, i ncl udi ng some port i ons of gi ant sharks, collected f rom the
bl ack shal es near Mec c a, Indi ana, ot hers have been f ound near Brai dwood,
Il l i noi s, and Des Moi nes, Iowa. Undoubt edl y coal mi nes el sewhere would
provi de fish fossi l s if a t horough search was made in the bl ack shales.
Thes e shal es may appear f or a f ew weeks during mi ni ng and disappear,
onl y to reappear a mile away duri ng l ater stri ppi ng.
WASHING PLANTS
Coal is usual l y t rucked f r om the mi ne to a washi ng pl ant, where petrified
l ogs, coal bal l s, and st ray pieces of shal e are removed. The wast e rock i s
piled near by; some poor- grade coal i s of t en di scarded, too. The ent i re pile
i s usual l y f ound smol deri ng t hrough spont aneous combust i on f r om heat
released by decay of pyri t e. If the f umes are not too bad, the col l ect or
can search the piles f or fossi l s.
WASTE PILES
The bi ggest col l ecti ng area at a stri p mi ne i s t he badl ands created by
dumpi ng of overburden. Al l rock l ayers seen i n the worki ng f ace can be
found somewhere i n these dumps.
Gray shal es are the commonest rocks here. The y may cont ai n pl ant
fossils. Magni f i cent f ronds of f erns preserved as bl ack carbon films on the
gray shale occur i n the l ayers l yi ng ri ght above the coal . Such fossi l s must
be collected by splitting bl ocks of the f reshl y mi ned mat eri al , because
these gray shal es col l apse i nto st i cky cl ay af t er a f ew rai ns. Shal es i n
Pennsyl vani a and ot her east ern mi nes are a bi t more durabl e, but the pl ant
fossi l s are not as sharpl y preserved as the mi dwest ern ones.
Weathered waste piles from strip coal mines are often fine collecting sites for fossil
plants and marine fossils. Braidwood, Illinois.
If one bl ock cont ai ni ng fossi l s i s f ound, t here are more around; these
pl ant - beari ng gray shal es are more persi st ent i n ext ent than the bl ack
shal es.
Af t er a f ew mont hs or years of weat heri ng, the hills become smooth
piles of cl ay. The weat heri ng, however, has released any hard fossils pre-
served i n the shal es and l eft t hem on the slopes whi l e the clay washed
away. Typi cal Pennsyl vani an mari ne fossi l s can be f ound weathered free
in some areas, parti cul arl y west ern Il l i noi s, sout hern Indi ana, and a few
pl aces i n sout hern Illinois. Thes e fossi l s are usual l y calcified, but are of t en
badl y crushed and di storted. The ti ny di tches and ravi nes cut i n the older
hillsides are the best pl ace to l ook, even i n mi ni ng areas overgrown with
grass and trees. Ther e are al ways a f ew open di tches, even in the oldest
stri pped areas.
Nearl y 500 speci es of pl ants have been f ound i n the fossi l -beari ng
concret i ons of the strip mi ni ng area around Brai dwood, Illinois. The con-
cret i ons bear the fossi l i n the cent er surrounded by shal e hardened by
iron carbonat es i n concent ri c l ayers around the fossil nucl eus. Thei r origin,
l i ke t hat of the coal bal l s, i s myst eri ous and the cause of much debate.
Iron carbonat e i s hi ghl y resi stant to weat heri ng, and as the soft gray shale
washes away, the hard concret i ons remai n behi nd. Whe n " r i pe , " the
concret i ons conveni ent l y turn a warm, red- brown col or to cont rast nicely
wi t h the remai ni ng gray mud.
Near Brai dwood, Illinois, i s the mi ne whose concret i ons have provided
sci ence wi t h more t han a hundred new species of sof t - bodi ed animals and
i nsect s, i n addition to pl ants. Large concret i ons are f ound weathered loose
on the wast e piles of strip mi nes i n west ern Illinois. Each may contai n
hundreds of wel l -preserved brachi opods and cephal opods, of t en pyritized.
Ther e i s no surf ace evi dence of the fossi l s i nsi de. Mar i ne fossils found i n
t hese concret i ons are general l y not crushed like their nei ghbors i n the
shal e envel opi ng the concret i ons.
Not all l arge concret i ons cont ai n fossi l s. Thos e uncovered during mi ni ng
i n sout hern I owa are full of cal ci te cryst al s but no fossi l s. Eastern coal
fields rarel y di scl ose concret i ons of i nt erest to a fossi l collector. But all
concret i ons must f orm around a nucl eus, usual l y a fossi l , so all are wort h
breaki ng open. Any reddish or grayi sh rounded rock found on the st ri p-
mi ne wast e hills is l i kel y to be a concret i on.
Smal l yel l ow or gray l i mest one sl abs may show up sporadi cal l y i n
st ri p- mi ne dumps. Thes e are usual l y hi ghl y producti ve of mari ne fossi l s.
Li mest one boul ders brought down by the gl aci ers may also appear i n the
t opmost overburden of nort hern strip mi nes. These are usual l y weat hered
to a yel l owi sh col or. Tr aces of fossi l s may appear on the outsi de, but the
boul ders must be broken apart t o rel ease undamaged fossi l s inside. Ther e
This benevolent little face is not part of a trilobite, but is merely a concretion that
happens to resemble a trilobite. Many such pseudofossils are thought to be heads,
feet, wings, and bones by overimaginative collectors.
may be some difficulty i n i denti fyi ng fossi l s and even i n det ermi ni ng thei r
age in the stray l i mest one l umps.
Sandst one l ayers several f eet thi ck may occur as a bl anket deposi t i n
some coal mi nes. These evenl y bedded sandst ones may show pl ant r e-
mai ns, especially where a sudden flood washed in sand that buri ed standi ng
plants. Such fossi l s usual l y l ack the fine detail preserved when the pl ants
were ent ombed i n fine clay and mud. However , t hi ck st ems, great sl abs of
bark, and compressed trees can be f ound i n these sandst ones as cast s.
Masses of crushed Lepidodendron and Sigillaria are common in a t wo-
f oot - t hi ck sandst one l ayer exposed south of Pel l a, I owa. Quant i t i es of
leaves are buri ed at odd angl es t hroughout a thi ck sandst one near Ot t awa,
Kansas. Gi ant st umps and logs of Coal Age trees st and upri ght i n the
thick Mi l l st one Gri t f ormat i on of Indi ana and creat ed quite a nui sance
during the last cent ury f or producers of mi l l st ones. A si mi l ar occurrence
is seen in a roadcut near Omaha, where Calamites st ems st and upri ght
i n the l ayers of sandst one. Energeti c col l ectors have dug down as much
as four feet to remove a l ong secti on of st em.
Pl ant leaves in sandst one are of t en preserved as a carbon film, and a
Sandstone casts after tree bark are common above a coal seam near Pella, Iowa. The
gritty sand does not retain a sharp impression. Inner bark of Sigillaria; Pennsylvanian.
spray of l acquer or liquid plastic may be necessary to fix them to the
mat ri x for saf e t ransport home.
Shaf t coal mi nes offer onl y one place to col l ect t he dump, whi ch is a
mi xt ure of rock f r om the mi ne' s many l evel s, most of i t f rom digging the
shaf t and wi deni ng the underground worki ngs. Col l ect ors are not allowed
underground, and most active mi nes will not even allow t hem on the
dump. On an old dump, go around and up and down, breaki ng concre-
tions and bl ocks of rock, as well as keepi ng alert for loose fossils.
GRAVEL PITS
In nort hern parts of the Uni t ed St at es, gravel and sand pits operate i n
concent rat i ons of glacial sands and pebbl es such as kames, eskers, or wel l -
sorted morai nes. El sewhere, and i n some parts of the nort h as well, gravel
pits usual l y lie i n old ri verbeds or near ri vers. Many gravel pits operat e
i n the Mi ssi ssi ppi Ri ver. Gravel and sand pits are marked on topographi c
maps, or they can be f ound i n t el ephone books under the listing " Sand
and Gr avel . "
Usual l y, the gravel in the piles is sort ed as to si ze, and it is cl ean, so
that fossi l s are easy to see. The fossi l s i n one gravel pile may have ori gi -
nated f rom anywhere wi t hi n a t housand- square- mi l e area and may be of
hal f - a- dozen geol ogi c peri ods, wi t h many of the key f eat ures f or identifi-
cation worn away. However, a f ew pret t y coral s, usual l y silicified, can be
found al ong wi th cri noi d stems and pebbl es that show cross sect i ons of
brachi opods, cl ams, and cri noi ds. Gravel pits f r om the Dakot as down t o
Texas and west to the coast produce an occasi onal worn piece of petrified
wood.
Gravel pits anywhere i n the Uni t ed St at es, however, may turn up bones,
teeth, and t usks of I ce- Age ani mal s. Thes e fossi l s are much bet t er pre-
served than the wat erworn pebbl es of i nvert ebrat es and wood because the
gi ant mammot hs and mast odons were i ndi genous, and their bones settl ed
to the bot t om of a river or l ake wi t h little movement and suffered little
damage or abrasi on. A pit may operat e f or years wi t hout dredgi ng up a
single bone and t hen f or a period of weeks run into masses of bones. The
best pl ace to l ook for these bones i s i n the office of the gravel pi t ; the
bones and teeth arouse the curi osi ty of operat ors and wi nd up as
doorstops.
John Harris of the Field Museum pours thinned shellac over a crumbling mastodon
leg bone. Large, porous bones such as this will disintegrate when they dry out.
Collecting in a gravel bed west of Fort Pierre, South Dakota. (Photo South Dakota
Department of Highways)
The gi ant gol d dredges i n Al aska screen enormous quanti ti es of gravel
and sand f or alluvial gol d. Several were f orced t o abandon one area be-
cause of f requent br eakdowns when mammot h bones and t usks cl ogged
the machi nery.
The bones, whi ch are usual l y of one of the el ephant l i ke ani mal s, crum-
bl e when dried out af t er bei ng wet f or t housands of years. Mus eums soak
the bones i n penet rat i ng liquid pl asti cs or shel l ac, and this should be done
by the amat eur col l ect or as well.
Tus ks f ound i n the cont i nent al Uni t ed St at es are usually rotted and
f ri abl e. Whe n removed f r om the wall of a gravel pit they crumbl e.
Al askan and Canadi an speci mens have been preserved by long freezi ng.
The speci mens are of sufficiently hi gh qual i ty to have provided a fl ouri sh-
ing trade i n fossi l i vory f or many years. The Eski mos used fossi l ivory
f or carvi ng and f or awl s and f i shhooks.
Gravel pits f r om I owa west ward i nto the mount ai n states and south
i nto Texas produce numbers of fossi l Pl ei st ocene horse and buffal o teeth.
Thes e teeth are several i nches l ong and usual l y dark brown or bl ack.
Ma mmot h teeth have a pl atel i ke st ruct ure and may break into sl abs that
are hard to recogni ze as parts of a t oot h. The y are general l y whi t e,
yel l owi sh, or browni sh, and l ook l i ke i vory. An enti re tooth, whi ch can
wei gh ten pounds or more, i s a col l ect or' s prize. Mast odon t eet h, whi ch
Gravel pits in the West and Southwest are sources of teeth of Pleistocene vertebrates.
This bison tooth came from Nebraska.
are even rarer, are readi l y recogni zabl e as gri ndi ng teeth. From ti me to
time bones and teeth of ot her ani mal s f rom ti ny rodent s t o gi ant beavers
are f ound in gravel pi l es.
METAL MINES
Dumps of i ron, fluorite, l ead, zi nc, and ot her mi nes may cont ai n fossi l s
f or the col l ector, because nearl y all common met al s are mi ned f r om
fissures and cavi ti es in l i mest ones.
Met al - mi ni ng areas are usual l y wel l known. The state Geol ogi cal
Survey can of t en suppl y a list of operat i ng mi nes; so can a uni versi t y
geologist. Mi nes, bot h operati ng and abandoned, are marked on t opo-
graphi c maps. Current l y or recent l y operat i ng mi nes are best f or fossi l
hunt i ng, as old dumps weat her rapi dl y. As wi t h all operat i ng quarri es,
pi ts, and mi nes, the col l ect or shoul d ask permi ssi on to hunt , and he shoul d
ask where it is saf e to hunt.
The state Geol ogi cal Survey can usual l y suggest a book or paper about
a particular mi ne that descri bes ore- beari ng hori zons, gi ves their f or ma-
tions and age, and somet i mes gives detai l ed lists of the fossi l s f ound i n
each stratum. Thi s was not done specifically f or t he fossi l hunt er but f or
the conveni ence of geol ogi sts or prospect ors wi shi ng to i denti fy the ore-
beari ng f ormat i ons.
Hunt i ng i s l i mi ted to the dumps, where the rocks have been cleaned
by rai ns and fossi l s have been et ched loose by acid wat ers. Many strata
are cut t hrough in worki ng a mi ne, and fossi l s on the dump may range
f r om Cambr i an t o Cret aceous. Mi dwest er n metal mi nes tend t o produce
ore f r om one or t wo di sti nct f ormat i ons, maki ng identification easier.
The best fossi l hunt i ng will be f ound i n mi nes i n the flatlands of the
Mi dwest and Sout h; the met amorphi sm that occurred during mount ai n
bui l di ng i n the East and We s t dest royed or grossl y di storted fossils i n the
rocks, t hough there are some undi st urbed areas. The iron mi nes i n Mi nne-
sota are i n Cret aceous rocks that cont ai n excel l ent fossi l s. The iron i s
bel i eved to be a fossi l i tsel f, concent rat ed f rom the sea water by i nnu-
merabl e bact eri a. The seabed that i s now the i ron mi ne was the home of
cl ams and snails whi ch can be f ound i n the dumps, turned to dark- brown
hemat i t e or l i moni t e.
The l ead- and zi nc- mi ni ng area around J opl i n, Mi ssouri , i s operati ng i n
Mi ssi ssi ppi an- age rocks that cont ai n charact eri st i c i nvert ebrat e fossils.
Few mi nes are still operat i ng, but old dumps are everywhere and contai n
Many lead and zinc mines are located in fossiliferous limestone. Their dumps can be
productive of specimens of fossils as well as of minerals. Lead mine near Galena,
Illinois.
some fossi l s as well as mi neral speci mens. Recent l y, tri l obi tes, cephal o-
pods, and rare new fossi l s were f ound i n the earl y Pal eozoi c rocks exposed
at the bot t om of bari t e mi nes south of St . Loui s, Mi ssouri .
The lead and zinc mi nes, a f ew of whi ch are still operat i ng i n sout hwest
Wi sconsi n, once covered the area where Il l i noi s, I owa, and Wi s cons i n
meet. The ore zone here i s i n Ordovi ci an rock, and dumps have produced
fine brachi opods and some tri l obi tes. In sout hern Illinois and nort hern
Kent ucky, the fluorite mi nes are recoveri ng more lead and zinc t han
fluorite i n Mi ssi ssi ppi an rocks. Not much wast e materi al i s dumped f r om
these mi nes, but some fossi l s can be f ound.
In mi nes i n Pennsyl vani a produci ng quart z sand f or gl assmaki ng, gi ant
crinoids have been f ound i n the sandst one bl ocks. The y are fragi l e and
difficult to collect but remarkabl y compl et e and well preserved f or sand-
stone fossi l s.
Phosphat e strip mi nes i n cent ral Fl ori da, are bonanzas of f ossi l s, be-
cause the phosphat e is a product of ani mal l i fe of the anci ent Florida seas.
The deposi ts are most l y Mi ocene, and gi ant shark teeth, bones of fish and
manat ee, turtle and al l i gator pl ates, and assorted mammal teeth are regu-
larly f ound i n the wast e piles. Mammot h teeth and bones of more recent
age are occasi onal l y uncovered i n the upper levels bef or e the older phos-
phat e- beari ng hori zon is reached.
ROAD CUTS
Besi des mi nes and quarri es, ot her manmade excavat i ons are probabl y the
best hunt i ng areas for fossi l s. Fresh mat eri al i s regul arl y exposed, and the
areas opened for i nspecti on offer much more than i s nat ural l y exposed by
the slow weat heri ng of shal es and l i mest ones. New programs of road
bui l di ng, parti cul arl y the i nt erst at e hi ghways, are creat i ng road cuts where
previously there were none. Roads are wi dened peri odi cal l y, and f resh
cuts are made. Even old road cuts produce a st eady crop of fossi l s t hrough
weatheri ng. Road cut s, except f or i nt erst at es, are easy pl aces t o col l ect ;
they are " r i ght besi de the r oad. " I nt erst at es are posted wi t h si gns warni ng
that no stoppi ng i s al l owed except f or emergency repai rs. The y may of t en
be reached, however, by driving ont o f ront age roads and wal ki ng down
to the road cuts. Some i nterstates are heavi l y f enced, wi t h barbed wi re on
top. Nor are road crews too happy wi t h rockhounds who uproot the grass
planted to stop erosi on on bare exposures.
J ust driving around, parti cul arl y on newer roads, i s the best way to
find road cuts. If an area is known to be f ossi l i f erous, such as around
Ci nci nnat i , all road cuts are l i kel y to be f ossi l i f erous wherever shal e or
A collector reaches a fossil the previous collector could not reach. Here he uses a
twelve-foot pole to dislodge a concretion from a vertical sandstone road cut in
Washington. He hopes it will contain a fossil crab.
l i mestone l ayers are exposed. Even roadsi de di tches i n fossi l i ferous areas
may be rewardi ng. Weat her i ng of the l i mest ones rel eases the fossi l s and
produces topsoil to cover them. Wat e r i n the di tches washes the fossi l s
clean and l eaves them scattered i n the bot t om.
Field-trip guides publ i shed by state Geol ogi cal Sur veys and by pro-
fessional geol ogi cal societies for field-trip meet i ngs of t en pi npoi nt promi -
nent roadcuts al ong the route and descri be i n detail the f ormat i ons and
fossils exposed. A f ew states have publ i shed roadsi de geol ogy tour gui des
for some i nteresti ng st ret ches of hi ghway. One geol ogi cal soci et y has
erected signs al ong the hi ghway t hrough the Ar buckl e Mount ai ns i n
Okl ahoma descri bi ng the age and f ormat i on of the rocks. St at e hi ghway
departments can usual l y furni sh i nf ormat i on about a new i nt erst at e hi gh-
way under const ruct i on. Up- t o- dat e road maps of t en have the i nt erst at es
under const ruct i on desi gnated wi t h dot t ed l i nes.
Duri ng excavat i on i n 1 9 6 5 and 1 9 6 6 f or I nt erst at e 7 1 near Cl evel and,
Ohi o, a bed of Devoni an shal es carpet ed wi t h fossi l fish was uncovered.
Const ruct i on stopped on that st ret ch whi l e museum crews removed
1 0 , 0 0 0 speci mens, including t housands of fi sh-beari ng sl abs. Ma ny were
species new to sci ence, and this one chance find added more Devoni an
Road cuts often yield fossils abundantly. This one near Bloomington, Indiana, is
carpeted with crinoid stems and other Mississippian fossils. (Photo by Betty Crawford)
Thin limestone layers of this road cut stand out prominently, while the softer shale
crumbles. Both limestone and shale may have fossils.
fish speci mens to scientific col l ecti ons than had ever been collected pre-
vi ousl y i n the Uni t ed St at es.
Ther e is little choi ce where to col l ect in a road cut. Al ongsi de the road
there may be a pile of rubbl e f rom weat heri ng of hi gher l ayers. It will
gi ve a qui ck idea of what mi ght be f ound in the enti re cut, al though
fragi l e fossi l s will never appear i n the weat hered materi al at the bot t om.
Li mest ones in a weat hered road cut st and out as promi nent ledges. So
do some sandst ones. Shal es weat her away, and a road cut through shale
becomes a grassy hillside in a very f ew years. If the shal es are sandwi ched
bet ween l i mest one or sandst one l ayers they will weat her back, leaving
the more resi stent l ayers of hard rock protrudi ng. It i s wort hwhi l e digging
back i nto shal es to the unweat hered part to see whet her sof t fossils are
l ocked in t hem.
A smal l exposure near Vi ni t a, Okl ahoma, al ong the i nt erst at e was a
popul ar col l ecti ng pl ace f or several years. It i s now solidly grassed over.
The shal es on the hillside weat hered rapi dl y, rel easi ng a mul ti tude of
Archi medes screws and brachi opods. Few col l ected the thin l ayers of
l i mest one that l i ttered the hi l l si de, al t hough these contai ned wel l -preserved
brachi opods and rare tri l obi te parts. One Okl ahoma col l ector pai nst ak-
ingly sampl ed the hill f rom top to bot t om, di ggi ng back i nto each sepa-
rate shal e l ayer. He was rewarded by finding a l ayer near the base whi ch
produced crinoid crowns, beaut i f ul l y preserved. He fol l owed this l ayer
along and f ound a nest of cri noi ds that held more than fifty perf ect
speci mens.
RAILROAD CUTS
In the 1800s, railroad cuts were the source of many fossi l col l ecti ons.
Roads went up and over the hills rather than through t hem, and f ew
quarries were operat i ng, so that railroad cuts created the onl y f resh ex-
posures. A f ew cut s, most l y those through shal es, are still producti ve.
Many can be reached onl y af t er quite a bit of wal ki ng and are nearl y
vertical, maki ng col l ecti ng difficult. Ol d cuts through f amous f ossi l - beari ng
areas are still wort h expl ori ng, i f for no ot her reason than that f ew peopl e
still collect f rom t hem. Many miles of rai l road cuts around Ci nci nnat i
produce quanti ti es of Ordovi ci an fossi l s. So do near by quarri es and
road cuts.
Railroad cuts are good places to collect, although most are old and overgrown. This
one at Madison, Indiana, has been a famous fossil site for over a century. (Photo by
Betty Crawford)
From time to time a beaut i f ul fossi l is f ound in the crushed rock road
bed of a rai l road. If the materi al is f resh, it can be traced back to the
quarry that produced it. Some rai l roads still operat e quarri es to provide
their fill. A f ew are fami l i ar to fossi l col l ect ors, such as the railroad qua ny
at LeGr and, I owa, whi ch produced the magni fi cent sl abs of Mi ssi ssi ppi an
cri noi ds and starfish ment i oned in Chapt er I.
NATURAL EXPOSURES
Fossi l s will occasi onal l y be f ound al ong ri verbanks, on mount ai n cliffs,
and i n ot her pl aces where rock i s exposed nat ural l y.
Rivers and Creeks
A river or creek drai ni ng an area that has exposures of fossi l i ferous rocks
is bound to have a f ew durabl e fossi l s mi xed wi t h the gravel in its bed.
Whi l e ri vers and st reams do not produce quanti ti es of good fossi l s, they
may provi de clues to producti ve areas i n the rocks.
Any detailed map, parti cul arl y any topographi c map, cl earl y shows all
ri vers. Ri vers i n any part of the Uni t ed St at es known to have sedi ment ary
rocks of Pal eozoi c or younger age are potenti al fossil sites. (See state maps
in Appendi x. )
The best time to collect i s duri ng l ow wat er, usual l y i n l ate summer.
A pai r of tenni s shoes and a swi msui t make wadi ng a pl easure, though
canoes may be necessary on l arger rivers to go f rom gravel bar to gravel
bar. Some fossi l s will be f ound l oose i n gravel bars and beaches al ong the
river edge. Thes e will be worn t o some degree and may have been t rans-
ported a long di stance by the river or by a gl aci er, maki ng identification
difficult.
The best col l ecti ng will be f r om shal e and l i mest one exposures cut
t hrough by the river. Wat er sof t ens the rock and i t al so expands while
f reezi ng, whi ch hel ps l oosen fossi l s. Earl y spring t haws wash down
quant i t i es of rock f rom the riverside exposures. Some ri verbank collecting
areas of a cent ury ago still produce f ossi l s, al t hough the bank may have
moved back hundreds of yards duri ng that ti me. Flood waters remove
l oose materi al f rom the banks and cuts and expose fresh materi al for
weat heri ng. Col l ecti ng is a mat t er of wal ki ng al ong the river and sam-
pling the exposures i n the banks and the river bot t om.
Ri vers near Cedar Rapi ds, I owa, cut t hrough coral -beari ng hori zons
of the Devoni an, and some of t hem are carpeted wi th worn pieces of
coral wei ghi ng up to fifty pounds; Kent ucky rivers have done the same
thing with Devoni an and Ordovi ci an coral s. The Falls of the Ohi o is a site
f amous for more than 150 years f or the quant i t y, vari et y, si ze, and
preservati on of the coral s exposed i n the river during l ow wat er.
New Yor k rivers i n the area west of Buf f al o cut t hrough the seemi ngl y
bot t oml ess Devoni an shal es and are all good sites to col l ect brachi opods,
corals, and occasi onal tri l obi tes. Texas creeks, when they have wat er i n
them, flow through Cret aceous rocks, parti cul arl y i n an area f rom Dal l as
south for many mi l es. The flash floods i n these st ream beds tear l oose
and later deposit l arge echi noi ds, ammoni t es, and cl ams. Mar yl and and
Vi rgi ni a rivers cut into Mi ocene and Eocene fossi l beds, rel easi ng thei r
modern-appeari ng shells and redeposi ti ng t hem al ong the edge of the
river.
The first Pennsyl vani an pl ant concret i ons i n the Mazon Cr eek area of
nort hern Illinois were col l ected i n the bed of the crqek. The river i s rarel y
hunted now, because nearby strip mi nes have uncovered the same con-
creti ons, but modern- day hunt ers still find fossi l s where col l ectors hunt ed
i n the 1860s. Muc h of the hunt i ng i s done by gropi ng i n the muddy wat er
for the rounded concret i ons.
Wes t er n rivers flow through thi ck beds of basal t that cont ai n petrified
A small creek not only exposes shales and limestones along its banks, but gently
erodes fossils from matrix. Near Versailles State Park, Indiana. (Photo by Betty
Crawford)
wood, parti cul arl y i n Or egon, Cal i f orni a, Was hi ngt on, and Idaho. In the
J ohn Day basi n of Or egon, deep-cut t i ng ri vers expose Tert i ary beds wi th
rare fossi l s of nut s and frui t s. Sout h Dakot a st reams i n the Badl ands
wash l oose mammal teeth and bones, and i n ot her areas uncover giant
concret i ons cont ai ni ng wel l - preserved ammoni t es.
The list could go on and on. Onl y a f ew states i n the Nort heast cannot
be expect ed to produce fossi l s f rom at l east some ri verbeds. Perhaps the
great est exposure of fossi l beds i n the worl d i s the Gr and Canyon, where
sedi ment ary f ossi l - beari ng beds of many geol ogi c periods are exposed by
the Col orado Ri ver. No col l ecti ng i s al l owed, and even i f i t were, the 5, 000-
f oot - hi gh banks woul d be difficult to scal e.
Dredgi ng of some Florida rivers produced great quanti ti es of bones and
t eet h, most l y of Pl ei st ocene ani mal s. Scuba divers have now explored
some of these ri vers and f ound underwat er caves and small areas loaded
wi t h accumul at i ons of bones, whi ch must have been there since the ani -
mal s died i n the cave or i n the river many t housands of years ago. Use of
scuba gear is a new techni que in fossi l col l ecti ng.
Ocean and Lake Beaches
Hundreds of t housands of miles of coastl i ne border the sal t- and f resh-
wat er bodi es of the Uni t ed St at es. Few beaches are stri ctl y sand, even the
f amous Florida and Cal i f orni a beaches, and some are quite rocky. Fossils
can be f ound i n such gravel and rock accumul at i ons, i f they have been
deri ved, at l east in part , f rom a sedi ment ary rock. The fossi l s are usually
poorl y preserved, but the col l ecti ng i s pl easant.
As wi t h river col l ect i ng, beach fossi l s are ei ther wat erworn pebbl es or
f resh speci mens f rom cliff exposures cut by the wat er. St or ms erode
beaches, carryi ng away sand and l eavi ng behi nd rocks contai ni ng a rich
harvest of fossi l s. Wi nt er freezes many nort hern l akes, and as the ice
expands i t pushes many feet up the shore, carryi ng with i t rocks once
firmly bedded i n the bot t om.
The coast l i ne of Ameri ca exposes f ew fossi l i ferous cliffs, whereas i n
Engl and, fossi l s can be f ound most of the way around the island. A f ew
i sol ated coastal cliffs f rom Cal i f orni a i nto Was hi ngt on have large ex-
posures of Cret aceous and Tert i ary mari ne fossi l s. Some Cal i f orni a
beaches have a f ew f ossi l s, such as agati zed cl ams and pieces of wood.
East coast beaches f rom Mar yl and south may yield a stray bone, tooth,
or shell. The best - known Ameri can l ocat i on i s al ong the Maryl and coast,
where l arge cl i ffs, rapi dl y erodi ng, have released thousands of superbl y
preserved Mi ocene shells and some shark teeth.
Little i s found around the Gul f beaches except where dredgi ng, part i cu-
larly f rom Mi ssi ssi ppi al most to the tip of Fl ori da, has dipped i nto fossi l
beds lying near the surf ace . These are pri mari l y Eocene and Mi ocene wi t h
typical shell, bone, and teeth fossi l s. So many fossi l shark teeth are f ound
on the beach at Veni ce, Fl ori da, and for thi rty mi l es on ei ther side of
Veni ce, that postcards procl ai m Veni ce the shark- t oot h capital of the
world. Duri ng the tourist season it is common to see hal f a hundred fossi l
hunters, bent low to the beach, scurryi ng back and f ort h wi th the waves,
waiting for shark teeth to appear. Duri ng rough weat her, l arge pi eces of
bone are washed upf r eed al ong wi t h the shark teeth f rom a fossi l bed
in the floor of the Gul f .
A small area at the south edge of Tampa, Fl ori da, used to be covered
with agatized shells and pieces of coral of Mi ocene age until the fossi l
hunters and gem cutters di scovered the beaut y of t hese speci mens. Af t er
the fossil bed was l ocated onl y a f ew feet bel ow the surf ace of the beach,
hunters dug up most of the beach out to the l ow-t i de line. Now f ew
pieces remai n to be washed up by the waves.
Lake Mi chi gan beaches provi de quart z-repl aced coral s of Devoni an or
Si l uri an age at al most any l ocati on on the south end of the l ake. The
A good collecting spot may be very small. This light-colored hill, barely 50 feet
across, is the only exposure near Kebo, Oklahoma, of a Devonian limestone full of
trilobite fossils. It is called White Mound.
Pet oskey stone f ound near the Mi chi gan t own of that name along Lake
Mi chi gan and nearby l ake shores i s the cal ci te-repl aced Devoni an coral
Hexagonaria. Si mi l ar coral s are f ound on the ot her side of the l ake in
Door Count y, Wi sconsi n.
Lake Erie laps agai nst many Devoni an exposures al ong its eastern hal f,
washi ng out brachi opods and coral s. Canadi an shores around Col l i ngs-
wood, Ont ar i o, are paved wi th Ordovi ci an sl abs crowded with trilobites.
In one Ohi o l ake, boul ders were f ound that turned out to be the stumps
of petrified Devoni an trees.
Many reservoi rs and artificial l akes i n the We s t and Sout hwest have
provi ded access to fossi l l ayers exposed in once- i naccessi bl e river cliffs.
Ther e l appi ng waves concent rat e fossi l s al ong the shorel i ne. Lake Texoma,
on the Texas - Okl ahoma f ront i er, is a f avored spot to wade in the shal l ow
wat er and feel out l arge ammoni t es wi t h the toes. The spi l l way of Lake
Benbr ook in Texas is a bonanza of cl ams and echi noi ds aft er wat er is
rel eased, teari ng l oose many fossi l s. The spi l l way of one east ern Okl a-
homa artificial l ake was cut i nto a l ayer of l i mest one composed pri mari l y
of cri noi ds and the bl ast oi d Pentremites. St ock t anks in the Sout hwest are
of t en dug into fossi l i ferous st one, where the wat ers clean and expose the
fossi l s.
Calvert Cliffs, Maryland, a Miocene formation where shark teeth are collected. (Photo
Maryland Geological Survey)
Other Natural Exposures
There are natural exposures of rock i n mount ai n cliffs and hi l l si des, espe-
cially i n the Wes t , that have never been expl ored by a fossi l hunt er. Some,
such as sedi ment ary rock caps i n the Roc ky Mount ai ns at 1 0 , 0 0 0 and
1 2 , 0 0 0 f eet , are nearl y i naccessi bl e. Topographi c maps give cl ues t o such
potential fossil si t es: l ook f or steep hillsides and cliffs, whi ch are evi dent
on the maps.
Shark teeth found at Calvert Cliffs. Similar fossils are found in Florida on beaches
and in phosphate pits. (Photo Maryland Geological Survey)
Couple viewing fossils protected from elements by plastic shield, at a station along a
fossil trail in Badlands National Monument, South Dakota. (Photo South Dakota
Department of Highways)
Any l ocati on where loose rock is exposed is a potenti al fossi l site, so
l ong as the rock i s sedi ment ary and of proper age. Fossils may erode f rom
the rock and be carried by rains into depressi ons and di tches. The surface
rock on an exposure whi ch i s not too steep will probabl y be bl ack f rom
ext reme weat heri ng, and all fossi l s will have been obl i t erat ed. One of
these sl abs, when turned over, will show a much cl eaner side. Turni ng
sl abs al so exposes scorpi ons and snakes and should be done wi t h a l ong-
handl ed pi ck.
It is of t en difficult to l ocate the source of a fossil found near the bot t om
of a mount ai n sl ope or hillside. Sof t l ayers sl ump over other l ayers hiding
t hem compl et el y. Pi eces roll down the hill and are moved by ani mal s. It
is rel ati vel y safe to assume that the ori gi nal l ocati on of a fossi l was on
the sl ope above the spot where i t was f ound, but perhaps not directly
above. A fossi l hunt er narrows his search as the gold prospector does
when he finds a trace of col or in a ri ver bed; the prospector fol l ows it
upst ream until he reaches a poi nt where there is no more gol d. The
source must lie bel ow that poi nt. Si mi l arl y the fossil hunt er traces a fossil
up the slope.
C. D. Wal cot t uncovered a sl ab of shal e contai ni ng an ext raordi nary,
sof t - bodi ed Cambri an wor m whi l e col l ecti ng i n the mount ai ns of British
Shale formed of volcanic ash entombed these leaves. Oligocene; Florissant, Colorado.
Col umbi a; he searched for several years bef ore he f ound the source. Thi s
pocket ul ti matel y produced hundreds of sl abs of i ntri catel y preserved,
soft -bodi ed ani mal s, most of whi ch were new to sci ence.
The folding and severe faul ti ng of west ern and east ern mount ai ns
makes prediction of the l ocati on of any rock l ayer nearl y i mpossi bl e. But
i t also makes any area potenti al l y wort hwhi l e, even t hough the predomi -
nant rocks look unpromi si ng.
Not f ar f rom Wal cot t ' s quarry in the Canadi an Rocki es is a l ocati on
high up on Mount St ephen where about fifty acres produce an abundance
of Cambri an trilobites. The spot i s surrounded by unf ossi l i f erous rocks
so old that fossils would never be expect ed anywhere in the area. Geol o-
gists bel i eve the bl ock of f ossi l - beari ng shal e was torn loose f rom an un-
known location and fell on the side of the mount ai n during some ext ensi ve
folding and faul ti ng.
The Cambri an tri l obi tes of Ut ah are f ound on the sides of small moun-
tains i n the central part of the state. Shar k Toot h Hill, near Bakersf i el d,
Cal i forni a, i s slowly bei ng dug away for its dental fossi l s. The Badl ands
of South Dakot a are ideal pl aces to col l ect vert ebrat e fossi l s and some
marine fossils. So are the chal k hills of Kansas, whi ch have fossi l s of
mari ne di nosaurs and gi ant fish. Hills near Kemmer er , Wyomi ng, formed
of chal ky whi te shal e deposited in Tert i ary l ake beds, cont ai n fossil fish.
The foothills of the Rocki es around Fl ori ssant, Col orado, have numerous
areas of sof t shal e, deri ved f rom vol cani c ash deposi ted i n f reshwat er
l akes. As the dust settled t hrough the wat er i t buri ed leaves and insects
that are now beaut i f ul l y preserved i n the Ol i gocene shal es.
OTHER AREAS
Any exposure, nat ural or artificial, i s wort h l ooki ng i nto. Any area known
to have produced fossi l s, even i n the most bui l t-up areas, may at some time
have a const ruct i on proj ect that will agai n expose fossi l -beari ng rocks.
Some l i kel y pl aces are descri bed here.
House and office-building excavations
Duri ng const ruct i on of bui l di ng f oundat i ons i n downt own Kansas Ci t y a
number of years ago, a l ayer of shal e was dug out that was loaded with
superb cri noi d crowns. It is difficult to collect in excavat i ons for gi ant office
bui l di ngs, but the materi al bei ng removed has to be dumped somewhere,
usual l y as fill. Ask the dump l ocati on f rom any driver as he waits for his
truck to be loaded.
Subways and tunnels
Not many new subway lines or tunnel s under bays, ri vers, and congested
areas are bei ng bui l t, but when they are, vast quanti ti es of materi al have
to be removed and dumped. Thi s i s also true where east ern and west ern
mount ai ns are bei ng pierced by i nt erst at e hi ghway tunnel s.
Sewer lines, cable trenches, pipelines
For some l arge-scal e sewer proj ect s, t renches t went y feet deep must be
made, and somet i mes even deeper cuts must be made for oil pipelines that
run f or hundreds of mi l es. Underground power lines and tel ephone lines,
whi l e not buri ed deepl y, may still cause removal of weat hered fossi l i ferous
mat eri al . Even aft er the lines have been covered, a mound remai ns where
rain may expose a f ew stray fossi l s. Ammoni t es have come f rom sewer
const ruct i on i n Col orado Spri ngs. Tons of agati zed coral and mol l usks
came f r om di ggi ng of a f i ve- bl ock- l ong sewer trench in Tampa, Florida.
Texas pi pel i nes rip through mi l es of Cret aceous fossil beds.
Canals and dredging
The beaut i f ul Si l uri an eurypt eri ds, now i n every maj or museum, were un-
covered during const ruct i on of a canal at Lockport , New Yor k, in the last
cent ury. Canal bui l di ng and wi deni ng i n Chi cago cut through Si l uri an
l i mest ones cont ai ni ng tri l obi tes, l arge cephal opods, and unique carboni zed
worms. Dredgi ng al most anywhere in Florida is likely to unearth Pl ei sto-
cene shark teeth, bones, and turtle shell pl ates al ong with the sand. Col -
l ectors st and at the di scharge end of the dredge pipes and grab the dark-
col ored fossi l s as they fall i n the wet sand. Dredgi ng for ship channel s
t hroughout the Sout heast and parti cul arl y i n Florida has l eft little islands
of dredged-up materi al of t en cont ai ni ng fossi l s. Any port ci ty peri odi cal l y
dredges its harbors and may add new channel s to its faci l i ti es. Al l are po-
tential fossi l -col l ecti ng grounds.
City dumps
Ol d quarries make conveni ent dumps, and as the ref use rises i n the quarry,
prolific strata magi cal l y become avai l abl e at wai st level. Some dumps ac-
cept onl y clean fill, and some of this fill may be f rom excavat i ons i nto
fossi l -beari ng st one. A dump at Al den, New Yor k, recent l y recei ved a
dozen truck loads of shal e that turned out to be filled wi t h tri l obi tes. The
shale had been removed f rom a basement excavat i on.
Harbors and ballast dumps
Shi ps once carried rock as bal l ast i n their hol ds. Whe n they reached port,
they woul d dump this i n the harbor or al ong the shore i f t hey were goi ng
to take back a full load. A bal l ast dump near a harbor, parti cul arl y al ong
the East Coast , may cont ai n forei gn fossi l s. Engl i sh ships of t en loaded up
with flint, the type that weat hers out of the chal k cliffs of Dover . Some of
this flint has repl aced ammoni t es and echi noi ds, maki ng choi ce col l ect or' s
i tems. Unf ort unat el y, dumped bal l ast does not carry a label of ori gi n, and
it may be i mpossi bl e to track down its fossi l s.
Dam construction
Large dams, such as those that have been const ruct ed i n recent years i n
the Wes t and Sout hwest , are unmat ched among maj or bui l di ng proj ect s
f or the quanti ty of rock t hey expose during const ruct i on. Ri ver cliffs are
blasted back to the solid rock to give firm anchorage for the concret e wall
that will dam the stream. Thi s rubbl e may be dumped out of the way.
Quarri es are opened nearby to produce aggregat e f or the concret e of the
dam. These may afford fine col l ecti ng. Even small dams will usual l y be cut
into rock. Farmers who scoop out small st ock t anks and ponds may al so
scoop out quanti ti es of loose fossi l s.
Peat bogs
Peat bogs are a rather rare and specialized type of col l ecti ng site limited
to the nort hern glaciated states. Remnant s of the last retreat of the i ce,
these bogs were death traps f or Pl ei stocene ani mal s. Mammot hs and mas-
todons ventured in, became mi red, and drowned i n the bl ack wat ers. The
high acid cont ent of the peat preserved bones and tusks and teeth. Whe n-
ever a peat bog is drai ned or dug out , there is a good chance of finding
vertebrate fossi l s.
One such bog was scraped down to its cl ay bot t om to make way f or an
expressway north of Chi cago, and the rich peat was dumped on a f armer' s
field. The first rain washed out an accumul at i on of bones and teeth be-
lieved to be the remai ns of several compl et e mammot hs. The f armer still
plows up bones every spring and has a barn full of fine speci mens.
Hog pens and animal burrows
Hillsides may have untol d quant i t i es of l oose fossi l s i n their soil, weathered
f rom fossi l i ferous shal es and l i mest ones near the surf ace, but covered by
grass and weeds. Ther e i s no more hel pful ani mal than the hog for rooting
out l oose fossi l s in such pl aces. A hog pen, t hough not the pl easantest place
i n whi ch to col l ect, can cont ai n lots of fossi l s. One Chi cago area cl ub has
f requent field trips to a hog pen in Indi ana that is paved wi th large crinoid
st ems and crinoid sl abs showi ng sporadi c plates and even crowns. Such
burrowi ng ani mal s as the badger may go bel ow the pl ant coveri ng and
bri ng up a f ew fossi l s.
Tar pits
The maj or col l ecti ng site of this sort i s the wel l - known La Brea tar pit i n
Los Angel es. But some day an amat eur may st umbl e ont o anot her tar pit.
As in the peat bog, ani mal s became mi red in the tar as they came to drink.
Predat ors at t acked the hel pl ess Pl ei st ocene ani mal s and themsel ves became
st uck. All sank sl owl y i nto the dense oil, whi ch has kept their bones per-
f ect l y preserved. Thousands of bones and compl et e skel et ons, even leaves
and fl owers, have been t aken f rom this tar pit. Sor r y, no pri vate col -
l ecti ng.
Caves
Dr y areas of the Sout hwest have a cl i mate that preserves anyt hi ng that
crawl s i nto a cave and dies. A f ew i ce-age ani mal s did j ust that, such as
the ext i nct ground sl oths f ound lying on or near the surf ace. The preserva-
tion i s really mummi f i cat i on, wi th hai r still coveri ng the bones. These
ext remel y fragi l e fossi l s are rare enough and ugl y enough so that any col -
l ector finding one is likely to turn it over to a museum. Caves were also the
haunt of i ce-age man. No cave should be i ndi scri mi natel y dug up, lest its
scientific evi dence be lost.
Fissures
In cave areas where l i mest one i s bei ng quarri ed, occasi onal fissures may be
encount ered. Here j oi nt s i n the rock have allowed wat er to si nk rapidly
f rom the surf ace. Such fissures may also have trapped ani mal s that fell
i nto t hem. A weal th of bones, most l y of tiny Pl ei stocene rodents, can come
f rom such cracks. Florida has been parti cul arl y rich i n these fossi l -beari ng
crevi ces.
Deposi t s much ol der than Pl ei st ocene are occasi onal l y found as crevi ce
fillings. The onl y evi dence that nort hern Illinois was covered by seas more
recent than Si l uri an comes f rom Devoni an fossi l s, primarily fish teeth,
f ound in a gray shal e that filled a deep crevi ce in the l i ghter-col ored Si l ur-
ian dol omi t e. Thi s was exposed bri efl y duri ng quarryi ng, long enough for
a sharp- eyed col l ector to sampl e the unusual shale and di scover fossi l s of
an unknown sea. Permi an bones, a rich concent rat i on of small amphi bi ans
WHERE TO LOOK FOR FOSSILS 1 1 5
and reptiles, were f ound near Fort Si l l , Okl ahoma, i n fissures i n much
older Ordovi ci an l i mest one.
Any cracks runni ng i nto what i s ot herwi se solid st one may be filled wi th
fossi l -beari ng materi al of a recent age, parti cul arl y if the fill is quite di ffer-
ent i n appearance f rom any ot her materi al i n the quarry.
Unusual fossil sites
There are ot her st range pl aces to search f or fossi l s but hardl y common
enough to deserve more than a passi ng ment i on. In di nosaur count ry f rom
Col orado and Ut ah into Canada, occasi onal piles of gast rol i t hs, or gizzard
stones, are f ound. Some anci ent lizards swal l owed pebbl es to hel p gri nd
their f ood, and by definition these st ones are fossi l s. On occasi on the gas-
troliths were themsel ves fossi l pebbl es. Ni cel y rounded and t umbl ed, these
fossils are all of ani mal s ol der than the Cret aceous or J urassi c.
Anci ent man accumul at ed obj ect s j ust as the modern fossi l col l ector
does. A st range fossi l woul d be pi cked up and perhaps even buri ed wi t h
the owner. Cri noi d stem segment s wi t h natural hol es i n the cent er were
ideally suited to be made into neckl aces to adorn the necks of prehi stori c
men and women. In anci ent living sites and graves, fossi l s col l ected
thousands of years ago can occasi onal l y be col l ected agai n.
Fossils are even f ound in ot her fossi l s. The tri l obi te Vogdesia crawl ed
into abandoned shells of large strai ght cephal opods that l i ttered the bot t om
of Ordovi ci an seas. Bot h shell and tri l obi te somet i mes wound up as fossi l s.
Col l ectors i n nort heast ern I owa have f ound that by breaki ng open l arge
cephal opod shells t hey may di scover an occasi onal tri l obi te. Fossil nema-
todes were found embedded i n fossi l scorpi on ski n f rom Devoni an rocks
of the nort hern Rocki es. Petrified wood f rom some areas, when br oken
apart, reveals the cl ams known as t eredos, still preserved at the end of
their burrows. Del i cat el y preserved flowers and l eaves f rom the late Pl ei s-
tocene are known to sci ence mai nl y through their uni que preservat i on i n
the mout hs and st omachs of Si beri an mast odons and mammot hs that were
frozen with their mout hs still full of f ood. The diet of Ordovi ci an cephal o-
pods that lived i n Ar kansas seas has been studied t hrough thei r st omach
cont ent s, now pyritized like the cephal opods t hemsel ves. Scal es, fins, and
teeth of small Pennsyl vani an fish are known onl y f rom the fossi l i zed ex-
crement of ot her fish and sharks, never havi ng been f ound as compl et e
fossils in the rocks.
A remarkabl e find was made in the petrified st ump of a Pennsyl vani an
tree when i t was broken apart. The tree had evi dent l y been hol l ow, and
this hol l ow was the home of a rare earl y reptile. The tree and the reptile
were fossilized t oget her, the st ump protecti ng the fragi l e bones f rom sep-
arating and di si ntegrati ng. One more proof of what every col l ect or even-
tually di scoversf ossi l s are where you find t hem!
VII
PRACTICAL
FIELD TRIPPING
The fossi l col l ector can l earn the l ocat i ons of current l y producti ve fossil
sites f r om ot her col l ectors, and f rom museums, uni versi t y and state geol o-
gi st s, recent gui debooks, and articles on field trips i n hobby magazi nes.
He may al so search t hrough prof essi onal j ournal s, such as the Journal of
Paleontology, f or those arti cl es that list sites for col l ecti ng the fossi l s de-
scri bed in the arti cl es.
Thus the field trip begi ns at home, where decisions about desti nati on
and i t i nerary must be made, and skill i n recogni zi ng parti cul ar fossi l s must
be devel oped.
PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS
Several consi derat i ons ent er i nto deci si ons about the desti nati on of the trip.
The ti me of year i s i mpor t ant ; so i s the sui tabi l i ty of the cl i mate f or out-
door col l ecti ng. Equal l y i mport ant i s the col l ect or' s parti cul ar i nterest or
speci al t y. He may pref er fossi l s of one peri od, such as the Devoni an, or of
one t ype, such as tri l obi tes. Desert regi ons are fit f or man or beast onl y
f rom Sept ember t hrough Ma y ; hi gh- el evat i on fossi l sites of the nort hern
Rocki es are snowbound f or about the same peri od.
Sensi bl e travel ers not onl y make caref ul pl ans for their trips, but they
al so schedul e al ternati ve col l ecti ng areas. Thei r first choi ces may prove
116
PRACTICAL FIELD TRIPPING 117
to be i naccessi bl e or they may have been used as bui l di ng sites or dumps,
or may have been over-col l ected.
Besides knowi ng where they are goi ng i n such detail as the obscuri t y of
the area requi res, good col l ectors al l ow ampl e ti me to reconnoi t er the l oca-
tion. It takes time to di scover f resh deposi ts at a heavi l y col l ected l ocati on
or even to trace out the geol ogy of one that i s less well known. Field work
is usually prel i mi nary to the actual col l ecti ng.
Maps and Guidebooks
Maps, of course, are the travel er' s first resource. I nf ormat i on about avai l -
able maps and di recti ons f or underst andi ng and usi ng t hem appear i n
Chapt er VI I I .
Af t er getti ng the map si tuati on firmly under cont rol , the experi enced
col l ector will draw on all avai l abl e resources to fami l i ari ze hi msel f wi th
fossi l s he expect s to find on his trip and the f ormat i ons in whi ch he is most
likely to find them. Ma ny states publ i sh monographs, gui debooks, and
popul ar reports about thei r fossi l s. Usual l y these are listed i n pamphl et s
obt ai nabl e f rom the state Geol ogi cal Survey or Conservat i on Depar t ment .
Even old pamphl et s may suggest areas wort h a visit al t hough the specific
sites are no l onger acti ve mi nes or ot her worki ngs. St at e report s of any
kind are i nval uabl e, but they become even more usef ul i f thei r i nf orma-
tion i s enri ched wi th that gai ned f rom visits to museums and deal ers,
where the col l ector can see and perhaps handl e fossi l s l i ke those he hopes
to find. If possi bl e, he shoul d try to see some of the fossi l s in mat r i x; this
will not onl y acquai nt hi m wi t h the organi sm itself but wi t h the rock i n
which it is f ound.
Searchi ng out i n advance fel l ow col l ectors living near the chosen col l ect -
ing site can bri ng rewards in i nf ormat i on, in speci mens, and possi bl y in
new fri endshi ps. You can phone or wri t e member s of mi neral or archeo-
logical cl ubs, museum curat ors, and col l ege or hi gh school i nst ruct ors.
Of t en one of t hese f el l ow col l ectors will be glad to hel p you, and his
guidance in the field can be i nval uabl e.
Locati on markers, road si gns, and roads change i n our restl ess soci et y,
so that the compani onshi p or advice of a local col l ector may be needed to
bri ng up- t o- dat e even the newest maps. Thi s may be the margi n bet ween
a successful trip and di sappoi nt ment .
Equipping an Automobile
Fossils, like mi neral s, seem to hi de away i n the f ar pl aces of the l and where
they must be sought af t er by aut omobi l e. Havi ng the vehi cl e i n first-class
runni ng order is the next essenti al f or a successful trip. A J eep or other
f our- wheel - dri ve vehi cl e may be necessary t o reach trackl ess spots, espe-
cially i n t he Far We s t . Not onl y shoul d the car be fit f or the road; i t should
al so be equi pped wi t h a spare tire or t wo, a hand pump, tools f or changi ng
tires and f or maki ng si mpl e repai rs, a roll of chi cken wi re f or tracti on in
desert sands, a t ow rope, a spare f an bel t , mat ches, candl e st ubs, a flash-
light, and maps. Si nce wheel lug bol t s are ti ghtened wi th air wrenches at
servi ce st at i ons, it is well f or the dri ver to see whet her he could loosen
t hem if he shoul d have to change a tire on the trip.
Some caref ul and met hodi cal campers advise packi ng the car, then un-
packi ng and repacki ng it. In this way t hey make sure that not hi ng has been
f or got t en; that each i tem i s readi l y avai l abl e when needed, especially the
spare ti re, tire wrench, and j ack; and that the car i s hol di ng up well under
its burden. If ext remel y heavy l oads of fossi l s are expect ed, overl oad or
hel per spri ngs and heavy- dut y shock absorbers can be added to the car at
some expense, but too much wei ght can overl oad t wo- pl y and four-pl y
tires.
Ma ny col l ectors are now rel yi ng on smal l mot orcycl es designed for
heavy- dut y, of f - t he- road use t o ent er wi l derness areas. These can be car-
ried on the back of a car or camper. A new race of ext remel y tough sports-
men' s vehi cl es has recent l y been bor n; most of t hese have t remendous
t ract i on t hrough mud, sand, and rocks and are even amphi bi ous, t hough
not wel l suited f or the open road.
Dr i ver fai l ure i s as much to be dreaded as car fai l ure. The driver should
be sure he i s i n good heal th bef ore he changes f rom the sof t physi cal en-
vi ronment of an office desk to the taxi ng demands of l ong drives fol l owed
by hours of wal ki ng and cl i mbi ng.
Cans wi t h pouri ng spouts are needed to carry spare oil, gasol i ne, and
radi ator wat er on l ong trips off the mai n road. Put wi t h t hem cans or
pl asti c cont ai ners to hol d a gal l on of wat er per person f or each day to be
spent i n desert or dry camp. Cans of frui t j ui ce and a t hree-day supply of
f ood that i s pal at abl e wi t hout heat i ng bel ong i n the adventurer' s larder.
Emergency Water
In an emergency, it is possi bl e to make the desert yield enough wat er to
sust ai n l i fe f or a whi l e. Al l t hat is needed is a si x- f oot - square sheet of
pol yet hyl ene or Myl ar pl asti c, the stuff of whi ch pai nt ers' drop cl ot hs are
made. A hol e about t hree f eet across and t went y to t went y- f our i nches
deep is dug in the sand. A pail or quart can is placed in the bot t om of the
hol e. Over it the pl asti c sheet is draped, and a small stone is placed wi th
its l owest point over the col l ecti ng cup. St ones around its edge anchor the
sheet firmly. The heat of the desert sun will vapori ze some moi st ure f r om
the sandi t will collect on the undersi de of the pl asti c and drip i nto the
cup. Crushed cactus or ot her veget at i on can be scat t ered i n the bot t om of
the hole to provi de more moi st ure f or evaporat i on.
Clothing
The wei ght of cl othi ng proper to the trip will depend on the condi t i ons
likely to be encount ered. But , rai n or sun, cold or hot , the body shoul d be
covered: cl othi ng is a necessary prot ect i on agai nst sunburn, abrasi ons, and
flying splinters of rock broken off by the col l ect or' s hammer . Shar p fl akes
such as these can bl i nd an eye or cut an art ery of the f ace or arm. Anyone
who has seen a f el l ow col l ector st reami ng bl ood f rom this ki nd of cut has
had sufficient warni ng to protect his body i n the f ut ure. And anyone
who has experi enced the agoni es of sunburn knows i t i s di sabl i ng.
Cot t on or wool sl acks for men and women; army- l ast hi gh shoes wi t h
molded rubber sol es, or good work boot s well broken i n and worn over
two pairs of socks, one thin and one heavy; sturdy work gl oves; and a hat
or cap with a bri m make up a sensi bl e field cost ume. Cl ot hi ng shoul d be
l oosel arge enough to allow easy movement i n cl i mbi ng and di ggi ng.
Sungl asses and sunt an oil will t emper the bri ght ness of mi dday, and saf et y
goggl es, saf et y shoes, and hard hat s shoul d be avai l abl e for those occasi ons
when work will be done among heavy rocks or al ong quarry wal l s. Federal
regulations now require them for anyone col l ecti ng in a quarry.
Al t hough they are recommended i n many books , hi gh boot s are too
heavy f or most field use. Exposure to snakes woul d seem about the onl y
excuse for weari ng t hem. Rubber boot s may occasi onal l y be needed t o
collect i n st reams, on beaches, or i n deep mud. The most effecti ve way to
adj ust to the changi ng t emperat ures charact eri st i c of mount ai n or desert
regions is to have several wei ghts of sweat ers on hand. A l i ght wei ght
nyl on ski j acket gives excel l ent col d- weat her prot ect i on. A pocket kni f e, a
pocket first-aid ki t, and i nsect repel l ent will be hel pful on unexpect ed
occasi ons. Soap f or washi ng up aft er handl i ng rocks shoul d be i ncl uded.
Some mi neral s l eave poi sonous resi dues on the hands.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE FIELD
The perils and hazards of the great out doors have been grossl y exagger-
ated. The col l ector is safer cl i ngi ng by hand on a cliff t han he is in his
car on a crowded hi ghway. He will avoid most hazards if he will do three
t hi ngs:
1. Look over the col l ecti ng area wi t h an eye to possi bl e danger spots.
2. Keep a level head and rel y on common sense.
3. Leave behi nd word about where he i s goi ng and when he may be
expect ed to return. If he fai l s to return on t i me, rescuers can go
l ooki ng f or hi m.
Goi ng al one into the mount ai ns or desert i s not common- sense behavi or.
A sudden st orm or even a cri ppl i ng i nj ury is not hal f so terri fyi ng when
someone i s wi t h you as i t i s when you are al one.
The sensi bl e col l ector l earns to hast en sl owl y and gradual l y. He wal ks
wi th a rhyt hmi c st ep, putti ng each f oot down firmly so that a loose stone
will not mean a sprai ned ankl e. He finds the easi est path and the most
gradual sl ope. If he get s out of breat h, he stops and rest s, realizing that he
is a sedent ary worker suddenl y turned out doorsman, not an Ol ympi c
at hl et e, and that unusual exerti on at hi gh altitudes makes severe demands
on a body unaccust omed and unaccl i mat ed to it.
Cl i mbi ng and wal ki ng on difficult ground are much easi er i f the col -
l ect or l earns to control his body movement s so that he i s never off bal ance.
Nast y fal l s can be avoi ded if, whi l e cl i mbi ng on rocks, he tests f oot hol ds
and handhol ds bef ore putti ng his full wei ght on t hem.
If t here are several peopl e i n the part y, the pace shoul d be set by the
physi cal abi l i ty of the sl owest. If two or more col l ectors are together on
st ony sl opes, t hey shoul d stay cl ose by one anot her so that dislodged
st ones will not endanger anyone l aggi ng behi nd.
Collecting in Dangerous Areas
Common sense teaches that no speci men i s wort h endangeri ng life or ri sk-
ing seri ous i nj ury. It is especi al l y i mport ant to remember this when col l ect-
ing in a quarry, where the rock is shat t ered and may overhang the face.
Thi s is the pl ace to wear a hard hat. If pebbl es are fal l i ng f rom the over-
hang, thi nk twi ce bef ore ri ski ng the chance that l arger rocks may fal l , too.
Part i cul ar care must be t aken i n the spri ng, when f rost may be holding
the rocks t oget her. A warm sun will soon mel t the ice and may rel ease tons
of rock. Even a hard hat will not hel p then.
Open mi ne shaf t s, passages t o mi nes, and deep prospect holes can be
deadl y. The y may harbor dangerous ani mal s; snakes retreat f rom the heat
of the sun i nto the cool ness of such pl aces. Falling rocks and rotti ng
l adders make shaf t s unsaf e, and old dri fts present the perils of fal l i ng roof
rocks, hidden pi ts, and t reacherous fl oor t i mbers, besi des the ever- present
possibility of deadly gases.
Col l ectors have been drowned i n the bone- dry desert by fl ash fl oods
that fill draws and canyons to the bri m wi thi n mi nut es. It is advi sabl e to
avoid campi ng in such pl aces.
Getting Lost
Get t i ng lost i s perhaps the great est hazard the col l ect or f aces. The desert
is a place of austere beaut y and of harsh ext remes. The mount ai ns turn a
forbi ddi ng face to the person unf ami l i ar wi th t hem, but it is possi bl e to live,
and live wel l , i n bot h envi ronment s. If you get l ost, don' t pani c. St ay wi t h
your compani ons, t ake shel ter where you are, and try t o enj oy the si t ua-
tion as you wai t f or rescue. Prospect ors i n such si tuati ons have been
known to live on fern shoot s, pi non nut s, and the berri es that bears eat,
such as rose hi ps, el derberri es, t hi mbl eberri es, and j uni per pi ps.
The l ost and lorn who have their aut omobi l e have everyt hi ng needed t o
sustain l i f eshel t er, heat , wat er, fuel f or maki ng an al arm fire. Deser t -
wise persons advise stayi ng in and cl ose to the car ; it is easi er f or rescuers
to find a car than a person. Gi ven enough reserve f ood and wat er, the
misplaced prospect or can settl e down i n his steel shel t er, saf e f rom ani mal s
and weat her, and enj oy bei ng away f r om i t all f or a f ew hours or days.
Poisonous Plants and Insects
Woodcr af t will enabl e the col l ect or to i dent i fy and shun poi son ivy and
poison oak. Anyone who i s sensi ti ve to thei r i rri tants shoul d l earn i n sel f-
defense to recogni ze these pl ants. Was hi ng wi t h soap as soon as possi bl e
aft er exposure i s the recommended remedy.
Sunburn and wi ndburn are among the mi nor perils of the out doors.
Much di scomf ort can be avoi ded i f the body i s covered. Shoul d one be
burned, however, baki ng- soda sol uti on will ease the di scomf ort , and the
moi st soda will also relieve the sting of i nsect bi t es. For most ot her pur-
poses, such as cuts and scrapes i nci dental to all cont act wi t h nat ure, the
best medi ci ne i s warm wat er and soap.
Wood ti cks and most ot her i nsect s can be dest royed wi t h sprays. The
wood tick woul d be a mi nor nui sance except that it somet i mes carri es the
virus of Rocky Mount ai n f ever, a once- deadl y di sease t hat now can be
controlled wi th drugs. Ti cks are smal l , fl at gray i nsect s that appear i n warm
weather. They hang on the twigs of underbrush, wai t i ng to hi t chhi ke a
ride on a passi ng ani mal or man. Onc e havi ng f ound a host , they burrow
underneat h the ski n to feed on bl ood. If they are not too deeply buried
t hey can be removed wi t h t weezers; they can even be made to back out at
the t ouch of a heat ed nail or a l i ghted ci garet. If they are beyond the reach
of such remedi es it is advi sabl e to have a physi ci an remove t hem, so as to
avoid i nf ect i on of the wound.
Chi ggers i nfest pri me col l ecti ng areas of Kansas, Okl ahoma, and Ar -
kansas and seem parti cul arl y f ond of east ern ci t y-dwel l ers who have never
experi enced thei r l ong- i t chi ng bi t es. Insect repel l ent shoul d al ways be
applied when you are crossi ng grassy or weedy areas i n summer. Dust i ng
cl othi ng wi t h powdered sul f ur i s recomended to keep bot h chi ggers and
ti cks away. Lozenges of a sul fur preparat i on to be eaten for the same
purpose are on the market .
Poisonous Animals
The possi bi l i ty of encount eri ng scorpi onsespeci al l y the vi rul entl y poi -
sonous one of the Sout hwes t makes i t prudent to take certai n precau-
ti ons i n regi ons where these ani mal s are not uncommon. Caref ul campers
do not sleep on the ground, and they shake out f oot wear bef ore putting
i t on. Because scorpi ons, smal l , st raw- col ored, spi derl i ke ani mal s, usual l y
spend thei r days beneat h rock sl abs, pieces of rock should be overturned
wi t h a pi ck, not by hand.
Snakes bi te a f ew t housand persons a year, but f ew of their vi cti ms die.
Cert ai nl y the most dangerous are the vari ous species of rat t l esnakes, be-
cause t hey are f ound i n al most every st at e. Some are quite l arge and inj ect
a l arge amount of venom when t hey st ri ke. The coral snake of Florida i s
dangerous but is restri cted to a small regi on. Copperheads and wat er
moccasi ns pref er swamps and damp areas.
Snakes , l i ke all repti l es, cannot adj ust their bodi es to changi ng t empera-
tures, so that t hey are forced to hi bernat e in cold weat her and to hide f rom
the sun i n the heat of the day. In the desert t hey hunt f or rodents at ni ght.
Few snakes are aggressi ve; they will bi t e onl y if they are driven into a
corner where they feel they must fight to escape. For this reason, most
encount ers wi th snakes are the faul t of man; they can be avoided by
t aki ng a f ew si mpl e precaut i ons.
Avoi d wal ki ng i n dense brush or near fal l en l ogs or woodpiles where
snakes may be resti ng duri ng the day, or anywhere that you cannot see
where you are steppi ng. Be caref ul of narrow, rocky ledges where you may
find a snake sunbat hi ng. Wa l k sl owl y and make some noi se as you wal k
to gi ve warni ng of your approach. St out shoes and l oose, floppy trousers
will protect the most exposed area of your bodyt he legs and feet. Don' t
reach into a hole or turn over rocks wi t h your hands; use a sti ck or rock
hammer. St ay as cl ose as possi bl e to your car ; i t may be your ambul ance
if you are bi t t en.
Dr . Clifford C. Snyder of the Uni versi t y of Ut ah, a recogni zed aut hori t y
on t reat ment of snakebi t es, advises that vent uresome persons goi ng i nto
snake country should carry a snakebi t e ki t and l earn to use it. Dr . Snyder
has permi tted us to include his recommendat i ons f or a ki t , whi ch shoul d
include a flat elastic t ourni quet , two surgical prep sponges sat urat ed wi th
alcohol and sealed in sterile foi l , a di sposabl e scalpel sealed in sterile foi l ,
and an ampoul e of ant i veni n.
The best t reat ment for snakebi t e is to rush the vi cti m to a hospi t al or
physi ci an. Meanwhi l e, the vi cti m shoul d sit down, qui et hi msel f , and avoid
exerti on. If possi bl e, someone shoul d kill the snake f or i denti fi cati on pur-
poses in choosi ng the correct ant i veni n f or t reat ment . A t our ni quet even
a bel t, tie, handkerchi ef , or strip of cl ot hshoul d be applied bet ween the
bite and the heart. On an arm or leg, pl ace the tourni quet two or t hree
inches above the bi te and above the swel l i ng. It shoul d be l oose enough
so that a finger can easi l y be i nserted beneat h it. If it is too ti ght, it will
stop the ci rcul ati on. The tourni quet shoul d be l oosened once an hour. But
if the bite is on the f ace, do not at t empt to apply a tourni quet.
The second step in field first aid is to cl eanse the wound wi th the
alcohol sponges. Then an i nci si on shoul d be made, connect i ng the f ang
marks and extendi ng the cut a quart er i nch beyond t hem. Care must be
taken to avoid severi ng muscl es or nerves. The wound shoul d be squeezed
gentl y with the fingers for t went y to thi rty mi nut es or unti l the vi ct i m is
taken t o the doctor. Dr . Snyder advises agai nst sucki ng the wound because
the mout h cont ai ns bact eri a and because unnot i ced cuts i n the mout h may
absorb enough poi son to do in the woul d- be doct or. Ice wrapped in a
bit of clean cloth may be applied to the wound, but not f or more t han an
hour. The ice should be removed gradual l y to avoid sti mul ati ng the ci r-
culation.
Di rect i ons for admi ni steri ng the ant i veni n shoul d be fol l owed cl osel y i f
the situation requires that it be gi ven in the field.
Food Poisoning
Food poi soni ng is perhaps a great er danger than snakes. Prepared meat s
and sandwi ch fillings, sal ad, and cream-fi l l ed baker y goods are f oods likely
to i ncubate poi sons when l eft in the hot t runk of a car or on the picnic
table i n the sun. Precaut i ons are doubl y i mport ant where ref ri gerat i on f a-
cilities are makeshi f t . One tainted sandwi ch is enough to spoil a year' s
vacat i on.
THE ETIQUETTE OF COLLECTING
Mot her Nat ure i s fai rl y ki nd to t hose who use her resources wisely and
respect her l aws. The y can enj oy her weat her and derive heal th f rom con-
tact wi t h her. Si mi l arl y, the ri ghts of ot her men must be respected by the
sensi bl e col l ect or, who recogni zes that he shares the bount y of nature with
ot hers.
Col l ect i ng, t heref ore, has not onl y its craft but also its eti quette. Essen-
ti al l y, eti quette is respect f or the ri ghts of ot hers. It is t hought f ul ness, good
manner s, as well as the selfish f ear that col l ecti ng pl aces will be closed if
col l ectors abuse thei r pri vi l eges.
And cl osed they of t en are. Here i s a report f rom an east ern geologist
about the consequences of greed and t hought l essness i n his st at e:
One of our Coast al Pl ai n l ocal i ti es, whi ch i s accessi bl e and f or years has
been a wonderf ul source of materi al for st udent s, has been closed the
past three years because a bus- l oad of st udent s f rom a rel ati vel y new
col l ege, wi th apparent l y a f ew new and unt rai ned i nst ruct ors, wal ked
abreast across a wheat field j ust bef ore harvest t i me, in order to get to
the ravi ne where the fossi l s occur. The more experi enced and t hought ful
vi si tors had al ways t aken a more difficult and sloppier road, waded down
a st ream got mud in their shoes, but retai ned the goodwi l l .
In anot her i nst ance, the nearest cave f or expl orati on wel comed or-
gani zed groups for many years. About five years ago, a Phi l adel phi a
group br oke i nto the house to get the key to the door i nto the cave.
Whe n the owner ret urned, she ordered the i mmedi ate sealing of the
ent rance wi t h ci nder bl ocks. It i s al most beyond understandi ng that
i ntel l i gent and conservat i on- mi nded people can become so thoughtl ess
and sel f - cent ered. However , this type of acti vi ty seems to be on the
i ncrease; perhaps because so many more of us have leisure whi ch can
be used i n the great out doors.
Several of the bet t er l ocal i ti es, where specific directions have appeared
i n pri nt, have been compl et el y obl i t erat ed. One of these i s the so-cal l ed
Tri l obi t e Ri dge i n nort hern New J ersey. Ther e i s hardl y a piece of rock
in the area as big as a quart er. In anot her l ocati on in Camden, a fifteen
f oot cut bank has been compl et el y l evel l ed, not by the owner, but by
fossi l col l ect ors. The owner now has a ni ce, gent l y sloping l awn.
Incredi bl e as these cases may seem, the prize has been t aken by some
mi neral col l ectors who dug carnel i ans under the f oundat i on of a hi gh-
tensi on t ower. The area i s still avai l abl e to the knowl edgeabl e col l ectors
onl y because one mi neral cl ub, finding the excavat i on, filled i t and advised
the owner.
Elsewhere in the same st at e, a guest of a mi neral cl ub cut hi s leg whi l e
collecting, went to a hospi t al , and ret urned to col l ect personal damages
f rom the owner of the site. Si nce t hen, col l ecti ng has not been al l owed i n
this locality.
A Code of Ethics
An Emi l y Post f or pal eont ol ogi st s mi ght include the f ol l owi ng:
1. Get permi ssi on t o ent er and t o col l ect on pri vate or publ i c propert y.
Mos t public propert y is open, but it may be cl osed because it is under a
mi ni ng claim or has been wi t hdrawn f rom unrest ri ct ed use f or some ot her
purpose. Finding the owner of pri vate propert y may requi re some i nvest i -
gati on, because propert y changes hands f requent l y i n this restl ess age.
2. Do not drive through or ot herwi se damage growi ng crops. I n f ar m-
ing count ry it is a good policy to stay on the roads. Do not cut trees or
bushes unless permi ssi on to do so has been expressl y grant ed.
3. Do not touch machi nery, such as that used i n a quarry or i n hi ghway
constructi on, and be careful not to dri ve over power cabl es or air hoses.
Be especially careful not to drop any rocks down f reshl y drilled bl ast i ng
holes in quarri es.
4. Do no bl ast i ng wi t hout express permi ssi on of the owner of the
property. For your own saf et y and that of ot hers, l eave the use of expl o-
sives to a skilled person.
5. Do not carry or di scharge fi rearms. Ther e can be except i ons t o this
st at ement , but they shoul d be l egal l y and l ogi cal l y j usti fi abl e. Mi xi ng
hunti ng and col l ecti ng trips is likely to lead to troubl e.
6. Take every precauti on agai nst st art i ng a grass or f orest fire. Ext i n-
guish and bury the embers of campfi res and be caref ul about di scardi ng
lighted ci garets and mat ches.
7. Do not foul creeks or wel l s. Resi dent s and l i vest ock may depend on
them for water.
8. Fill i n any hol es you may have dug lest cattl e or ot her domest i c
ani mal s fall in and i nj ure t hemsel ves.
9. Bury, burn, or carry away your l i tter. Leave a cl ean campsi t e.
1 0 . Open gates should be l eft open; cl osed gat es shoul d be cl osed be-
hind you.
1 1 . Col l ect onl y sufficient materi al f or your own needs. Don' t collect
to sell. To do so is to turn a hobby i nto a busi ness and to t ake advantage
of the owners (public or pri vate) who have al l owed you to collect.
12. Don' t try to carry a l oad that i s beyond your st rengt h, especially on
mount ai n sl opes and rocky fl ats. Cont rol of the body i s l ost to some degree
under such condi t i ons, and you expose yoursel f to the danger of falls as
well as of heart at t acks. Nei t her makes the trip more enj oyabl e.
13. Do not carry rocks or tools l oose i n the car. In a collision or sudden
st op, t hey become l ethal proj ect i l es.
The Law of Trespass
The f undament al l aw regul ati ng any out door acti vi ty such as fossi l collect-
ing i s the common l aw of t respass. Tr espass was ori gi nal l y a wrong com-
mi t t ed wi t h f orce and vi ol ence agai nst a person or propert y, but i n one
f or m of the old wri ts i t became trespass or breach of the cl ose, whi ch
meant unl awf ul ent ry on anot her person' s propert y. Thus permi ssi on t o
ent er and f urt her permi ssi on to camp, excavat e, etc. , should be obtai ned.
I nasmuch as an owner can be held responsi bl e for i nj ury to a person given
permi ssi on to ent er his l and, the owner may requi re you to sign a wai ver
to relieve hi m of this responsi bi l i t y. Thi s is general l y not true if he charges
a f ee.
Pri vat el y owned land is prot ect ed agai nst trespass whet her or not it is
encl osed or cul ti vated. As a Cal i f orni a official sai d, rural resi dents tend to
be very conservat i ve about propert y ri ghts, but most of t hem are reason-
abl e peopl e, and, i f the vi si tor i s court eous, consi derat e, and asks permi s-
sion to col l ect, he will be f avorabl y recei ved. " Al ways obt ai n permi ssi on
bef or e ent eri ng pri vate propert y and never l eave a mess behi nd, " was
his advi ce.
Owner-Release Laws
Some states have passed what are known as owner- rel ease laws whi ch
absol ve the owner of the l and of responsi bi l i ty for the saf et y of persons
he has permi t t ed to ent er his propert y. In the f orm used i n Texas , whi ch
i s represent at i ve of many ot hers (except that some restrict the wordi ng to
hunt ers onl y) , the l aw states that the owner or l essee does not assure the
guest that the premi ses are saf e and that he does not take responsi bi l i ty
f or the acts of the guests i f t hey i nj ure ot hers. The law does not relieve
the owner of responsi bi l i t y f or hi s own mal i ci ous or del i berate act s, nor
does i t appl y i f he uses the land f or commerci al recreati on or charges
admi ssi on. The Texas act limits its appl i cati on to hunt ers, fi shermen, or
campers, but i t mi ght be ext ended t o rock col l ectors, too.
Common decency and good policy al i ke suggest that some f orm of ap-
preciation be shown f or the owner' s ki ndness t oward t he col l ector. Thi s
may take the f orm of a gi ft , such as a piece of j ewel ry or a book, or t aki ng
the owner out to di nner. Each col l ector represent s all col l ect ors by hi s
public behavi or. If he is selfish or i nconsi derat e, all col l ect ors will be
j udged to be like hi m, and all col l ectors will suffer by finding col l ecti ng
areas closed to them.
The Antiquities Act
The basi c law governi ng col l ecti ng on federal l y owned l ands i s the Ant i q-
uities Act of 1 9 0 6 ( U. S. Code Sec. 34 St at ut e L - 2 2 5 ) . Thi s provi des that
permi ts to exami ne rui ns, excavat e archeol ogi cal si ght s, and to col l ect ob-
j ects of anti qui ty or of hi stori cal or scientific i nterest on l ands under thei r
j uri sdi cti on may be grant ed by the secretari es of the Int eri or, Agri cul t ure,
or the Ar my to i nsti tuti ons they deem properl y qualified, provi ded that
these activities are f or the benefi t of reput abl e museums, col l eges, or ot her
recogni zed scientific or educati onal i nsti tuti ons and that the gat heri ngs will
be permanent l y preserved i n publ i c museums. The penal t y f or vi ol ati on i s
a $ 5 0 0 fine or 90 days i n pri son.
The t hought behi nd the l aw i s that the federal government has the
responsi bi l i ty to protect anti qui ti es that are the propert y of all the peopl e,
and the act has been i nterpreted to include vert ebrat e pal eont ol ogi cal
remai ns as anti qui ti es. Fossils have rarel y been the subj ect of l i ti gati on,
but in a Sout h Carol i na case, in an appl i cati on f or a mi ni ng cl ai m filed to
protect collecting on a fossil site, a fossi l bone was refused cl assi fi cati on as
a mi neral .
In general , the federal anti qui ti es law has not been used to rest rai n i n-
vertebrate fossil col l ectors. I n 1 9 6 6 , the federal government by a regul a-
tion of the Depart ment of the Interi or set a daily bag limit of 25 pounds
plus one l arge single piece on noncommerci al col l ectors of fossi l wood and
an annual limit of 2 5 0 pounds a person. The regul ati on f orbi ds commerci al
collecting or the use of power tool s, such as bul l dozers, to uneart h the
wood. Thi s regul ati on does not apply to pri vatel y owned l and, onl y to
federal lands under the j uri sdi cti on of the Depar t ment of the Interi or.
Rules for Public Lands
Mor e recentl y, the Bureau of Land Management of the Depar t ment of the
Interior announced rules under whi ch col l ecti ng i s permi t t ed on lands
under its j uri sdi cti on. The ci tati on, Paragraph 6 0 1 0 . 2 , Rul es of Conduct ,
of Rul es f or Publ i c Lands, reads:
(a) Permi t t ed Act i vi t i es:
( 1 ) Col l ect i ng- hobby speci mens. Fl owers, berri es, nut s, seeds, cones,
l eaves and si mi l ar renewabl e resources and non- renewabl e resources such
as rocks, mi neral speci mens, common i nvert ebrat e fossi l s and gemst ones
may be col l ected i n reasonabl e quanti ti es f or personal use, consumpt i on
or hobby col l ecti ng. Li mi tati ons on this pri vi l ege are cont ai ned i n Para-
graph (b) of this secti on.
(b) Prohi bi t ed Act i vi t i es:
( 5 ) Gat her or col l ect renewabl e or non- renewabl e resources f or the pur-
pose of sale or bart er unl ess specifically permi t t ed or authori zed by law.
( 7 ) Use mot ori zed mechani cal devi ces f or di ggi ng, scrapi ng or trenchi ng
f or purposes of col l ecti ng.
You may wi sh t o send f or Ci rcul ar 2 1 4 7 of the Bureau of Land Man-
agement , Depar t ment of the I nt eri or, whi ch repri nts l aws and regulations
affecti ng mi neral and fossi l col l ecti ng.
THE PUBLI C LAND L AW REVI EW COMMI SSI ON
The di recti on of federal t hi nki ng and probabl y of f ut ure l aw on the use
of federal lands i s cont ai ned i n the report of the Publ i c Land Law Revi ew
Commi ssi on, whi ch made a fi ve-year study of l aws governi ng the third of
t he nat i on' s area that i s federal l y owned. Mos t of t hese l ands are i n the
west ern states and Al aska. The Commi ssi on recommended that the Uni t ed
St at es retai n these l ands i nstead of tryi ng to di spose of t hem as i n the past,
and it al so recommended that a policy of cl assi f yi ng l ands by their domi -
nant use be adopted. Furt hermore, i t f avored chargi ng f or use of public
l ands; f or i nst ance, i t recommended a fee f or recreati onal purposes, whi ch
woul d include col l ecti ng.
The Commi ssi on f urt her recogni zed " hobby mi neral col l ect i ng" and
recommended that i t be permi tted on the " unappropri at ed public domai n"
under regul at i ons set up by the Secret ary of the Interi or, who would
oversee permi t requi rement s and f ees to be charged. Presumabl y this woul d
permi t col l ecti ng f or personal use on any publ i c lands where i t would not
i nt erf ere wi th a desi gnated domi nant use, such as grazi ng, mi ni ng, f armi ng,
or l umberi ng.
State Laws
Some state regul ati ons and l aws also apply to col l ecti ng. Bel ow is a sum-
mary of those reported i n f orce most recent l y:
ALABAMANo specific regul ati ons appl y t o fossi l col l ecti ng.
ALAS KAS t a t e reserves mi neral and fossi l ri ghts when selling or grant -
ing st at e- owned l ands. " Th e right t o ext ract fossi l s ( presumabl y commer -
cially) must be leased f rom the s t at e. "
ARI ZONAPr i va t e i nterests own 16 percent of l and, t o whi ch trespass
l aw would appl y; Uni t ed St at es owns 7 1 . 1 percent , t o whi ch Ant i qui t i es
Act and petrified wood rul es woul d appl y; and f or the remai ni ng area,
state has its own anti qui ti es act whi ch restri cts whol esal e col l ecti ng.
ARKANS AS No specific regul ati ons appl yi ng t o fossi l col l ecti ng. Land-
owner relieved of responsi bi l i t y f or i nj ury to person he has admi tted to
his l and.
CALI FORNI ASt a t e l aws f orbi d removal , dest ruct i on or i nj ury t o vert e-
brat e fossi l s, i ncl udi ng fossi l f oot pri nt s, f rom st at e- owned l ands wi t hout
permi ssi on of the state agency cont rol l i ng the area. No geol ogi cal speci mens
of any sort may be removed f r om state parks wi t hout permi ssi on. Di ggi ng
or carryi ng away of st one wi t hout permi ssi on i s specifically defined as an
act of t respass. . Trespass l aws coveri ng pri vate propert y are enf orced stri ctl y.
COL OR ADONo appl i cabl e l aw report ed.
CONNECTI CUTOwn e r may regi ster land f or recreat i onal use and be-
come exempt f rom responsi bi l i ty f or i nj ury t o person ent eri ng l and.
DELAWARENo specific l aws except f or trespass on pri vate l ands, but
the U. S. Corps of Engi neers obj ect s to whol esal e col l ecti ng al ong the
Chesapeake and Del awar e canal as a t hef t of federal propert y.
F LORI DAThe st at e' s regul at i ons f or preservi ng obj ect s of hi stori c or
scientific value include f ossi l s, but the l aws have been set up pri mari l y to
control treasure hunt ers and have apparent l y not been enf orced agai nst
amateur col l ectors.
GEORGI ANo specific regul ati ons that appl y t o fossi l col l ecti ng.
HAWAI I F e w fossi l s exi st and no regul ati ons about t hem have been
passed.
I DAHOVe r t e br a t e fossi l s may be excavat ed or removed f rom the state
onl y by permi ssi on of the state hi stori cal soci ety under regul at i ons f or
preservati on of hi stori c sites.
I LLI NOI SSt at e retai ns ri ghts over abori gi nal remai ns and sites but has
no specific regul ati ons regardi ng col l ecti on of fossi l s.
I NDI ANASt a t e has l aw agai nst damagi ng cave f ormat i ons but none
regarding collecting of fossi l s. Landowner i s exempt ed f rom responsi bi l i t y
for i nj ury to anyone ent eri ng his propert y, by permi ssi on or wi t hout it.
I OWARe s t r i c t s col l ecti ng onl y i n parks and ot her st at e- owned areas.
KANSASPer mi s s i on of t he anti qui ti es commi ssi on i s needed to dig f or
archeol ogi cal obj ect s, but apparent l y this has not been ext ended to fossi l s.
KENTUCKYTh e depart ment of archeol ogy at the Uni versi t y of Ken-
tucky issues permi ts f or archeol ogi cal digs on publ i c l ands, but apparentl y
this has not been required of fossi l col l ect ors. Owner s are released f rom
l i abi l i ty f or damages ari si ng f rom i nj ury to a hunt er on their l ands, wi th
or wi t hout permi ssi on.
LOUI S I ANANo specific regul ati ons apply t o fossi l col l ecti ng. Owner or
occupant of land has no responsi bi l i t y t o keep premi ses saf e f or anyone
who ent ers on it, wi t h or wi t hout permi ssi on.
MAI NES t a t e has f ew f ossi l s, and no l aws appl yi ng t o fossi l s.
MARYLANDOwn e r s h i p of anti qui ti es bel ongs t o st at e, and permi ssi on
to excavat e t hem i s gi ven by the Geol ogi cal Survey. No laws apply speci -
fically to fossi l s. Landowner i s not held responsi bl e f or saf et y of premi ses
or i nj ury to hunt er s; presumabl y this woul d apply to fossi l col l ectors, too.
MAS S ACHUS E T T S S t a t e has l andowner' s rel ease l aw for hunt ers and
fi shermen.
MI CHI GANRe s t r i c t s excavat i on of anti qui ti es or abori gi nal materi al ,
but consent of l andowner i s enough f or removal of obj ect s f rom pri vatel y
hel d l and. Tr espass i s defined as wi l l ful carryi ng away of any st one, etc. ,
wort h more t han $5 wi t hout permi ssi on of l andowner. Landowner i s not
responsi bl e f or saf et y of persons ent eri ng his land f or outdoor recreati onal
purposes.
MI NNE S OT ANo specific regul at i ons appl y t o fossil col l ecti ng.
MI SSI SSI PPI St a t e exempt s individuals maki ng nat ural - hi st ory col l ec-
ti ons f or scientific purposes f rom regul ati ons on excavat i on of obj ect s of
hi stori c or scientific val ue. Permi t s are grant ed to qualified persons and
i nst i t ut i ons.
MI SSOURI Re s t r i c t i on on fossi l col l ecti ng exi sts onl y i n state parks, and
fossi l s may be col l ected there wi t h permi ssi on of the park superi ntendent.
MONTANAAnt i qui t i e s l aw i s pat t erned aft er the federal act. The state
at t orney general has ruled that it can apply to fossil col l ecti ng but has not
been so applied. It mi ght be applied agai nst whol esal e col l ecti ng f or profit.
NEBRAS KARa nc he r s have obt ai ned a stri ct trespass l aw whi ch does
not requi re t hem to post si gns, but owner of land i s relieved of liability for
saf et y of persons on his land f or recreati onal purposes, ei ther wi t h or
wi t hout permi ssi on.
NE VADAT h e St at e Mus eum may post petrified wood sites agai nst col -
l ecti ng to preserve t hem. A permi t is needed f rom the state on state lands
and f rom the federal government on federal lands to excavat e prehi stori c
si tes, whi ch are defined to i ncl ude pal eontol ogi cal deposits. But col l ecti ng
of gems, fossi l s, or art i f act s is al l owed wi t hout permi t if the col l ecti ng is
not done on a prehi stori c si te.
NE W HAMPS HI RES t a t e has f ew fossi l s and no l aws regul ati ng
col l ecti ng.
NE W J ERS EYTh e state has no l aw restri cti ng the collecting of fossi l s,
but i t assumes good behavi or f rom persons permi tted to ent er on land for
such purposes. The state has a l aw relieving l andowners of any responsi -
bility for maki ng certai n their propert y i s saf e f or persons ent eri ng on the
land for recreati onal or sports purposes.
NEW MEXI COSc i e nc e commi ssi on supervi ses col l ect i ng, and a syst em
of state monument s has been created to preserve sites of scientific val ue.
Permi ts t o collect f rom state monument s must be obt ai ned f rom commi s-
sioner of l ands. Apparent l y no state regul ati on of ot her areas.
NEW YORKCol l e c t i ng permi ts on st at e- owned lands are i ssued t o per-
sons " who are prof essi onal l y c ompet ent " by the assi st ant commi ssi oner
f or St at e Museum and Sci ence Servi ce, St at e Educat i on Depar t ment ,
Al bany, 12224. Permi ts are good f or a year.
NORT H CAROL I NANo specific regul ati ons apply t o fossi l col l ecti ng
but do regulate col l ecti ng of art i f act s.
NORT H DAKOTAQua l i f i e d persons and i nsti tuti ons are permi t t ed t o
excavat e pal eontol ogi cal materi al f or a $5 permi t f ee, but all materi al f rom
st at e- owned land must be gi ven to st at e. Landowner may collect on his
own land or give ot her persons permi ssi on wi t hout a state permi t.
OHI ONo specific regul ati ons appl y t o fossi l col l ecti ng.
OKL AHOMAOn l y restri cti on i s to get permi ssi on to col l ect on pri vate
land.
OREGONPe r s ons al l owed t o make nat ural hi st ory col l ecti ons f or sci en-
tific purposes, but permi t should be obt ai ned f rom division of state l ands
to collect on state l ands. Regul at i ons may also be prescri bed f or col l ecti ng
petrified wood or gemst ones on state l ands, and col l ectors may be requi red
to return as much as one- quart er of what t hey col l ect to the st at e. Al l
beaches and recreati on areas are open to publ i c use. Landowners may not
be held responsi bl e f or saf et y of persons ent eri ng on their l ands.
PENNS YLVANI ANo specific regul at i ons apply t o fossi l col l ecti ng.
RHODE I S LANDHa s no l andowner' s rel ease l aw and has no state
agency concerned wi th its f ew fossi l deposi ts.
S OUTH CAROL I NANo specific regul ati ons appl y t o fossi l col l ecti ng.
S OUTH DAKOTAPe r mi t i s required f rom the state hi stori cal soci ety
to make archeol ogi cal excavat i ons on publ i c l ands.
TENNES S EEOwne r has the responsi bi l i ty f or maki ng his land reason-
abl y safe f or invited guests but has no responsi bi l i t y f or t respassers.
TEXASLandowne r may not be held responsi bl e f or saf et y of persons t o
whom he gives permi ssi on to enter on his propert y.
UTAHCas ual col l ecti ng of petrified wood, f ossi l s, and gemst ones i n
small quanti ti es f rom unrest ri ct ed state or federal l ands i s permi ssi bl e i f
the materi al is f or personal noncommerci al use. Ot her wi se a permi t is
required. Smal l quanti ti es are defined as ten pounds or less a day or one
hundred pounds a season. No col l ecti ng is al l owed in nat i onal monument s
or parks or state parks, or Bureau of Land Management or local recrea-
tional areas. Maj or excavat i on of pal eontol ogi cal deposi ts on state or f ed-
eral l ands requi res permi ssi on of the state park and recreati on commi ssi on,
the count y board, and, i f on federal l and, the federal agency concerned.
VE R MONT No specific regul ati ons on col l ecti ng of fossi l s.
VI RGI NI ANo specific regul ati ons on col l ecti ng of fossi l s. A l andowner
does not assume liability f or the saf et y of persons he admi ts to his
propert y.
WAS HI NGT ONRe c e n t l aw frees a l andowner of responsi bi l i ty for in-
j ury to persons usi ng his land f or recreat i on wi th his permi ssi on, provided
that he post s warni ng si gns i n any potenti al l y dangerous area.
WE S T VI RGI NI ANo specific regul ati ons on col l ecti ng of fossi l s. A state
anti qui ti es commi ssi on regul ates col l ecti ng on state l ands, but apparentl y
its j uri sdi cti on does not ext end to amat eur col l ecti ng for personal use.
WI S CONS I NS t a t e ' s trespass l aw rel ates pri mari l y to hunt ers and fisher-
men. No specific l aw regul ates col l ecti ng of fossi l s.
WYOMI NGCo l l e c t o r s of fossi l s and art i f act s f rom st at e- owned lands
are required to get a permi t f rom the commi ssi oner of lands at the St at e
Capi t al i n Cheyenne. Col l ect i ng i s permi tted onl y f or scientific purposes.
Essent i al l y, t hen, a f ew states have regul ati ons on fossi l col l ecti ng, but
even t hey make rel ati vel y little at t empt to deny the amat eur the right to
gat her surf ace fossi l s f or his own use on publ i c land not ot herwi se dedi-
cat ed. None of the states at t empt s t o keep j uri sdi cti on over pri vatel y
owned l ands, al t hough a f ew reserve mi neral ri ghts on lands sold to indi-
vi dual s. A growi ng number of states are maki ng it easi er for an owner to
gi ve permi ssi on by their owner- rel ease l aws, whi ch rel ax barri ers erected
by i nsurance compani es whi ch mi ght have t o sat i sf y claims arising f rom
an acci dent.
Roadsi de col l ecti ng may be prohi bi t ed by state pol i ce, parti cul arl y on
i nt erst at e hi ghways, where roadsi de parki ng i s usual l y limited to emer-
genci es. It woul d be wi se to ask the state police whet her collecting i s
al l owed in road cuts if the car is parked on anot her road or in a desi gnated
rest area.
VIII
MAPS AND HOW TO
USE THEM
A map, f or the purpose of an amat eur col l ector, is a general i zed represen-
tation on a flat surface of some aspect of the surf ace of the eart h. It may
be a road map, such as those that filling st at i ons give away; a t opographi c
map, whi ch expresses a third di mensi on t hrough such a devi ce as cont our
l i nes; or a geol ogi c map or ot her more specialized t ype that shows the
nature of the surface rocks, or economi c and geographi cal f eat ures.
ROAD MAPS
In this aut omobi l e age, the col l ect or will, of course, find road maps i nval u-
abl e. They direct hi m to where he hopes to col l ect by the short est , f ast est
or most conveni ent route. A f ew even i ndi cate pal eont ol ogi cal si tes such
as petrified f orest s, and fossi l fish beds.
But the serious col l ector will wi sh to have more preci se and anal yti cal
i nf ormat i on than he can get f rom a road map or atl as. It i s not enough to
be guided to a si t e; the col l ector needs to know more about the deposi t
i n whi ch he pl ans to collect. Muc h of this i nf ormat i on he can l earn f rom
maps bef ore he ever t akes to the road, and t here i s al ways more to l earn
when he gets to his dest i nat i on. It is rarel y possi bl e to dri ve ri ght to an
133
undepl eted fossi l -col l ecti ng si te, and l ocati ng the deposi t itself usually calls
for hi ki ng guided by a good map.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
The col l ector' s best guide i s the t opographi c map. Road maps do not show
the st eepness of hi l l s, the depth of val l eys, or even subtl e changes of el e-
vati on i n the prai ri e states. The topographi c map adds the illusion of this
third di mensi on by convent i onal symbol s known as cont our lines. These
show the relief of the l andscape, whi ch i s the di fference of el evati on of
hi l l s, val l eys, and ot her nat ural f eat ures. Thus they show hei ght, whi ch i s
the di fference of el evati on of two nearby obj ect s, and el evati on, whi ch i s
the hei ght figured f rom a base pl ane, usual l y sea l evel , known as the datum
pl ane.
In addi ti on, these maps mark the posi ti on of manmade f eat ures, such
as roads (including mi nor trails not shown on road maps) , mi nes, quarri es,
and t owns. In the t opographi c maps produced by the Uni ted St at es Geo-
logical Survey, wat er and i ce, such as l akes and gl aci ers, are shown i n
bl ue; manmade obj ect s and political boundari es are i n bl ack; maj or hi gh-
ways are i n red; forest ed areas i n green; and the cont our lines are i n
brown. Ot her symbol s are expl ai ned on the back of some of the maps, and
a summary of the symbol s is cont ai ned in the pamphl et " Topogr aphi c
Ma ps , " whi ch may be had f ree f rom the Map I nf ormat i on Offi ce of the
Geol ogi cal Survey, Was hi ngt on, D. C. 20242.
Topographi c maps are made to scal e, that i s, a di stance on the eart h' s
surf ace i s port rayed by a proport i onat e di stance on the map. The maps use
several scal es, but the most common are 1 inch to 62, 500 i nches, or
roughl y 1 inch to 1 mi l e; 1 i nch to 24, 000 i nches; and 1 inch to 250,000
i nches. The first is a medi um scale useful for rural areas where a great deal
of detail is not necessar y; the second, a l arge-scal e map for hi ghl y devel -
oped areas, shows individual bui l di ngs; and the last is useful pri mari l y to
cover an ext ensi ve area i n one map.
The scale i s shown i n graphi c f orm on the margi n of the map. By mark-
ing off a di st ance on the map on a piece of paper, the user can compare
the di st ance wi t h the scale and get a readi ng of the di stance in mi l es or
f eet . Maps are al ways made wi t h the nort h di recti on at the top. Symbol s
on the margi n i ndi cate the true nort h and the magnet i c nort h, whi ch are
usual l y several degrees apart, dependi ng on l ocati on.
The Uni t ed St at es Geol ogi cal Survey has been mappi ng the Uni t ed
St at es and Puert o Ri co si nce 1882. In Canada, similar maps are made by
the Geol ogi cal Survey of Canada, i n Ot t awa.
MAPS AND HOW TO USE THEM 135
Interpreting the Topographic Map
Interpreti ng the t opographi c map, l i ke i nt erpret i ng poet ry, t akes some
practice and some i magi nat i on. The map' s cont our lines are l i ke st eps,
wi th a fixed hei ght of " r i s e r s . " The di stance bet ween the cont our lines
may be 20 feet or 100 f eet ; the i nterval is chosen to present a readabl e
representati on of the detail i nvol ved on the parti cul ar map, and the i nterval
is desi gnated on the map.
River valley and hills (upper drawing) and topographic map of same area (lower
drawing). The river flows into a bay partly enclosed by a sandspit. The hill on right
has a gradual slope; the one on left rises steeply above a tableland. From the im-
proved valley road, a dirt road takes off right to a church and two houses. Contours
on the map are 20 feet apart. (From U.S. Geological Survey' s "Topographic Maps. ")
One way to underst and the idea of cont ours is to visualize a view of the
l and f rom an ai rpl ane. (If one flew over an area on whi ch the actual con-
tour lines were marked on the l andscape, he woul d, i n effect, be seeing a
cont our map, but cont our l i nes sel dom occur nat ural l y. ) Imagi ne a series
of st akes dri ven on a hi l l : first a series at every poi nt wi t h an el evati on of
5 0 0 f eet above sea level, t hen anot her row at 5 1 0 f eet , and so on t o the
top of the hill. From the air t hese rows of st akes woul d appear to f orm
i rregul ar ci rcl es some di stance apart.
The same thi ng coul d be accompl i shed by creat i ng a gi ant l ake wi th
its surf ace 5 0 0 f eet above sea l evel . Then the shorel i ne of the l ake would
be the 5 0 0 - f o o t cont our line on the aerial map or on a cont our map.
Rai si ng the l ake level 10 f eet woul d est abl i sh the 5 1 0 - f o o t cont our line.
In rel ati vel y flat count ry such a 10 f oot rise woul d ext end the shorel i ne
hundreds of f eet hori zont al l y; the cont our lines woul d be f ar apart on the
map. Conversel y, a l ake wedged bet ween al most vertical cliffs woul d show
very little i ncrease in size as it rose. Its cont our lines woul d be al most on
top of each ot her.
Each cont our l i ne, t heref ore, represent s a series of poi nts of like el eva-
tion that f or m an i rregul ar circle. A hill is a st ack of cl osed l oops; a val l ey is
a V- shaped or U- shaped series of lines that cross the val l ey; and a cliff face
is a punched- t oget her mass of l i nes. If the cliff is exact l y verti cal , the lines
coal esce i nto one line. Cont our lines may run off the map, but i f the map
were big enough it woul d be seen that they eventual l y f orm a closed loop.
Every f ourt h or fifth cont our l i ne, dependi ng on the scal e, i s printed
darker and carri es a figure of the el evati on i n feet. The el evati on of certai n
promi nent obj ect s such as mount ai n peaks, bench mar ks, or l akes i s given
in bl ack. A bench mark ( BM on the map) is a real marker placed on the
eart h' s surf ace that records one of the thousands of poi nts whose el evati on
has been preci sel y det ermi ned by survey. Usual l y it is a met al plate on a
concret e post. Thes e markers shoul d never be marred or di sturbed.
Depressi ons are al so marked wi t h cont our lines. Shor t ti cks ( hachures)
at ri ght angl es to the cont our l i nes poi nt down the slope. They are added
when there is possi bi l i ty of conf usi on bet ween a small hill and a shal l ow
depressi on.
Topographi c maps are peri odi cal l y revi sed, especially those where urban
growt h has caused maj or changes i n manmade structures. Somet i mes,
however, the col l ect or will wi sh to find an old fossi l location by an obsol et e
descri pti on, such as " one- hal f mi l e south of J ones' s Ferry on the west bank. "
J ones' s Ferry i s l ong gone. An old topographi c map, however, may be
f ound in a l i brary or museum, and it may carry the old site descri pti on. By
such research, old col l ecti ng sites can be redi scovered. The date of a t opo-
graphi c map appears i n the l ower ri ght - hand corner.
Geological Survey Quadrangle Maps
The quadrangl e maps, known as the nat i onal series of the U. S. Geol ogi cal
Survey (and those of the Canadi an Sur vey) , are based on the meri di ans
of l ongi tude and the paral l el s of l ati tude. The meri di ans of l ongi tude run
nort h and sout h, dividing the earth i nto wedge- shaped pieces east and
west of the pri me meri di an at Greenwi ch, Engl and; the paral l el s of l ati tude
run east and west and divide the surf ace nort h and sout h of the equat or.
The Uni ted St at es i s i n the nort h l ati tudes and west l ongi tudes.
The maps are pri nted on l arge sheets of paper. Each of the l arge-scal e
l - t o - 2 4 , 0 0 0 maps covers 7h mi nut es of l ati tude and l ongi t ude; the me-
di um-scal e l - t o - 6 2 , 5 0 0 maps cover 15 mi nut es of l ati tude and l ongi t ude;
and the l - t o - 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 maps cover 1 degree of l ati tude and 2 of l ongi tude.
I n the Uni t ed St at es 15 mi nut es, whi ch i s a quart er degree, i s about 18
miles of latitude and 15 mi l es of l ongi tude. The l ati tude and l ongi tude of
the map are recorded on the corners and sides. Ti ck mar ks on the margi n
divide the map i nto ni ne rect angl es, whi ch can be desi gnated f or l ocati ng
a poi nt as i n the NW, NC, NE, WC, C, EC, S W, SC, and SE rect angl es,
or by the posi ti on i n degrees, mi nut es, and seconds of latitude and l ongi -
tude.
All conti nental land surf aces of the Uni t ed St at es except the east ern
foundi ng states and Texas are divided into 6- mi l e squares known as t own-
ships. Each t ownshi p, i n turn, i s divided i nto 36 sect i ons, each a mi l e
square contai ni ng 6 4 0 acres. Townshi ps are number ed nort h and scut h
f rom a base line ( symbol T) and into ranges ( symbol R) east and west
f rom a principal meri di an. A t ownshi p mi ght be Towns hi p 3 Nor t h ( T3N)
and Range 2 Wes t ( R 2 W ) . Sect i ons are numbered f rom ri ght t o left on the
odd- numbered lines and l eft to right on the even- numbered l i nes, starti ng
i n the upper ri ght -hand corner and cont i nui ng to the bot t om ri ght - hand
corner. Sect i ons are divided into quart er sect i ons, pri mari l y f or l and-ti tl e
purposes, so that a legal descri pti on mi ght be SW; 1 of NEJ of Sect i on 17 of
the townshi p descri bed above; its full descri pti on woul d be S WJ of NE{ ,
Sec. 1 7 , T3 N, R 2 W . (See accompanyi ng exampl e) . By cont i nui ng the quar-
tering, an exact l ocati on of a single house (or fossi l si te) any pl ace in the
Uni t ed St at es where the t ownshi p syst em i s used can be descri bed i n
less than one line.
Topographi c maps are made today f rom aerial phot ographs f rom whi ch
three-di mensi onal proj ect i ons can be made to give the mapmaker the data
on cont ours, drai nage, forest ed areas, etc. Maps were f ormerl y made f rom
surveys sket ched by hand i n the field. Today some such surveys must be
made to provide basi c poi nts f or i nt erpret at i on of the aerial phot ographs
2
<
i
u
<
IN
!
UJ
2
T^? N
2
"
BRTSE UNE
C
A
u
Z
T L N
RL E
j
i
0
T 2 S
W W
Z
T 1 5
R 1 E
TWP. 2 NOCRN
TOWNSHIP I NORTH
"TWP. I SOUTH
5
H
3
1 \
7
8
1 0
11 12
18 17 / 6 IS 11
13
/ I
2 0
21
2 2 2 3 2<T
3 o 2 1
2 a 2 7
2 6
2 5
31 3 2
3 3 34 3 5
W.W.X,
OF
S E CT I ON \2_
T2 5 I ^J W DIVIDED H/ SZC.TIQU5
Townships are laid out along a principal meridian and a base line (drawing at top).
Ranges are measured east and west from the meridian, townships north and south
from the base line. Each township is six miles square. Each township is divided (lower
left) into 36 sections, each a mile square, numbered from right to left and from left
to right alternately. Each section is then divided into quarter sections (drawing lower
center), and each quarter into forties (40 acres) (drawing lower right). In designations
T stands for township, R for range, and N E S W for the directions.
and to get i nf ormat i on about areas, such as a heavy f orest , where the detail
would be hidden f rom the camera' s eye. Man- made f eat ures are also
described f rom field data.
The user of a topographi c map will occasi onal l y wi sh to det ermi ne hi s
own position on it. Thi s he can do by t aki ng compass readi ngs on two
visible l andmarks that appear on his map. He can then draw i n the lines
on his map, and the poi nt where they i nt ersect will be on his posi ti on.
Hydrographi c maps are t opographi c maps of the bot t oms of l akes or
seas. They are made f rom soundi ngs t aken wi th an i nst rument that proj ect s
a signal toward the bot t om and then regi sters the i nterval of time bef ore
it rebounds.
Topographi c quadrangl e maps f or areas east of the Mi ssi ssi ppi river
may be ordered f rom the Was hi ngt on Di st ri but i on Sect i on, U. S. Geol ogi cal
Survey, 1200 Sout h Eads St reet , Arl i ngt on, Vi rgi ni a 22202. Thos e f or areas
west of the Mi ssi ssi ppi river may be ordered f rom the Denver Di st ri but i on
Sect i on, Geol ogi cal Survey, Federal Cent er, Denver Col orado 80225. I n-
dexes of the avai l abl e maps may be obt ai ned f r om these cent ers f ree of
charge. These i ndexes also list dealers i n pri nci pal cities who st ock the
maps. Maps are desi gnated by the names of a t own or maj or natural f eat ure
appeari ng on them. Ma ny ot her agenci es of the federal government issue
maps, for exampl e, there are Forest Servi ce maps of nat i onal f orest s. The y
may be ordered f rom the Forest Servi ce, Depar t ment of Agri cul t ure, Wa s h-
i ngton, D. C. 20250. Orders should be placed sufficiently f ar ahead t o allow
time f or the order to be filled and the maps ret urned.
For students, the Geol ogi cal Survey has made avai l abl e a set of t went y-
five maps showi ng typical t opographi c f eat ures, such as mount ai ns,
gl aci ers, and faul ts.
GEOLOGIC MAPS
Geol ogi c maps are topographi c maps wi t h added i nf ormat i on of i nterest to
col l ectors, prospect ors, mi ners, and speci al i sts i n such subj ect s as land use
and wat er suppl y. A topographi c map i tsel f conveys a lot of geol ogi c
i nformat i on to anyone abl e to read it. Ri dges on the map probabl y st and for
bodies of hard rocks, such as di kes, upt urned st rat a, and dense l i mest one
and sandst one; val l eys i ndi cate areas of eroded sof t rocks, such as shal e.
Geol ogi c maps, however, carry this type of i nf ormat i on much f urt her.
They are especially useful to the fossi l col l ector because t hey will tell hi m
where to find sedi ment ary rocks, the source of most speci mens.
Geol ogi c maps l ocate and i dent i fy specific rock masses that lie on or
near the surface wi th respect to ot her topographi c f eat ures. Such maps
grew out of the ones that Baron Cuvi er and Al exandre Brongni art drew
of the Pari s basi n and those that Wi l l i am Smi t h made of Engl and i n the
first two decades of the last cent ury.
The basi c geol ogi c l aws that these men hel ped di scover still guide map-
makers today. Thes e include the l aw of superposi t i ont hat i n any pile
of undi st urbed sedi ment ary rocks the youngest rocks are at the top, the
strata underneat h are progressi vel y ol der, and the ol dest are f ound at the
bot t om. Anot her l aw affirms that wat er- l ai d sedi ment st he happy hunti ng
ground f or f ossi l scont i nue hori zontal l y in all di recti ons until they thin
out at the ori gi nal shorel i nes on the edge of the basi n. To this bel ongs the
corol l ary that where a sedi ment ary st rat um di sappears abrupt l y, it has
ei ther been removed by erosi on or displaced by a faul t.
In prepari ng a geol ogi c map, cart ographers assume that similar rocks
showi ng the same successi on of strata and not too f ar separated pre-
sumabl y bel ong to the same ti me, and that an unidentified stratum prob-
abl y can be traced al ong unti l it i nterfi ngers wi th a more fami l i ar one that
will hel p in pl aci ng it.
Field geol ogi sts t rench, drill, and sampl e out crops to i denti fy the surface
rocks and i nterpret their rel ati onshi ps. A geol ogi c map may stop wi th
surf ace data, or i t may become a study i n dept ha geol ogi c c ol umn
whi ch is like a verti cal cut t hrough the rocks at one or more sel ected poi nts
i n the map. Such a detailed map may require el aborat e l aborat ory work.
Geol ogi c col umns showi ng the pile of st rat a and rel ati ve t hi ckness are
usual l y pri nted on the margi ns of the map. Format i ons (groups of strata)
are the basi c uni ts of the geol ogi c map, and each must be ext ensi ve enough
to be meani ngf ul to the user of the map. Fol ds, f aul t s, and tilted f ormat i ons
are also i ndi cated. For col l ecti ng purposes, the rel ati vel y si mpl e geol ogi c
map that identifies surf ace rocks i s the most useful .
Dip and Strike
J ust as on topographi c maps, the means empl oyed to convey the map' s
message are symbol s, t ext ures, and col ors. One of the most perpl exi ng
symbol s on the map, that f or dip and stri ke of rock masses, deserves some
expl anat i on because i t i s commonl y used and i s especi al l y significant. Many
rocks, such as sedi ment ary ones t hat were laid down i n hori zontal strata,
have been tilted and ot herwi se di sturbed. The y may have been raised into
anti cl i nes (hills) or depressed i nto syncl i nes ( val l eys) , whi ch may l ater have
been eroded.
Di p and stri ke are more difficult to define t han to underst and. If a com-
mon 3 by 5- i nch file card is rested on one l ong edge on a hori zontal surface
so that it stands verti cal l y, the compass di recti on al ong the top edge of the
card is its stri ke. St ri ke is a compass di recti on. Now if the verti cal card is
tilted to one side the angl e of the tilt wi t h the hori zont al surf ace will be the
dip. Di p i s the i ncl i nati on of the st rat um f r om the hori zont al , measured i n
degrees, and stri ke i s the di recti on of the line of i nt ersect i on al ong the
hori zontal pl ane. The symbol i s \ 2 5 , i n whi ch the l onger line gives the
compass di recti on and the short l i ne i s the dip, expressed i n an accom-
panyi ng figure in degrees.
On geol ogi c maps, cont act s of f ormat i ons are shown i n bl ack lines whi ch
are solid if the cont act is vi si bl e and dashed if it is not . Faul ts are shown
by heavy bl ack l i nes, and the symbol s U or D show the di recti on of move-
ment of the faul t wal l s. Arrows show hori zont al faul t movement .
Maps as Major Tools
Maps are maj or tools of the fossi l col l ector. J ust as a woodworker must
learn how to use a pl ane and chisel if he is to produce accept abl e obj ect s,
so the fossi l col l ector must l earn to use his map tool s. He must l earn to
read them and to grasp the weal t h of i nf ormat i on they hol d f or an i n-
f ormed eye. The best way to do this is to get a general underst andi ng of
symbol s and convent i ons at home and t hen put this knowl edge to the
acid test i n the field. Ther e the symbol s become meani ngf ul . The col l ector
will soon learn to l ocate areas of suspected f ossi l - beari ng rock on geol ogi c
maps and to l ocate quarri es on t opographi c maps. Areas of cl osel y spaced
cont our lines mark steep sl opes where rock i s l i kel y to be exposed. Ri ver
bluffs can easily be l ocated. The easi est access to an area can be pl anned
by taki ng a route that goes t hrough areas of wi del y spaced cont our l i nes.
IX
PREPARING
AND CLEANING FOSSILS
Col l ect i ng i s onl y hal f of the j ob. Few fossi l s are f ound so cl ean that they
are fit to be placed in a col l ecti on wi t hout f urt her work. Some need onl y a
br ushi ng; some requi re pai nst aki ng t reat ment to remove rock that obscures
the details of the fossi l . Proper cl eani ng i s i mport ant . Al most every day,
an amat eur col l ector bri ngs a fossi l to a museum to be identified. Too
of t en a rare speci men has been damaged because its owner brushed var-
ni sh on it or dest royed fine detail by pl ungi ng the fossil in acid to get rid
of mat ri x.
Preparat i on begi ns in the field wi t h use of proper tools. Each person in
the col l ecti ng part y shoul d have a prospect or' s pi ck, a flat chi sel , and a
square- poi nt ed chi sel ; and the part y shoul d share sl edges, crowbars, and
shovel s. Wi t hout proper tool s, the col l ect or will be unabl e to remove
fossi l s in an undamaged condi ti on. He will also need a knapsack, a col -
l ecti ng bag, or an apron wi th pocket s where he can st ow away wrapped
speci mens. For some areas, a met al bucket or a basket is more conveni ent .
Put t y kni ves or old tabl e kni ves are useful for splitting shale, and an old
t oot hbrush will be useful f or scrubbi ng di rty fossi l s i n the nearest puddle
or st ream.
The shal l ow cardboard t rays that hol d f our si x- packs of beer ( commonl y
called " beer f l at s" by col l ectors) can be fitted together i f the corners of
142
PREPARING AND CLEANING FOSSILS 143
Pieces of large turtle shell are cemented together with plaster of paris and dextrin.
The plaster fills in chipped edges and can be colored to match the fossil.
the bot t om tray are bent in. Thi s makes a shal l ow, ext remel y st rong,
covered box of conveni ent size to t ransport or st ore fossi l s.
Ext remel y soft mat ri x must be treated to harden i t f or the trip home.
Some carboni zed fossi l s, such as pl ants and fish, must be sprayed to keep
the fossils on the mat ri x, or they will crumbl e to dust af t er a f ew mi l es
of traveling. Vert ebrat e fossi l s require el aborat e pl aster casts bef ore t hey
can safel y be moved f rom their resti ng pl aces i n the field. At home, the
actual work of cl eani ng fossi l s will begi n: cl i ngi ng mat ri x can be removed
or tri mmed to size, and rock can be di ssol ved or ot herwi se el i mi nat ed to
free its cont ent of smal l fossi l s.
FIELD WORK
Most fossils found i n the field need little care ot her than wrappi ng t hem
i n paper to prevent abrasi ve cont act wi th compani on speci mens on the
way home. Loose, sturdy fossi l s such as brachi opods that are col l ected
f rom shale exposures can even be piled wi t hout wrappi ng in a tin can or a
small box, if the cont ai ner is packed full so that the cont ent s do not rattl e.
A ci gar box i s excel l ent f or this purpose. Whe n col l ecti ng at some sites
where t here are t housands of l oose speci mens, this will save much time.
Mos t l oose fossi l s have their own thin prot ect i ve j acket of mud and shale
that act s as a buf f er.
A f ew t i me- savi ng hi nts will expedi t e packi ng fossi l s in the field. Mat r i x
speci mens can be wrapped l oosel y i n newspaper taped shut at the ends.
Fragi l e speci mens can be wrapped individually i n toilet paper by wi ndi ng
it around the speci men in l oosel y twi sted rolls until the speci men is com-
pl etel y bandaged.
A f ast er way is to l ayer fragi l e speci mens in a sturdy box or can, sepa-
rati ng the l ayers wi t h sawdust . Any sawmi l l has mount ai ns of coarse
sawdust f or the aski ng. Smal l amount s accumul at e at any l umber yard.
The sawdust can be carri ed i n a sack and added to the speci men-col l ecti ng
box as needed. If the fossi l s have deep nooks and cranni es, grai ns of the
wood have an annoyi ng t endency to lodge t here, but they can be picked
out.
An emergency met hod that works well i f condi t i ons are f avorabl e i s to
encl ose a fragi l e fossi l in a gob of wet cl ay or mud. The mudbal l can then
be wrapped i n paper and tossed i n wi t h the sturdi er fossi l s. Thi s met hod
is especi al l y useful in keepi ng t oget her the l oose parts of a broken fossi l .
Thes e mudpacks shoul d be removed as soon as possi bl e, bef ore they dry
out . Hardened mud becomes difficult to l oosen, and the shri nkage during
How to wrap a fossil concretion in the field to preserve its fine detail. Place sheet of
paper between halves, fold in sides, then roll lengthwise, and secure with rubber band
or tape. (Drawing courtesy Illinois Geological Survey)
Broken fossils can be reassembled in aluminum foil. Folded gently over the specimen
and pressed tightly, the foil keeps edges from chipping and pieces from becoming lost.
dryi ng may break fragi l e speci mens. Si mpl e soaki ng at home will remove
all the clay or mud.
A fossi l f ound in several broken pieces can be reassembl ed roughl y in
a small square of al umi num foil. The foil should be fol ded over the fossi l
gentl y and squeezed to keep the pieces firmly t oget her unti l the speci men
i s home. Broken fossi l s can be mended i n the field, but this t akes time and
of t en results in a poor j ob. It is bet t er to prot ect the pieces and wor k the
puzzle at home. Fast - dryi ng househol d cement s (such as Duco) are sui tabl e
for repairing broken fossi l s.
Don' t f orget to include a l abel descri bi ng the specific col l ect i ng- l ocat i on
i n detail. Label s shoul d record the general geographi cal posi ti on of the dig,
the assumed geol ogi cal age of the rock mat ri x, and the name of the f or ma-
tion and associ ated f ormat i ons. Somet i mes it is possi bl e to descri be the
f ormat i on by measuri ng its verti cal di st ance f rom level ground or a di s-
tinctive rock l ayer. Experi ence teaches the col l ect or that the best memor y
is not to be trusted wi th these techni cal detai l s, but a good l abel is f orever.
Wi t hout such a record of the l ocat i on, a fossi l l oses most of its cash val ue
and all of its value to sci ence.
Speci mens taken f rom rock l ayers that are obvi ousl y di fferent shoul d be
kept separate and shoul d be l abel ed separat el y. Loose, weat hered speci -
mens t aken f rom the bot t om of a sl ope shoul d be kept separat e f rom those
taken directly f rom an identifiable rock uni t. The l atter fossi l s are more
val uabl e because their source i s preci sel y known.
Hardening Matrix
Some shal es or weakl y cement ed sandst ones may be so fragi l e that they
cannot be removed wi t hout di si ntegrati ng. Shal es that encl ose pl ant fossils
seem to be parti cul arl y weak, t hough fragi l e i nvert ebrat e fossi l s that must
have supporti ng mat ri x, such as tri l obi tes, grapt ol i t es, and bryozoans, of t en
occur i n crumbl i ng shal es. These speci mens must be hardened on the spot.
A prof essi onal concoct i on i nvent ed by the Bri t i sh Mus eum f or protecti ng
and hardeni ng shal e cont ai ni ng Bri t i sh Mesozoi c fossi l s consi sts of two to
five t abl espoons of f l ake- f orm pol yvi nyl acet at e dissolved in a pint of
tol uene. It may t ake a day or so f or the fl akes to di ssol ve. Pol yvi nyl acetate
i s not to be conf used wi th ot her pol yvi nyl compounds; i t must be the
acet at e. The mi xt ure is stored in a j ar wi t h a ti ght-fi tti ng lid, since the
f umes are i rri tati ng and i nf l ammabl e.
Acet one may be more readi l y avai l abl e t o amat eur fossi l col l ectors than
t ol uene. It will also di ssol ve pol yvi nyl acet at e. It is i nfl ammabl e and will
cause dizziness i f breat hed f or prol onged peri ods. Cel l ul ose acet at e, i n
sheet s or fl akes, can subst i t ut e f or pol yvi nyl acetate. These hardeners are
si mi l ar to such househol d cement s as Duco. In f act , f resh Duco cement
di ssol ved in a f ew spoonsf ul of tol uene or acet one will serve admi rabl y
f or smal l hardeni ng j obs.
The mi xt ure can be brushed on, or the piece of shal e can be i mmersed
i n the liquid f or several seconds. I mmersi on will make the shal e st ronger
Shales such as this specimen are poorly consolidated and will turn into mud at the
touch of water. Fragile, thin-shelled fossils such as this trilobite will often crumble
unless the shale is hardened.
but will also coat the fossi l unl ess the bl ock i s hardened by i mmersi ng onl y
the backsi de. The bl ock may need a second dip f or super- st rengt heni ng.
The pieces should be dried in a wel l - vent i l at ed area; t hey will dry in a f ew
mi nutes.
If the mi xture cont ai ns too much pl asti c, the fossi l will become shi ny,
parti cul arl y i f the fossi l i tsel f i s composed of smoot h, nonabsor bent , chi ti -
nous materi al , as tri l obi tes or cephal opods are. If the speci men i s too shi ny
aft er it has dried, and the fossi l can st and rubbi ng, it can be wi ped wi t h a
cloth soaked in acet one or fi ngernai l -pol i sh remover ( whi ch is perf umed
acet one) .
These pol yvi nyl hardeners are al so useful f or gl ui ng back bi t s of shel l y
material that pop loose f rom a fossi l during preparat i on.
Some fossi l s, parti cul arl y carboni zed pl ant fossi l s and some Eocene
fossil fish of Wyomi ng, are beaut i f ul when first removed f r om thei r st ony
graves, but as they dry the carbon parti cl es fl ake off and bl ow away. Wha t
once was a fish skel et on di sappears wi t h the dryi ng wi nd. As soon as the
speci men i s reasonabl y dry, i t can be sprayed l i ghtl y wi t h one of the cl ear
plastic sprays. The speci men should not be sprayed when i t i s wet ; the
plastic l ayer will peel away al ong wi t h the fossi l . Kryl on i s parti cul arl y
well suited for sprayi ng fossi l s as it does not l eave a very shi ny surf ace.
Moi st shal e, whi ch tends to di si ntegrate as i t dries, can be preserved f or
several weeks if it is sealed inside l arge plastic bags unti l t here is ti me to
Loosely attached carbon films, such as fossils of many plants, fish, and graptolites,
should be sprayed shortly after collecting with a non-glossy plastic.
work the fossi l s out of it. Thi s is a met hod devel oped in recent years by
prof essi onal col l ectors f or museums.
CLEANING AT HOME
The caref ul l y unwrapped speci mens will need a bat h or more extensi ve
cl eani ng bef or e t hey can be properl y studied or di spl ayed. Thi s i s the most
tedious part of fossi l col l ecti ng. Ma ny amat eur col l ectors wonder why
speci mens i n museum are so detailed and sharp, whereas their speci mens
remai n muddy l ooki ng. The answer i s i n the preparat i onor l ack of it.
Mus eums hire f ul l - t i me preparat ors to remove the adheri ng mat ri x pai ns-
t aki ngl y by hand or wi t h machi nery.
Some speci mens will need not hi ng more than to be soaked i n warm
wat er wi t h a dash of det ergent , f ol l owed by a scrubbi ng wi th an old tooth-
brush and a ri nse of clear wat er. Speci mens that have weat hered free f rom
sof t shal es fall i nto this cat egory. So do Mi ocene or Eocene shark teeth
and shells f ound al ong bot h coast s i n sof t , sandy mat ri x. Concret i onary
f ossi l s, such as ammoni t es, bones, crabs, and fern fossi l s, break to a clean
surf ace and of t en need no f urt her preparat i on than washi ng or brushi ng
to remove dust.
But most f ossi l s, even those that at first gl ance appear f ree of mat ri x,
need f urt her cl eani ng. Brachi opods i nvari abl y have mat ri x wedged i n the
hi nge l i ne. Tri l obi t es seem to have concret e packed i n the f urrows of their
corrugat ed skel et ons. Cri noi ds have t housands of f eat hery arms t o prepare.
Snai l openi ngs are obscured wi t h rock. Bony fossi l s are encased i n a rock
j acket , but by the ti me the bones weat her f ree t hey have become bone
meal . In all t hese cases, hard mat ri x must be removed.
Soaking and Scrubbing
Al l hard fossi l s shoul d first be washed wi t h det ergent and wat er. Hard
fossi l s are durabl e speci mens that are not on a mat ri x of soft shal e or
sandst one that i s l i kel y to di si nt egrat e when wet , or are not thin delicate
films that mi ght l oosen i n wat er. Grapt ol i t es, carboni zed pl ant s, and thi n-
shel l ed art hropods are exampl es of t hese delicate speci mens. Whe n i n
doubt , experi ment wi t h a br oken speci men. Some fossi l s, such as brachi o-
pods f ound i n shal e as single shel l s or val ves, are so thin that when the
adheri ng shal e i s l oosened by the wat er they fall apart.
Smal l nyl on brushes such as t oot hbrushes are ideal f or scrubbi ng a
fossi l . Weat her ed l i mest one and shal es can somet i mes be enti rel y removed
Trilobite Elrathia kingi from Wheeler amphitheater, Utah. Specimen in shale was
cleaned with a toothbrush and water. Cambrian period.
by gentl e but persi stent scrubbi ng. Nyl on i s sof t er t han the cal ci te sub-
stance of fossi l s and sof t er than the mat ri x, too. It removes onl y mat ri x
grains that have weat hered l oose. Hard, f resh l i mest one and shal e will
not be touched by brushi ng. Somet i mes soaki ng f or several days i n wat er
will sof t en mat ri x.
If scrubbi ng does not remove mat ri x, set the speci men aside f or mechan-
ical preparati on.
Stai ned speci mens can somet i mes be cl eaned by soaki ng t hem i n a
sodium hypochl ori t e sol uti on (such as Cl orox) overni ght . Al ways try this
on a sampl e piece first. If speci mens have been permeat ed wi t h nat ural
crude oil or asphal ts ( some Si l uri an fossi l s of nort hern Illinois and Indi ana
are f ound i n this condi t i on) , i mmerse t hem out doors f or a day i n gasol i ne,
scrub them wi th a brush, t hen rinse t hem several ti mes in cl ean gasol i ne.
Avoi d pl asti c-handl ed brushes, such as t oot hbr ushes; t hey sof t en i n gaso-
line. Al l ow the speci mens to air f or a day or two bef or e bri ngi ng t hem
inside. Do not pour the di rty gasol i ne down a sewer : the f umes are ex-
plosive. Kerosene or light oils and even the st rongest det ergent s are not
as sat i sfact ory as gasol i ne, because gasol i ne will penet rat e the speci men
and remove the crude oil and t hen will compl et el y evaporat e.
Wheeler amphitheater, House range, Millard county, Utah, whose shale beds and
limestone strata are highly fossiliferous. (Photo by Dwayne Stone)
Speci mens on the surface of sof t shal es cannot be cl eaned i n water.
The shal e will swell and literally expl ode. Thes e shal es are best hardened
f r om the back wi t h the hardener ment i oned above, and the fossi l itself
can be cl eaned by gent l y wi pi ng it wi th a cl oth or paper towel soaked in
al cohol . Tr y t o keep the al cohol f r om soaki ng into the mat ri x. Whe n the
speci men is cl eaned, an allover brushi ng wi t h the hardener will protect the
surf ace and wat erproof the speci men.
Removing Matrix
Af t er prel i mi nary cl eani ng of the f ossi l , bi ts of mat ri x may still mask
i mport ant detai l s. Removal of these pieces to aid identification and create
a more at t ract i ve di spl ay speci men requi res skill and infinite pati ence. It
takes at l east an hour to cl ean a smal l tri l obi te whi ch has soft, relatively
easy- t o- r emove shal e embedded bet ween its ri bs. It may take days to clean
a l i mest one sl ab wi t h many cri noi d crowns.
The pri nci pl e behi nd cl eani ng mat ri x f rom a fossi l is to expl oi t the dif-
f erence i n hardness bet ween fossi l and mat ri x, or, i f acid i s used f or cl ean-
i ng, the di fference in chemi cal composi t i on. Even though a fossi l replaced
by calcite is embedded in l i mest one (also cal ci t e) , there seems to be a
slight di fference i n hardness bet ween the fossi l and mat ri x, parti cul arl y
aft er some weat heri ng. The cal ci te grai ns of mat ri x, moreover, do not have
a close bond wi th the cal ci te cryst al s of the fossi l , so that t here is a pl ane
of weakness bet ween fossi l and mat ri x.
Sof t er mat ri x can be brushed or scraped away or fl aked off al ong the
plane of weakness. Thi s is easy if the fossi l is composed of a very hard
subst ance (such as pyri te or quartz) and the mat ri x i s somet hi ng sof t (such
as shal e) . It is more difficult when calcified fossi l s are embedded in l i me-
stone. It is nearl y i mpossi bl e when a sof t fossi l (such as a bone) is in hard
matri x (such as l i mest one) .
Exposing Fossils with Hand Tools
The amat eur col l ector i s likely to have onl y hand tool s avai l abl e f or cl ean-
ing fossi l s. Onl y a f ew types of fossi l s cannot be sat i sfact ori l y cl eaned
wi t h hand tools. Power tools and such speci al ty tools as the ai rbrasi ve
machi nes are used pri mari l y to speed up the task.
Mos t speci mens will not need maj or sur ger yonl y a little pi cki ng,
scrapi ng, and brushi ng to clean the fossi l . However, some pi eces will need
heavy work bef ore they can be prepared wi t h smal l i nst rument s.
MAJ OR SURGERY
There is a t empt at i on to trim off as much mat ri x as possi bl e in the field to
save wei ght. Especially wi th l i mest one sl abs, this can resul t i n breaki ng
the fossil in hal f where the fossi l creat es a weak spot in the sl ab. It is saf er
to take the heavy sl ab home and trim and saw it to size there.
If the bl ock encl osi ng the fossi l is too l arge to t ransport , a channel
should be cut around the fossi l s wi t h a smal l cold chi sel and hammer . The
chisel should be held so that i t poi nts away f rom the fossi l , and the channel
should be a reasonabl e di st ance away f rom the fossi l . Af t er much l abor,
the fossil will be atop a pedestal , whi ch can t hen be broken f r om the
bl ock wi th a single bl ow f rom the hammer agai nst the chisel pl aced at the
base of the pedestal . The deeper the channel and the hi gher the pedestal ,
the better the chance of removi ng the fossi l i n one pi ece.
If the bl ock, however unwi el dy, can be haul ed home, the chances of
removi ng the fossil safel y are much bet t er. Li mest ones, hard shal es, sl ates,
and sandstones can be sawed to conveni ent sizes and shapes wi t h a di a-
mond saw bl ade such as is used in l api dary work. Smal l sl abs can be cut
PREPARING AND CLEANING FOSSILS 1 5 3
Diamond-charged saw blade, using water as a coolant, trims a fossil block.
qui ckl y into square pi eces, and individual fossi l s can be separat ed wi t h
little or no damage wi t h a smal l tri m saw usi ng a si x- i nch to t en- i nch
bl ade. Such trim saws can be purchased new f or $ 25 t o $ 50, not i ncl udi ng
bl ade and mot or. A si x-i nch bl ade cost s less t han $ 15 and a t en- i nch bl ade
about $ 25. If used onl y f or sawi ng sedi ment ary rock, the bl ade will l ast
the fossi l col l ector many years. The saw cool ant shoul d be ei t her a wat er-
soluble oil or one of the materi al s market ed to be added to tap wat er.
Wat er al one will rust the bl ade.
For lapidary work, i n whi ch rocks much harder t han t hose usual l y en-
countered in fossi l work must be sawed, a l i ght cutti ng oil or kerosene is
used as a cool ant. If sawi ng must be done on a saw that uses oil as a
cool ant , the speci men shoul d be soaked i n wat er f or several hours pri or
Removing a fossil from a block of limestone. Step 1: First chisel a groove about an
inch from the specimen. Tilt the chisel away from the specimen to avoid chipping it.
Step 2: After the groove is 3/ 4 inch deep (or more if the fossil is large) place the
chisel at the bottom of the groove and angle it sharply toward the fossil. A sharp
blow with a hammer on the chisel should then break loose the fossil atop its pedestal.
Step 3: The result. The fossil can be trimmed further at home if desired.
to sawi ng. Af t er sawi ng it shoul d be pl unged i nto a strong detergent sol u-
tion. Soaki ng will prevent too much oil f rom penet rat i ng porous l i me-
st ones or shal es. If mat ri x will not di si nt egrat e, the speci men should soak
f or several hours or days i n the det ergent .
Speci mens too l arge f or a trim saw may require commerci al sawi ng, a
servi ce usual l y avai l abl e at a rock shop at a cost of about ten cent s a square
i nch.
Thi n sl abs of shal e or l i mest one can be sawed wi t h a silicon carbide
cut of f disc on an electric drill or fl exi bl e shaf t machi ne. These cutoff discs
are not expensi ve; but they creat e annoyi ng dust, and they are fragi l e. A
st eady hand i s needed to keep t hem f rom breaki ng.
Cement and tile cont ract ors use a special saw f or t ri mmi ng tile or marbl e
sl abs or f or sawi ng concret e. Thi s outfit uses a much t hi cker bl ade than a
l api dary saw, usual l y wi t h a wat er cool ant . The saw bl ade i s overhead and
is l owered ont o the work by a f oot - operat ed l ever. The bl ade is usually a
di amond bl ade, but i t may be silicon carbi de, whi ch will easi l y cut l i me-
st ones or shal es. Such a saw i s excel l ent f or t ri mmi ng l arge pi eces.
Carbi de hacksaw bl ades and di amond- i mpregnat ed wi re bl ades that fit
in a copi ng- saw f rame are al so useful f or sawi ng mat ri x.
If no saw i s avai l abl e, the wast e materi al can be removed careful l y with
A silicon carbide cutoff disc mounted on a flexible shaft is useful for trimming small
fossils.
hammer and chisel. A small channel shoul d be chi sel ed across the mat ri x
where it should break. The sl ab can t hen be placed on a flat bl ock, a cur b,
a concrete step, or some ot her hard surf ace wi t h a square edge. The part
to be broken away shoul d hang over wi th the chi sel ed line f aci ng up and
at the edge of the support bl ock. Whi l e the piece i s hel d fi rml y, the pro-
truding end should be gi ven a sharp bl ow wi th a heavy hammer . If all goes
well, the piece will snap cl eanl y al ong the line.
Smal l edges can be chi pped off, usi ng the chi sel tilted sl i ghtl y away f r om
the fossi l . Wi t h solid, fi ne-grai ned l i mest one that breaks wi t h a conchoi dal
(shel l -l i ke) f ract ure, the edge can be chi pped away quite rapidly wi t h sharp
bl ows f rom a small hammer. If a piece is thi n, the edge can be ni bbl ed
away with pliers. Smal l bi t es, not more t han a f ract i on of an i nch, shoul d
be taken, then the pliers should be ti ghtened and snapped down or up
sharpl y.
If onl y a small amount of materi al is to be removed, it can be ground
Orville Gilpin, chief preparator at the Field Museum, does most of his work with a
small hammer and a series of chisels. Fine work is done under the binocular micro-
scope. The sand bag cushions the specimen and reduces noise.
Bits of the shell of a fossil turtle are scattered through a block of sandstone. Orville
Gilpin chisels them out one by one and cements them to the reconstructed piece.
away on l api dary- t ype silicon carbi de gri ndi ng wheel s. Smal l hi gh-speed
wheel s used f or sharpeni ng tool s are not well suited f or gri ndi ng fossil
speci mens. Pi eces wei ghi ng more t han a f ew ounces shoul d never be
ground on a wheel , as t hey will qui ckl y create a bumpy wheel surf ace or
even cause the wheel to shat t er, shoot i ng out pieces of sharp grinding
wheel at the speed of a bul l et. Gri ndi ng should be done on an individual
fossi l onl y to remove unsi ght l y mat ri x or to flatten a side or back so that
the speci men will sit properl y when di spl ayed.
Large pi eces can be br oken cl eanl y wi t h a hydraul i c press usi ng a hard-
ened steel or carbi de poi nt. Groovi ng the piece wi th a chisel will hel p to
make a l ong, cl ean br eak, or the speci men can be tri mmed more safel y by
bi t i ng off smal l corners, one at a ti me. Such hydraul i c units are expensi ve.
Some sof t shal es cannot be sawed because the wat er or oil cool ant will
di si nt egrat e the shal e. Such speci mens can be tri mmed by ni ppi ng wi th
pl i ers, breaki ng wi t h a hydraul i c press, or sawi ng dry wi t h an old hacksaw
bl ade. The hacksaw bl ade will wear qui ckl y, but as long as some teeth
remai n it will cont i nue to cut.
Whe n the fossi l is a conveni ent size to handl e, the delicate task of re-
movi ng the remai ni ng mat ri x can be begun.
PREPARING AND CLEANING FOSSILS 1 5 7
Trimming slabs of stone by nibbling at the edges with pliers.
FINISHING TOUCHES WI TH HAND TOOLS
Fossils that are harder than their mat ri ces are the easi est to cl ean and
luckily the most common. Pyri t i zed, calcified, or silicified fossi l s i n
weathered l i mestone or shal es sof t enough to be scrat ched wi t h a fi nger-
nail fall into this cl ass. So do l oose fossi l s weat hered f rom shal es or
chal ky, impure l i mest ones.
A vi gorous brushi ng of adheri ng mat ri x wi t h an old t oot hbrush and
water will show whet her the mat ri x can be removed this way. Such br ush-
ing will not damage the surf ace of any sturdy fossi l ( brachi opods, most
tri l obi tes, coral s, bl ast oi ds, cri noi d cups, et c. ) , but shoul d be done wi th
care on lacy bryozoans, grapt ol i t es, cri noi d crowns, and the l i ke. If the
matri x is not too t hi ck, a surpri si ng amount of cl eani ng can be done in a
short ti me. Thi s i s the onl y way to cl ean out the fine f urrows on the
surface of a brachi opod. Soaki ng a speci men for several days in wat er may
help l oosen mat ri x.
If the fossil i s consi derabl y harder t han the mat ri x, the brushi ng can be
done wi th a fi ne-bri stl ed brass brush, such as a suede brush. On pyri ti zed,
silicified, and even some calcified speci mens, brass brushi ng will remove
mat ri x mor e rapi dl y than a t oot hbrush and will remove some hard shales
unt ouched by a nyl on brush. Pyri ti zed Devoni an starfish and crinoids f rom
Bundenbach, Ger many, can be cl eaned this way, as the pyri ti zed fossils are
encased i n a tough shal e. Devoni an tri l obi tes f rom west ern New Yor k and
Ohi o ( general l y bl ack or dark- col ored and preserved in a gray shale) can
be qui ckl y cl eaned by gentl e use of a brass brush. Pyri ti zed brachi opods
f r om Ohi o respond equal l y well.
It is easy to tell whet her the fossil is harder than the brass brush and
t heref ore is not l i kel y to be damaged. Brush a speci men, and if the fossil
qui ckl y pi cks up a brassy shi ne it is harder t han the brush. If the matri x
wears away and does not turn a brass col or, i t i s sof t er. The brassy color
can be removed f rom the fossi l by scrubbi ng wi t h a nyl on t oot hbrush and
a det ergent .
Fine steel -wi re brushes can be used, but onl y on silicified or pyritized
speci mens. Tr y a sampl e first to see whet her the brush wears away the
fossi l . Bot h steel and brass brushes are made f or use on a fl exi bl e-shaft
machi ne.
A sharpened crochet hook is used to scrape and flake away matrix from a pyritized
trilobite. The entire specimen can be prepared this way and finished by brushing.
Experimentation on a corner showed that the trilobite was harder than a brass bristle
brush and the matrix was softer. After most of the matrix was removed with the
scraper, a small brass wire brush on the flexible shaft completed preparation of the
specimen.
Most speci mens will have some areas of thi ck mat ri x that can be r e-
moved more rapidly wi t h metal scrapers. Smal l - bl aded pocket kni ves make
fine scrapers for l arge areas. Screwdri vers can be sharpened to vari ous
shapes for scrapi ng or pryi ng loose l arger pieces of mat ri x. For del i cate
work, fine, needl el i ke scrapers shoul d be made. Di scarded dental tool s fit
the hand and are usual l y avai l abl e f rom your denti st. Crochet needl es work
well if the hooked point is ground away. A handl e can be made f or t hem
f rom a piece of wooden dowel drilled to accept the shaf t . If one can still
be f ound, a steel phonograph needl e is a parti cul arl y t ough, fine poi nt f or
delicate work. Ordi nary needl es, mount ed in a wooden dowel , work well.
Large needles used for sewi ng carpet s can be used f or l arge-scal e work.
Poi nts must be kept sharp, as the mat ri x qui ckl y dulls t hem. A dull tool
may slip and damage the surf ace of the fossi l .
The scraping action should be much like cl eani ng fi ngernai l s, wi th j ust
enough pressure to move the mat ri x but not enough to bi t e into the fossi l .
The trilobite, completely prepared with a scraper, brass brush, and final scrubbing
with a toothbrush to remove the brassy shine.
Brush and wash f requent l y. Don' t try to scrape off that last t housandt h of
an i nch. Wi t h pract i ce, little damage will be done to the fossi l .
A tri cki er t echni que i s fl aki ng away adheri ng mat ri x. Thi s works par-
ti cul arl y well on fossi l s t hat are smoot h and shi ny and do not have many
i ndent at i ons. It al so work well on some shal e- encased fossi l s, such as the
Wyomi ng fish or the pl ant fossi l s of the Mazon Creek area i n Illinois. The
tri ck here i s to start a f ew mi l l i meters away f r om some exposed part of
the f ossi l , dig the poi nted scraper i nto the mat ri x, and wi t h a sharp push
and twi st fl ake away a piece of the mat ri x. It shoul d part cl eanl y f rom the
fossi l . Thi s can al so be done usi ng the scraper and a ti ny hammer, angling
the tool t oward the exposed fossi l at about 45 degrees. A single bl ow
shoul d di sl odge the fl ake. Never try to slide the scraper bet ween the mat ri x
and t he exposed fossi l . The mat ri x will flake away, but a splendid scratch
will remai n on the fossi l . Thi s fl aki ng t echni que can be done rapi dl y i n a
routi ne of dig in, flick upwards, and bl ow away the chi p.
Fl aki ng works best when the mat ri x i s thi n. Thi s may require a bit of
prel i mi nary gri ndi ng, a rat her dangerous advent ure that can al so destroy
parts of the fossi l that prot rude unexpect edl y.
Power Tools
Wi t h the except i on of a sandbl ast er machi ne, power tools are onl y l abor-
and ti me-savi ng versi ons of hand tool s. The y are easi er t o use, but the
power- operat ed i nst rument gri nds rel entl essl y on, i gnori ng the i nt erf ace
bet ween matri x and fossi l . Mi s t akes are easi er t o make, and by the time
the machi ne has been stopped or t he power head moved the damage has
been done. Dust and mat ri x chi ps obscure the work so that i t i s easy to
go too f ar.
VI BRO- TOOL
Several types of vi brat i ng- poi nt engravers are avai l abl e; the one most
commonl y used i s the Vi br o- Tool . Al l are priced around $10.
The vi brat or in such a tool causes a sharpened poi nt to stri ke ti ny bl ows
many ti mes a second, rat her l i ke a mi ni at ure j ackhammer . An adj ust i ng-
screw cont rol s the l engt h of the st roke. The best model f or fossi l work has
a chuck that will hol d di fferent poi nt s.
Vibrating tools are useful to remove matrix rapidly from such specimens as these
fossil clams.
The steel poi nts usual l y provi ded wi t h vi brat i ng tool s are too l arge and
too sof t f or hard st one, but t hey are servi ceabl e, parti cul arl y i f kept sharp
and not used too of t en. For fine work a sharpened dental burr or a phono-
graph needl e i s excel l ent , but si nce t hese poi nts will not fit into most
chucks, an adaptor must be made of a short piece of brass rod that does
fit the chuck. The brass rod shoul d be bored l engt hwi se f or hal f an inch
to accept the phonograph needl e or dental burr. Anot her hole should be
drilled at ri ght angl es to the first one and tapped to accept a small set-
screw, whi ch will hol d the smal l poi nt ti ghtl y i n the hol e. The uni t can
t hen be pl aced i n the chuck of the tool and ti ghtened securel y.
As the tool hammer s away i t ki cks up a cl oud of dust, hiding the work
and foul i ng the air. The dust can be bl own or whi sked away, whi ch causes
const ant st art i ng and stoppi ng of the tool , or the work can be done out-
doors in a strong wi nd. A smal l air hose f ast ened to the tool and connected
to a st rong pair of l ungs or an air compressor will bl ow away the dust as it
f or ms. A sect i on of thin pl asti c tubi ng can be taped to the side of the tool
wi t h its openi ng near the worki ng end, so that the operat or can bl ow
t hrough the ot her end of the hose.
An i nexpensi ve source of compressed air can be obt ai ned f rom a small
aquari um aerat or. A more sturdy arrangement can be made wi t h copper
or al umi num tubi ng carryi ng the air across the Vi br o- Tool f rom the plastic
air hose at the top of the tool . A compressed- ai r bl ower syst em based on
the aquari um aerat or can also be at t ached to a st and and ai med at work
bei ng done wi t h hand tool s.
The acti on of the vi brat i ng tool can be compared to that of a ti ny ham-
mer and chi sel . The rapid hammeri ng of the poi nted tip of the tool flakes
away the mat ri x. The best acti on seems to occur when the tool i s held al-
most at ri ght angl es to the speci men. A short st roke is used for fine wor k;
the l ong st roke bangs off l arger pieces of mat ri x and i s good for removi ng
l arge areas of unwant ed st one where t here i s no danger of breaki ng
t hrough i nt o the fossi l . As the fossi l surf ace comes near, onl y fine vi brati on
and short st rokes shoul d be used. Usual l y smal l pieces will break f ree at
the f ossi l - mat ri x i nt erf ace short l y bef or e the poi nt digs into the fossil
surf ace.
Hours of pati ent work and a t horough knowl edge of the morphol ogy of
t he underl yi ng fossi l are necessary bef or e you will know when to stop. If
the fossi l i s l i kel y to be di storted or bent or to bear unsuspected proj ec-
t i ons, work shoul d be done by hand, at l east until the general t opography
i s reveal ed. The vi brat i ng tool i s too fast and undi scri mi nati ng f or blind
work.
Al l owi ng the tool to work strai ght down i n one pl ace usual l y will l oosen
a chi p of mat ri x in a manner similar to the flaking met hod used with hand
tools. If the tool i s moved back and f ort h smoot hl y the acti on i s rat her
like that of a hand scraper. Di f f erent mat ri ces requi re di fferent t echni ques;
each speci men is di fferent.
The tool will become uncomf ort abl y war m i f used f or a l ong ti me. If the
vi brati ons carried t hrough the st one reverbrat e l i ke a drum f rom the t abl e
bel ow, an effecti ve damper can be made f r om a smal l cl ot h bag filled wi t h
sand. The work i s laid on the sandbag. The sandbag mol ds itself to the
contours of the mat ri x and hel ps hol d the speci men whi l e i t i s bei ng pre-
pared. Sandbags are useful f or any type of preparat i on.
The Vi br o- Tool i s sold by Burgess Vi br ocr af t er s, Inc. , Gr aysl ake,
Illinois 60030. Ot her vi brat i ng engravers are avai l abl e at most craf t and
hobby stores.
POWER DRILLS
Dent i st s have f ound that one of their best tool s is a hi gh- speed power drill
that will qui ckl y and cl eanl y remove unwant ed t oot h mat eri al . Such a drill
i s equal l y effecti ve wi t h fossi l s. Unwant ed mat ri x di sappears qui ckl y be-
fore a burr, tiny gri ndi ng wheel , or brush mount ed in the chuck of a dental
drill.
A used dental drill can somet i mes be purchased f or a moderat e sum,
but never cheapl y. Such a unit hangi ng above the wor kbench is a fine
addition to fossi l -cl eani ng tool s.
For a smal l er sum a small unit operati ng t hrough a fl exi bl e shaf t will
give al most as much versati l i ty and movement as the dental drill. These
units usually consi st of a mot or the size of a soup- can that is hung above
the workbench. A flexible shaf t several feet l ong hangs f rom the mot or
and ends in a chuck that will accept a wi de range of commerci al and home-
made abrasi ve tools. These uni ts can be purchased new f or about $ 3 5 and
are handy accessori es i n j ewel ry maki ng and fine metal work. The fl exi bl e-
shaft hobby machi nes allow absol ut e cont rol of speed through a f oot -
operated rheostat. So do the dental drills.
Ti ny hardened steel burrs mount ed i n the chuck will tear away excess
matri x and, i f handl ed caref ul l y, will not materi al l y damage fossi l parts
they mi ght brush agai nst. Ti ny silicon carbi de gri ndi ng wheel s or cut - of f
discs can be used to remove l arge quanti ti es of excess mat ri x to i mprove
the appearance of a speci men or to reduce the t hi ckness of mat ri x over-
lying the fossi l preparat ory to use of some ot her cl eani ng met hod.
Wi t h a fl exi bl e-shaft tool, smal l brass and steel brushes are parti cul arl y
useful . These brushes, about one inch i n di amet er and less t han a one-
quarter inch thi ck, will scarcel y touch hard f ossi l s, especi al l y pyri ti zed or
silicified ones, but will rapidly remove hard shal es or l i mest ones, as has
been ment i oned i n the secti on on cl eani ng wi t h hand tool s.
The brass brush shoul d not be used f or sof t fossi l s af t er i t wears to less
than hal f its ori gi nal wi dth. The bri stl es are sti ffer then and are more
likely to cut into the fossi l t han to bend whi l e goi ng over it.
Bri stl e and nyl on brushes are also avai l abl e for the flexible shaf t s. They
do what a hand- operat ed t oot hbrush can do but in a t ent h of the time.
Burrs come at t ached to a smal l - di amet er shaf t . The wheel s and brushes
can be purchased at t ached to a shaf t or l oose f or mount i ng on a threaded
shaf t . The l oose tools are usual l y less expensi ve. Whe n using t hem, i t i s
rarel y advi sabl e or necessary to run the f l exi bl e- shaf t machi ne at full
speed. Low speed al l ows bet t er cut t i ng, as the bri stl es dig into the matri x
i nstead of sliding over it, and, of course, cont rol i s easi er. Too much pres-
sure st rai ns the fl exi bl e cabl e, whi ch i s expensi ve to repl ace. Too much
pressure also bends the smal l shaf t s of the tool s.
Mos t fossi l s can be compl et el y prepared using gri ndi ng wheel s or burrs
to remove excess mat ri x and brushes to remove the last vesti ges of mat ri x.
Good cont rol can be had wi th power equi pment , parti cul arl y wi th power
brushes, and the great l y i ncreased speed reduces mi st akes that arise f rom
f at i gue and i mpat i ence wi th the sl ow progress wi t h hand tool s.
SANDBLASTI NG FOSSILS
The sandbl ast i ng process, used to cl ean bui l di ngs and to etch t ombst ones,
can also be used to cl ean fossi l s. A f ew years ago a smal l sandbl ast er that
al l owed localized and preci se cutti ng was put on the market by Pennwal t -
S. S. Whi t e Dent al Product s Di vi si on, 3 Par kway, Phi l adel phi a, Pennsyl -
vani a 19102. It was desi gned to repl ace the dent i st s' drill. The idea was
excel l ent , but the machi ne proved i mpracti cal because the abrasi ve clogged
the fine orifice. Si mi l ar uni t s are now avai l abl e f rom the same company for
et chi ng met al s, gl ass, and pl asti c and are easi l y adapted f or use i n cleaning
fossi l s.
Al most every maj or uni versi t y and museum i n the Uni t ed St at es now
has one of t hese machi nes, and some pri vate col l ectors have t hem, too.
The y are the ul t i mat e i n fossi l cl eaners. The abrasi ve st ream can be di-
rected so that l ayers of fossi l s are reveal ed wi t hout removi ng them f rom
the mat ri x bl ock. On cri noi d sl abs f r om Le Gr and, I owa, several f eat hery
cri noi ds may lie atop one anot her. Ol d preparat i on met hods could prepare
the top l ayer well and perhaps part of the underl yi ng one, but too much
work on the bot t om l ayers woul d break away parts of the top. Wi t h the
gent l e acti on of the sandbl ast er, all parts can be undercut and cleaned
perf ect l y i n areas where the ti ni est brush coul dn' t reach.
Unf or t unat el y, t here are some dr awbacks : a sandbl ast er cost s several
hundred dol l ars, the abrasi ves are somewhat expensi ve, and the machi ne
i s rat her del i cate. Dri ed compressed air or carbon dioxide must be used
Using the abrasive machine to prepare a delicate fossil. Work must be done within a
tightly closed box.
because the machine will clog if there is any humidity in the air. The type
of fossil and matrix must be well underst ooduse of the wrong abrasive
will destroy the fossil.
Basically, the machine consists of a vibrating hopper filled with fine
abrasive which is fed into a stream of rapidly moving gas. The abrasive
particles shoot out of a tungsten-carbide nozzle, bounce off the specimen,
and wear away the material. The actual speed of the particles approaches
1, 100 feet a secondabout the speed of soundand at this speed the
abrasive will cut rapidly even though it is of the same hardness and com-
position as the matrix being removed.
The speed of cutting is controlled by the amount of abrasive fed into
the stream of gas. The nozzle comes with a round hole about 1 / 5 0 inch in
diameter for general work or with a narrow rectangular hole for special
work such as precision cutting. The hand piece is jointed so that the nozzle
can be aimed in any direction for working in difficult areas.
Coarse removal of matrix is done with aluminum oxide of about 50-
micron diameter, and finer work with a finer size of the same material.
Powdered dol omi te (cal ci um magnesi um carbonat e) i s most commonl y used
f or general work when not too much mat ri x must be removed f rom cal -
cified fossi l s. For exceedi ngl y del i cate speci mens, such as paper-thi n shells,
tri l obi tes, and t eet h, powdered sodi um bi carbonat e i s used.
Wo r k i s done i n an ai rti ght box fitted wi th arm hol es that have tight
rubber sl eeves. The top has a wi ndow of glass made to be replaced easily
as i t will become f rost ed t hrough use of the machi ne.
Ultrasonic Cleaners
Weat her ed mat ri x and clay of t en remai n firmly wedged i n fine openi ngs
i n f ossi l s, parti cul arl y such pore- beari ng fossi l s as bryozoans and corals
and around the compound eyes of tri l obi tes. Al l the brushi ng i n the world
won' t remove this materi al . But j ust a f ew mi nut es i n an ul trasoni c cl eaner
will remove this debri s, and even some that appears firmly attached. Sand
and shal e that are not too firmly cement ed can be removed neat l y by
pl aci ng the speci men i n an ul trasoni c cl eaner t ank f or fifteen mi nutes or so.
Thes e cl eaners are also used to cl ean del i cate or i ntri cate part s, such as the
wor ks of wat ches. The soni c bombar dment l oosens dust or dirt.
The ul trasoni c cl eaner consi st s of a t ank to hol d the sol vent i n whi ch
an obj ect is suspended and a source of i naudi bl e, ext remel y hi gh-pi tched
sound waves. Bombar dment by these sound waves of the liquid i n the tank
produces cavi t at i on, whi ch i s rapid f ormat i on of vapor pocket s and their
col l apse. Thi s causes a vi ol ent, smal l -scal e, hammeri ng acti on on an obj ect
suspended in the liquid. Anyt hi ng not firmly at t ached is torn l oose.
Ther e are two basi c types on the mar ket : a hi gh- f requency, hi gh- energy
uni t that is heavy, expensi ve, and rat her dangerous to operat e, and a l ow-
f requency uni t that i s port abl e, not so expensi ve, and saf e to use. The l ow-
f requency uni ts seem to do a sat i sf act ory cl eani ng j ob, and the magnet o-
stri cti ve transducers that produce the ul t rasoni cs will not overheat and can
be used f or a l ong ti me. Smal l units wi t h a cont ai ner large enough to
handl e a speci men several i nches in size are now on the market for around
$ 60. The price i ncreases rapidly f or l arger uni ts.
Whi l e most commerci al uni ts di stri bute the ul trasoni cs t hroughout the
t ank, one has been bui l t wi th the vi brat i ons comi ng f rom the end of a rod,
whi ch can be ai med at certai n parts of a submerged fossil speci men to give
part i cul arl y vi gorous cl eani ng acti on in a localized area. Such a directional
ul t rasoni c cl eaner was desi gned by Engl i sh pal eontol ogi sts and displayed
in Engl and at a meet i ng in 1967. Thi s uni t did a superl ati ve j ob of cl eani ng
sandy mat ri x f rom fossi l bones. A t ank- t ype ul trasoni c cl eaner used long
enough to di si ntegrate the sandst one woul d very probabl y di si ntegrate the
bone as well, but a di recti onal uni t coul d be ai med at the mat ri x wi t hout
undue damage to the bones. Such di recti onal probe t ype ul trasoni c cl eaners
are now bei ng market ed i n the Uni t ed St at es.
Maj or manuf act urers have announced that they will be produci ng an
ul trasoni c cl eaner f or use i n the ki t chen si nk. The vi brat i ons that will tear
loose congeal ed steak grease may find appl i cati on i n the f ossi l - cl eani ng
field as well. A cl eaner such as this woul d l oosen all but the most st ubborn
mat ri xaf f ordi ng a qui ck, easy way of prepari ng fossi l s f or the final de-
tailed work by hand or wi th ot her machi nes.
A typical cl eaner, made by the Bendi x Company, has a power out put of
180 watts and produces sound f rom 19, 000 to 22,000 cycl es a second. The
cl eani ng receptacl e has a capaci t y of I4 quart s, more t han sufficient f or
most fossi l s.
In practi ce, the speci men is placed in a beaker whi ch is t hen placed in
the tank. Wat er wi th det ergent or wet t i ng sol uti on i s an excel l ent liquid
for cl eani ng the fossi l s. Wi t h delicate mi crof ossi l s, i mmersi on ti me i s i n
the range of one to two mi nut es. Wi t h typi cal bryozoans, brachi opods,
coral s, and echi noi ds, the time may be i ncreased to ten or fi fteen mi nut es.
By then most of the materi al that will come loose has done so. Furt her
t reat ment may break apart the fossi l .
General l y, little damage will be done to the fossi l , t hough long t reat ment
will create some surf ace abrasi on. Del i cat e appendages, such as brachi opod
spi nes, may be broken off, especi al l y if the power source is st rong.
Speci mens bei ng treated wi th acid, or l i mest one bl ocks bei ng di ssol ved
to free encl osed silicified fossi l s, can be placed in the machi ne in beakers
of acid. Short periodic burst s of ul trasoni c vi brat i ons will materi al l y speed
up the solvent action of the acid.
The ul trasoni c cl eaner cl eans mi neral speci mens as wel l , parti cul arl y
dirty geodes or sturdy cryst al groups wi t h cl ay trapped in crevi ces. A short
bl ast of the machi ne will cl ean embedded grit f rom pieces of t umbl ed agat e
and will remove pol i shi ng powder f rom cavi ti es i n sl abs or cabochons.
Never add grit to an ul trasoni c cl eani ng sol uti on in expect at i on of f ast er
cl eani ng; it will qui ckl y dest roy the speci men.
Boiling
For years, boi l i ng shal e wi th chemi cal s has been a f avored way to rel ease
its hidden fossi l s. Varsol or tri sodi um phosphat e di ssol ved in wat er has
been used for this purpose. Al t ernat e wet t i ng and dryi ng, using wat er
al one, does the same thi ng. Soaki ng i n gasol i ne will sof t en some shal es
rapidly.
QUATE RNARY- O
A chemi cal has recentl y appeared on the market that is f ar bet t er than any
of t hose f ormerl y used. The product i s Quat er nar y- O, whi ch i n the words
of the manuf act urer i s a " hi gh mol ecul ar wei ght quat ernary ammoni um
surf ace acti ve agent . " Transl at ed, this is a super- det ergent wi th superior
wet t i ng acti on. It is a t hi ck, browni sh goo resembl i ng automobi l e l ubri ca-
ti on grease. It dissolves sl owl y in hot wat er, but not in cold. The fossils are
pl aced in a saucepan and covered wi th a sol uti on of Quat er nar y- O. Sev-
eral t abl espoons of Quat er nar y- O di ssol ved in a pi nt of wat er is a strong
enough sol uti on. The liquid cont ai ni ng the fossi l s is brought to a rolling
boi l , and boi l i ng f or ten to fifteen mi nut es cl eans most speci mens. Longer
boi l i ng, up to hal f an hour f or st ubborn speci mens, does not seem to hurt
the fossi l despi te the slight aci di ty of the sol uti on. As the liquid boils
down, more wat er should be added.
Af t er the liquid cool s, the fossi l s are ready to be removed. The clear
liquid remai ni ng af t er the sol uti on stands awhi l e can be poured off and
reused al most i ndefi ni tel y. Ther e is a sl i ght odor duri ng the boi l i ng, but it
i s not unpl easant . Do not pl unge hot fossi l s into cold wat er; they mi ght
shat t er.
Fossi l s that seem parti cul arl y well suited to Quat er nar y- O cl eani ng are
t hose f rom shal e, sandst one, or somewhat weat hered l i mest one matri ces
that are not too thi ck. Even rat her thi ck mat ri x can be removed l ayer by
l ayer if the boi l i ng is combi ned wi t h scrapi ng to remove the l ayer of
l oosened materi al bef ore the speci men i s boi l ed agai n. Any fossi l that has
weat hered f ree of mat ri x i s usual l y sturdy and will cl ean well.
The boi l i ng is al most as effecti ve as ul trasoni c cl eani ng in its ability to
remove mat ri x f rom i ntri cate pores and openi ngs, and to reveal bori ngs i n
brachi opod shel l s, pores in bl ast oi ds, and surface ornament at i on in cl ams
and brachi opods. Such details may not have been vi si bl e even aft er scrupu-
lous cl eani ng by hand. As wi t h all types of cl eani ng, a good practi ce is to
try a damaged speci men first to see whet her there is any reacti on to the
Quat er nar y- O and whet her the fossil will wi t hst and bounci ng about i n the
pan under a rolling boi l .
The sludge removed f rom the bot t om of the boi l i ng pan can be allowed
to settl e t hrough several changes of wat er in a j ar. It will contai n perfect l y
cl eaned mi crof ossi l s such as ost racods, conodont s, mi crocri noi ds, fish teeth
and bones, and who- knows - what . If fossi l s f rom onl y one l ocal i ty are
boi l ed at one t i me, and the sl udges are kept separat e, the mi crofossi l s will
not be mi xed. Thus they will be a bonus al ong wi t h wel l -cl eaned fossils.
Quat er nar y- O i s avai l abl e f r om K and K Labs, 121 Express St reet , Pl ai n-
vi ew, N. Y. 11803. The cost i s approxi mat el y $ 10. 00 a pound, or $ 2. 00 a
pound i n 40 l b. l ots. It may be wort hwhi l e to consol i date orders f rom a
group of col l ectors t o t ake advant age of the quant i t y price.
Acids
Nat ure' s way of cl eani ng fossi l s i s wi t h aci d, but she has more pat i ence
than the fossil col l ector. A gentl e wash wi t h carboni c acid so weak that we
drink it daily wi t hout realizing it will cl ean fossi l s l ocked in a carbonat e
mat ri x. Thi s i s how nat ure does it, and i t t akes a f ew years. We can dip a
fossil in dilute hydrochl ori c or aceti c acid and do in ten seconds what na-
ture would take ten years to do. But we also run the ri sk of rui ni ng the
fossil in the at t empt .
Carboni c acid is carbon di oxi de di ssol ved in wat er. It f orms nat ural l y
i n bubbl i ng hot spri ngs and i n rai nfal l as the drops absorb carbon di oxi de
f rom the air. Ground wat er al so pi cks up carbon di oxi de rel eased f r om
decayi ng and living organi c mat eri al . Whe n any of t hese carbonat ed wat ers
touch l i mest one, they sl owl y di ssol ve it. For some reason the cal ci um car -
bonat e of the l i mestone i s di ssol ved much more readily t han the cal ci um
carbonat e of a fossil brachi opod.
All carbonat ed beverages f rom beer to col a are acid enough to di ssol ve
rock. A brachi opod pl unged i nto a can of col a will be cl eaned if it is
al l owed to remai n long enough in the can and if the carbonat i on is not
allowed to escape. However, it is bet t er to dri nk the beverage and cl ean
the fossil some ot her way.
St ronger acids, when used properl y, can expose and l oosen f ossi l s; but
when used on the wrong types of fossi l s or i n the wrong way, t hey can
destroy them. A fossi l shoul d never be treated wi t h even the weakest acid
wi thout first trying the acid on a broken speci men of the same type. Let
the broken piece dry, then exami ne it, f or much damage can be masked
by a film of water.
Thr ee types of acids are used i n cl eani ng fossi l s. One type di ssol ves a
matri x consi sti ng of quart z, such as sandst one, wi t hout harmi ng calcified
fossils that are i n it, such as brachi opods or cri noi ds. The second t ype i n-
cludes the weak organi c acids used f or gent l y removi ng carbonat e mat ri x
f rom carbonat e fossi l s. The third type has the st rong aci ds, used f or r e-
moval of carbonat e mat ri x f rom silicified, pyri ti zed, bony, or tough
carbonat e fossi l s.
ACI DS: TYPE 1
The first type consi sts of onl y one aci d, hydrofl uori c, whi ch i s used to
dissolve quartz. The amat eur shoul d not use i t unl ess he has adequate
facilities and a background in chemi st ry. Hydrofl uori c acid is a cl ose rel a-
tive of hydrochl ori c acid, but hydrofl uori c acid i s the meanest member of
the fami l y. A finger can be dipped in st rong hydrochl ori c acid wi t hout too
much damage, but dip it in hydrofl uori c aci d, and in a f ew days ulcers will
devel op that cause deep scarri ng. Hydrofl uori c acid di ssol ves quart z; it will
dissolve a gl ass bot t l e. It corrodes most met al s. The f umes al one are suffi-
ci ent to cause ski n damage. It must be used in pl asti c cont ai ners in a
wel l -vent i l at ed chamber , such as under a f ume hood in a chemi cal l abora-
tory. It i s not an acid f or ki t chen or basement use.
Act ual l y, t here are f ew occasi ons when fossi l s must be removed f rom a
silicate envi ronment . Fossils f ound i n sandst one are usual l y poorl y pre-
served and hardl y wort h the danger of acid burn. Occasi onal l y, wel l -
preserved calcified fossi l s will occur i n sandst one. Such fossi l s can be suc-
cessf ul l y prepared wi th hydrofl uori c acid. One such recent occurrence was
a pocket of compl et e bl astoi ds f ound in a sandst one channel -fi l l in early
Mi ssi ssi ppi an rocks of Mont ana. The small pocket yielded hundreds of
bl ast oi ds compl et e wi th st ems and brachi ol es.
Si nce the calcified fossi l s were much sof t er than the mat ri x, any me-
chani cal preparat i on woul d have dest royed t hem. But excel l ent results
were achi eved by pl aci ng the speci mens upside down in a wi de, flat, pol y-
et hyl ene dish under an acid hood. Techni cal grade ( 48 percent) hydro-
fluoric acid was poured in to a dept h of | i nch to eat away the
f ossi l i f erous side of the bl ocks. Af t er thi rty to f ort y- f i ve mi nut es the sl abs
were removed f rom the acid wi t h pl at i num-t i pped tongs held wi t h rubber-
gl oved hands. The sl abs were then placed under runni ng wat er for a
mi nut e or so. If necessary, the speci mens were etched agai n by furt her
acid t reat ment . The fossi l s needed onl y a little soap and wat er and brush-
ing to compl et e the cl eani ng.
Hydrofl uori c acid has one ot her use. Smal l fossi l s and mi crofossi l s show
i nternal f eat ures i f t hey can be made transl ucent. Thi s can be done by
changi ng their chemi cal composi t i on f rom cal ci um carbonat e (cal ci te or
aragoni t e) to cal ci um fl uori de (fl uori te). Cal ci um carbonat e will react wi th
dilute hydrofl uori c acid to do j ust this chemi cal magi c, and the fossi l will
become a pseudomorph of itself wi t hout l osi ng a single di mpl e. It will
become t ransl ucent when wet and more stabl e chemi cal l y as well as a bit
harder. The hardness of f l uori t e ( 4 on Mohs ' scal e) i s hi gher than that of
cal ci te (3 on the scal e) . Thi s t echni que works quite well with small brachi -
opods, ost racods, f orami ni f era, and bryozoans.
Hydrofl uori c acid is expensi ve as well as destructi ve. It should be stored
where it is not apt to be spilled and where it will not cause maj or damage
if it is spilled.
ACI DS: TYPE 2
The gentl e organi c aci dsacet i c and f or mi car e used t o cl ean fossi l s by
sl owl y di ssol vi ng cal ci te ( l i mest one) . Acet i c acid gives vi negar its tart taste
and smel l . Whi t e vi negar i s diluted acetic acid, f ormed nat ural l y by f er-
ment at i on of al cohol . Formi c acid, whi ch causes the excruci at i ng sting of
an ant bi te, is also f ound in some st i ngi ng pl ant s.
The two acids are quite similar i n acti on but not i n pri ce. Acet i c acid i s
f ar cheaper. Formi c acid may be a bi t gent l er on some fossi l s, but not
enough to j ust i f y the di fference in cost.
Plain whi te vi negar is a sat i sf act ory, t hough sl ow- act i ng, source of aceti c
acid. Gl aci al aceti c acid, a st rong concent rat i on, can be bought at a phot o-
supply store or chemi cal - suppl y house. Gl aci al aceti c acid shoul d be cut
with five to ten parts of wat er to make a sol uti on usabl e on fossi l s.
Af t er a fossi l has been t horoughl y prepared, a thi n l ayer of l i mest one
or l i my shale may remai n. Mechani cal removal woul d undoubt edl y damage
the fossi l . Thi s layer shoul d be as thin as possi bl e bef or e acid removal i s
consi dered, and the acid should be the last resort. The speci men i s pl aced
in the weak acid in a glass or pl asti c dish (not met al ) and l eft f or a f ew
seconds to observe progress of the reacti on. The acid will eat t hrough the
matri x and will also eat the fossi l , t hough much more sl owl y.
Fossils prepared wi t h acid have an unnat ural , pol i shed appearance whi ch
may be obj ect i onabl e. Some detail will be l ost, and this may count erbal ance
any benefi t f rom removi ng the last vesti ges of mat ri x. The acid may be
placed wi t h a small brush on spots of mat ri x, little by l i ttl e, unti l the spot
A pyritized brachiopod Mucrospirifer looked like this before acid treatment. Matrix
is shale, but contains enough calcium carbonate to allow disintegration with acid.
After immersion for one minute in hydrochloric acid, all matrix is gone, but so is a
good bit of the fossil detail. The shiny, brilliant pyrite is of little value except as a
curiosity.
di sappears. Whe n bubbl i ng st ops, the spot shoul d be brushed t o remove
l oosened st one and to check progress. Thi s is a slow met hod but it permi ts
exact cont rol of the preparat i on.
Some del i cate silicified fossi l s can be removed f rom carbonat e r oc ks
f or i nst ance, Mi ocene i nsects f rom the small Cal i f orni a nodul esby the
use of aceti c acid. Thes e nodul es t ake weeks to dissolve in a plastic con-
t ai ner of aceti c aci d, but the gent l e acti on l eaves the i nsects i ntact. Such
del i cate f eat ures as legs and ant ennae are undamaged.
Acet i c acid will not di ssol ve fossi l s composed of cal ci um phosphat e,
such as conodont s and a f ew speci es of brachi opods. These can be removed
f r om carbonat e mat ri x by submergi ng the bl ocks of l i mestone i n vats of
acid unti l they are di ssol ved. The mud at the bot t om of the t ank can be
washed away gent l y wi t h many changes of wat er. The remai ni ng fossi l s
when dried will be ready f or mount i ng.
To test a fossi l to see whet her i t i s silicified or has been replaced by cal -
ci t e, put a drop of st rong aceti c or hydrochl ori c acid on it and wat ch
t hrough a magni f yi ng glass f or si gns of bubbl i ng or fizzing. If the acid
causes fizzing, the fossi l is cal ci te.
Some weat hered fossi l s will be coated wi t h whi t e cal ci um carbonat e
Fragile pieces of Yorkella australis, a South Australian silicified trilobite, etched from
limestone with acetic acid.
deposited by ground wat er. A short dip in weak aceti c acid will remove
this coati ng wi t hout harmi ng the fossi l . Thi s i s commonl y done wi t h con-
creti onary fern fossi l s f rom Illinois or Indi ana that are f ound exposed as
a result of weat heri ng. I nvari abl y the pl ant fossi l is obscured by a whi t e
mask, whi ch i s probabl y derived f rom a chemi cal react i on bet ween the
concreti on and wat er. Af t er acid t reat ment , the l oosened film will brush
away wi th soap and wat er.
ACI DS: TYPE 3
Three ot her strong, cheap, and easi l y obt ai ned acids are cont ai ned i n this
group)hydrochloric, sul furi c, and ni tri c. The last two are dangerous to
use and have no advant age i n fossi l use. Hydrochl ori c aci d, also called
muriatic acid, i s an excel l ent sol vent f or any carbonat e mat ri x, acti ng
fast er than organi c acids t hough not as gent l y.
Hydrochl ori c acid shoul d be diluted to about a 10 percent sol uti on, or
weaker, for fine work. Col d wat er shoul d be used, because mi xi ng acid
and water creates enough heat to crack a gl ass dish. Al ways add the acid
to the water. Remember the triple A: Al ways Add Aci d. Aci d i s heavi er
than wat er and when poured into wat er will si nk, mi xi ng as i t goes. It
should be stored i n a cont ai ner made of gl ass, st one, or pl ast i cnever one
made of met al and the ti ghtl y cl osed bot t l e shoul d be kept away f rom
metal obj ect s. Vapors will escape f rom the ti ghtest bot t l e and will rust
nearby met al . Fumes f r om an opened bot t l e of acid are i rri tati ng, so the
pouri ng should be done outdoors whi l e standi ng upwi nd. Fossils placed i n
normal di l uti ons of acid can be fished out wi th the bare fi ngers; gloves
or t ongs are not necessary unl ess there are unheal ed cuts on the fingers.
Hydrochl ori c acid is used to f ree fossi l s composed of quartz and pyri te.
It is al so used to f ree rare anhydri t e fossi l s. Fossils repl aced by silica, such
as quart z, opal , agat e, j asper, chert , or flint, are not uncommon, especially
in some areas. If some fossi l s in a rock l ayer are silicified, most of them
will usual l y be silicified. Some st one bl ocks cont ai n enough cal ci um car-
bonat e to cause t hem to di ssol ve or fall apart when treated wi th acid, and
their del i catel y preserved fossi l s can be released i n this way.
Nat ural weat heri ng of l i mest ones and l i my shal es that contai n silica
fossi l s will f ree the f ossi l s, but it may t ake years to f ree a small brachi o-
pod. Duri ng this parturi ti on the fossi l is exposed to freezi ng, thawi ng,
heat i ng, cool i ng, mi ni at ure l andsl i des, and perhaps the mi spl aced f oot of
an ani mal . Whe n it is finally f ree it is little more than dust. Thi s is one
case i n whi ch rapid weat heri ng by man i s bet t er than the pati ence of
nat ure.
A cl assi c l ocal e f or silicified fossi l s is in the Gl ass Mount ai ns of Texas,
where a l ayer of Permi an l i mest one cont ai ns ornat e brachi opods in perfect
preservat i on. Ma ny of these brachi opods possess delicate spines proj ecti ng
several i nches f rom their small shells. Thes e are i nvari abl y broken off
when the fossi l s weat her f r om rock l ayers. Bl ocks of this Gl ass Mount ai n
l i mest one, t aken back to the l aborat ory, placed i n glass aquari ums, and
covered wi t h acid, will in some weeks or mont hs be reduced to a mound
of magni fi cent f ossi l s, perf ect l y cl eaned and so del i cate that they oft en
col l apse of their own wei ght when the wat er is drai ned away. A 180-pound
bl ock of this st one, when di ssol ved, was f ound to cont ai n 10,000 brachi o-
pods, an average of nearl y 55 a pound, as wel l as ot her fossi l s. Large
bl ocks are f avored f or this t reat ment , as they are more likely to contai n
l arge undamaged speci mens. Such gi ant pi eces are beyond the capacities
of the amat eur fossi l col l ector, but pi eces of a pound or so should produce
fine resul ts f or hi m.
Anot her cl assi c locale f or silicified fossi l s is in the Ordovi ci an of Vi r-
gi ni a, where acid di ssol uti on of bl ocks of l i mest one has released trilobites,
part i cul arl y j uveni l e f or ms never bef ore f ound.
An easy way to l earn whet her l oose fossi l s f ound i n an outcrop are
silicified is to break off a corner of one and scrape this corner against a
coi n. If it digs i nto the metal easi l y and l eaves a di sti nct gouge, it is silici-
fied. If it doesn' t make a good scrat ch, it is probabl y calcified. Of t en a
weat hered fossi l , even if silicified, will wear a thin coat of l i mestone that
will fizz and give a fal se signal in acid.
Permian brachiopods in western Texas limestone are silicified and can be freed from
matrix with acid. Specimens so treated often show the original spines and delicate
details that would not survive weathering. Dictyoclostus; Glass Mountains, Texas.
The bl ock of fossi l -beari ng st one to be di ssol ved shoul d be placed at the
bot t om of a glass or plastic bowl and covered wi t h acid. If all the fossi l s
seem to be on one side of the bl ock, that side shoul d be placed f acedown,
and onl y enough acid to cover the fossi l l ayer shoul d be added. The acid
must be changed daily, as i t qui ckl y exhaust s itself. The acti on goes on
slowly aft er the vi ol ent bubbl i ng st ops. Thi s vi ol ent bubbl i ng can rip
apart newl y exposed, fragi l e fossi l s. If the fossi l s are parti cul arl y del i cate,
it may be wiser to use very weak acid f or a l onger ti me.
The mud that most l i mest ones cont ai n does not di ssol ve. It settl es to the
bot t om of the cont ai ner al ong wi th the fossi l s and makes thei r recovery
from this murky mess difficult. If the speci men is placed on a piece of
plastic screeni ng supported above the bot t om of the dish by gl ass marbl es
or quartz pebbl es, the mud will settle through the screen, leaving the
fossils behi nd.
These strange fossils with the delicate spines are unusual brachiopods whose shapes
closely resemble those of the horn corals. Such delicate fossils are collected by dis-
solving away the limestone matrix with acid. Prorichthofenia uddeni; Permian; Glass
Mountains, Texas.
Af t er the bl ock i s gone, the fossi l s shoul d be washed gent l y i n wat er. If
t hey are i n mud, i t shoul d be washed away caref ul l y, pref erabl y not down
the si nk, as mud may clog the drai n. The fossi l s shoul d be dried on a piece
of paper t owel i ng. If they are very t i ny, they should be rinsed i n acetone
or al cohol to remove wat er f rom t hem. Si nce most wat er i s hard because
of di ssol ved mi neral s, the smal l fossi l s will glue t hemsel ves to paper or
gl ass or what ever t hey dry on as the wat er evaporat es, leaving behi nd a
l ayer of its once- di ssol ved mi neral s. Thi s wat er glue i s surpri si ngl y t ena-
ci ous; the ti ny fossi l s may break bef ore they snap l oose. Fossils should
never be dried over an open fl ame, si nce wat er still i n t hem may f orm
st eam and burst t hem apart. Ti ny fossi l s heat ed in a pan will dry to a
certai n poi nt and then suddenl y pop and spl at t er out of the pan.
Pyri ti zed fossi l s may be exposed wi t h hydrochl ori c acid. Mos t pyritized
fossi l s are f ound in shal es, however, and unl ess there is a high cont ent of
cal ci um carbonat e i n the shal e i t will not be touched by acid. Devoni an
fossi l s of t en become pyri t i zed; the brachi opods of Syl vani a, Ohi o, and
west ern New Yor k St at e are exampl es of this process.
Pyritized fossi l s are of t en f ound i n rock l ayers near l ayers of coal . Ma ny
so-called pyritized fossi l s are real l y repl aced by marcasi t e, the unst abl e
sister of pyri te. To expose the f resh surf ace of a marcasi t e fossi l by acid
action i s to invite di saster. In a f ew mont hs or years t he marcasi t e may
grow whi te whi skers, produce sul furi c aci d, and crumbl e into a pile of
corrosi ve dust and acid. Thi s has happened to many pyri ti zed snails f ound
i n the coal mi nes at Farmi ngt on, Illinois. The cause of this marcasi t e di s-
ease has recentl y been attri buted to the appeti tes of i ron- l ovi ng bact eri a.
Treat ment to t hwart them consi st s of soaki ng the speci mens in a st rong
bacteri ci de f or a day or more and al l owi ng t hem to dry wi t hout ri nsi ng.
Thi ck- shel l ed fossi l s of t en are not compl et el y pyri ti zed and i f t hey are
cleaned i n acid, they can be damaged. The acid will ent er the inside cavi t y
of whol e brachi opods and eat out the l i mest one, l eavi ng pyri t e shel l s a
f ew mi l l i meters thi ck that fall to pi eces. Cl eani ng pyri ti zed speci mens wi t h
acid will al ways remove some surf ace detai l . Whi l e produci ng a gol den
fossi l , such cl eani ng materi al l y reduces its scientific val ue.
All acids except hydrofl uori c can be flushed down the drai n af t er use i f
Fossils replaced by marcasite or pyrite often develop a white-whisker disease from
dampness. This is caused by bacteria and can be halted with a strong bactericide.
Shansiella carbonaria; Pennsylvanian; Farmington, Illinois.
t hey are f ol l owed wi t h pl ent y of wat er. Aci ds will not harm pl umbi ng but
will etch concret e basement washt ubs. The y will not damage porcel ai n.
Ot her aci ds, such as the dry powder aci ds, have limited use i n fossil
preparat i on. The y are no bet t er t han the liquid acids and are usual l y ex-
pensi ve. If you are orderi ng acid f rom a cat al og, you can choose the
cheapest ; i t i s not necessary to have chemi cal l y pure acid f or dissolving
rock. Some dilutions are cheaper t han nearl y pure aci d, but somet i mes the
reverse i s true. Remember that the two commonl y used aci ds, acetic
and hydrochl ori c, are easi l y avai l abl e as vi negar (aceti c) and muriatic
( hydrochl ori c) .
I n usi ng aci d, r emember :
1. Always Add Acid to wat er ( AAA)
2. Al ways test a sampl e piece first.
3. Put a drop of acid on a spot of mat ri x bef or e pl ungi ng the whol e spe-
ci men i nto acid.
X
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Every col l ector needs to know somet hi ng about techni ques that are more
compl ex than the met hods of preparat i on we have descri bed so f ar. These
are now- and- t hen mat t er s t he preparat i on of certai n unusual fossi l s that
require specialized t reat ment . As the col l ect or becomes more skilled i n his
work with fossils he will wi sh to go beyond the scrapi ng, chi ppi ng, and
other methods that had f ormerl y sufficed.
Such techni ques as the maki ng of peel s, t hi n- sect i on work, and pl asti c
embedment are not beyond the abi l i ty of the advanced col l ect or, and t hey
will add new sat i sfact i ons to his hobby and bet t er speci mens to hi s cabi net .
Turni ng a dul l -brown coal ball into a series of mont ages of the cel l ul ar
structures of anci ent trees, l eaves, and seeds onl y 1 / 1 0 0 0 i nch thi ck gives
him not onl y personal sat i sf act i on but also a cl oser l ook at the l i fe of ages
otherwi se hidden by the mi st s of ti me.
THIN SECTIONS
Thi n secti ons, used i n pal eont ol ogy as i n bi ol ogy pri mari l y f or identifica-
tion of pl ants and ani mal s, are ext remel y fine slices of materi al prepared
by grinding or ot her means. The y are sheer enough to al l ow light to pass
179
t hrough t hem, maki ng cell wal l s, pores, and ot her details visible. They
must be vi ewed t hrough a mi croscope.
Anot her t ype of thin sect i on, known as a serial secti on, is used to de-
t ermi ne the shape of a fossi l embedded in mat ri x f rom whi ch it cannot be
removed, such as a seed in a coal bal l or a brachi opod in marbl e. The thin
serial secti ons are removed one af t er anot her, progressi ng right through
the fossi l . The out er margi ns of the f ossi l , vi si bl e i n the thin secti ons, are
measured and pl otted on paper until the t hree- di mensi onal shape of the
fossi l i s reconst ruct ed. Thi s i s t i me- consumi ng. The same result can be
accompl i shed by gri ndi ng away a measured amount of the speci men i n
st ages and drawi ng the fossi l outl i ne at each stage on paper.
Thi n sect i ons can t hemsel ves be thi ngs of i nt erest and beaut y. A peel
of a coal bal l may show in f asci nat i ng detail a cross section of the intricate
cell structure of a cone or a root. Thi n secti ons necessary f or identification of
petrified wood are also at t ract i ve f or their col ors. They can be mounted
l i ke pieces of col or film in glass proj ect i on slides and proj ected on a screen.
Sl i des are parti cul arl y well suited to secti ons of petrified wood and coal
bal l s, t hough i nteresti ng secti ons have also been made of coral .
Grinding Thin Sections
Thi n secti ons can be made by two t echni quesgri ndi ng and the peel. The
first is l i ke gri ndi ng a gemst one. The second uses acid to etch away a thin
surf ace l ayer of mat ri x, l eavi ng behi nd the actual cell walls of the plant
or ani mal . Thes e are t hen covered wi th a l ayer of liquid plastic. Whe n it is
dry, the pl asti c l ayer is pulled off, tearing l oose the cells but keepi ng them
i n exact l y the same posi ti on i n the plastic.
Gri ndi ng of thin secti ons i s commonl y done wi t h silicified wood whi ch,
l i ke modern unfossi l i zed wood, requi res a cross secti on and somet i mes a
l ongi tudi nal secti on f or i denti fi cati on. Thi s i s true also of fossil corals and
br yozoans, whi ch are identified l argel y by the posi ti on, shape, and size of
t he i nner chambers. Somet i mes these ani mal s can be identified wi thout
maki ng a thin secti on, but the fossi l s must still be cut and polished in a
fl at secti on bot h across and l engt hwi se to expose the chambers.
Mos t books used for i denti fi cati on of fossi l coral s (parti cul arl y horn
coral s) and bryozoans show secti ons of the individual species, somet i mes
wi t hout a pi cture or drawi ng of the enti re ani mal , si nce so many species
are qui te si mi l ar on the outsi de.
Bef ore gri ndi ng a thin sect i on (or prepari ng a flat area on a whol e spe-
ci men) it is usual l y necessary to cut the speci men wi th a di amond saw. A
thi n bl ade shoul d be used, part i cul arl y wi t h ti ny fossi l s. Normal l y, a sec-
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES 181
tion should be t aken across the speci men (l i ke cutti ng a carrot i nto slices)
and anot her at right angles to it (like cut t i ng the carrot l engt hwi se) . Bef ore
sawing the speci men, study i l l ustrati ons of secti ons in a t ext book to see
how to cut the speci men and what a secti on shoul d l ook like when sawed.
Onl y a small piece of the fossi l is needed, rarel y more than hal f an i nch.
Don' t try to saw it too t hi n; it may break.
Mos t fossils are too smal l or too i rregul ar in shape to be held in the
saw vi se; they must be cut by hand. The piece should be fed sl owl y and
careful l y to avoid breaki ng off the tip of the slice at the end of the cut.
Si nce a di amond sawbl ade will not cut flesh, there is little danger f rom the
saw unless a thin slice shat t ers while bei ng hel d.
The secti ons should be washed at once to remove the cool ant oil. Un-
diluted liquid detergent can be rubbed over the speci men. It can then be
rinsed in wat er that is nei t her very hot nor very col d, as ext remes of
temperature can cause a speci men to crack.
If the saw cut is smoot h, the piece can be cement ed di rectl y ont o a glass
mi croscope slide. If bot h surf aces are rough, one shoul d be caref ul l y
ground or sanded flat. Thi s can be done more easi l y i f the surface exposed
by the first cut is sanded to a flat surface bef ore the thin secti on is sawed
off. Thi s leaves at least one flat surface on the slice.
Cement the thin secti on to the slide wi th epoxy or one of the f ast - dryi ng
j ewel ry cement s. What ever cement i s used, i t must dry clear. Spread the
cement evenl y and thi nl y on bot h speci men and slide and put t hem t o-
get her careful l y to avoid trappi ng bubbl es. Gent l e heat i ng at 200 degrees
for fifteen mi nut es will cure epoxy sufficiently so that the speci men can
be ground; wi thout heat i ng, it must cure at room t emperat ure f or a day.
The mounted piece should be ground as thin as possi bl e. Ideal l y this
should be done on a small flat lap, a cast - i ron disc wi t h a true flat surf ace.
The disc rotates hori zontal l y like a pot t er' s wheel . The lap wheel is
mounted atop an arbor, and the whol e is placed in a metal tub to cat ch the
grit cast off by the rotati ng lap. A mot or, usual l y mount ed underneat h,
turns the wheel at a speed determi ned by the di amet er of the wheel . The
speed should be j ust short of that whi ch will sling off the grit as f ast as it
is placed on the lap wheel . Thes e flat laps can be purchased f or reasonabl e
sums from a rock shop or built f rom an arbor and a lap wheel .
If a great deal of materi al must be ground away, the lap wheel shoul d
be sprinkled with 220 silicon carbi de gri t. If a l arge surf ace on a piece of
petrified wood is to be prepared, 100 grit may be necessary f or the first
grind. The thin section shoul d be ground until it is al most thin enough,
which will be perhaps 1/25 inch. At this st age, the speci men shoul d be
translucent when held to a bri ght light. The lap wheel should then be
cleaned, and the gri ndi ng cont i nued wi th 400 or 600 grit. If the pi ece is
Cast-iron flat lap grinds flat sections for microscope examination or for preparing
coal balls or petrified wood.
thi n, and the fossi l is composed of a sof t materi al l i ke cal ci te ( most animal
f ossi l s) , the gri ndi ng can be done enti rel y wi t h 400 or 600. Gri ndi ng
shoul d proceed sl owl y, and the flat must be i nspected of t en to avoid gri nd-
ing t hrough the fossi l . The speci men will be compl et e when i t becomes
paper- t hi n and qui te t ransl ucent .
An al ternati ve met hod is to use a si l i con-carbi de gri ndi ng wheel , such
as is used f or l api dary work, and to gri nd gent l y on the flat side of the
wheel . Speci mens of more than an ounce or two should not be worked i n
this way. Some pieces of l api dary equi pment , parti cul arl y the compact
machi nes, are desi gned to run hori zont al l y, maki ng fl at-secti on grinding
easi er.
Do not use much pressure whi l e gri ndi ng on the side of the wheel , as i t
i s not desi gned for side pressure. Use pl enty of wat er for cool i ng and use
a fi ne-gri t wheel , such as 220. Move the speci men back and forth to avoid
gri ndi ng a hol l ow in the wheel .
Whe n using the gri ndi ng wheel , l eave a sl i ghtl y thi cker secti on than
when usi ng the flat l ap. The gri ndi ng wheel s can also be used to remove
enough materi al to proceed di rectl y to the 400 or 600 grit on the flat lap,
savi ng one l appi ng step t here.
If no flat lap is avai l abl e, the speci men can be gi ven the final gri nd by
hand on plate glass wi th l oose silicon carbi de gri t. The grit (400) is spri n-
kled on the glass and enough wat er added to make a soupy mi xt ure. The
slide and its attached speci men are t hen ground vi gorousl y wi t h a ci rcul ar
moti on. As soon as the speci men i s ground to the proper t hi nness, i t can be
finished on anot her piece of glass wi th 600 grit. A piece of wet 400- or
600-grit si l i con-carbi de paper at t ached to a hard, flat surf ace such as a
linoleum tile or sheet of glass can also be used f or finishing.
It is not necessary to polish the thin secti on. A thin cover gl ass is usual l y
cement ed over i t to provi de a durabl e surf ace. The cement i ng can be done
with a thin l ayer of epoxy. The cover glass should be pushed around until
all bubbl es and excess cement are squeezed out. Cover gl asses can be
bought at any store that handl es l aborat ory equi pment . They are less t han
a mi l l i meter thi ck and must be handl ed caref ul l y.
Af t er the cement has hardened, the slide i s ready to be exami ned under
the mi croscope. A label should be at t ached, descri bi ng the secti on and the
specimen it came f rom.
If an entire speci men is bei ng ground in secti on, the operat i ons are
carried out as with the thin secti on. It is f ar easi er to wor k wi t h the whol e
fossil, as there is no danger of gri ndi ng t hrough it. A cover gl ass can be
glued wi th epoxy to an appropri at e spot to make a wi ndow, or the speci -
men can be kept wet while bei ng exami ned. Thi s gives the appearance of
a polished surface and makes the structures much easi er to see. The sur-
face should not be pol i shed, because pol i shi ng pulls out sof t areas and
makes a rough surface rather t han a smoot h one. Pi eces of solidly silicified
wood can be pol i shed, using standard l api dary procedures, af t er a good
fine grind has been achi eved.
Af t er the thin secti on is made, or a sui t abl y ori ented flat spot is ground
on a speci men, the internal arrangement of compart ment s can be compared
to the illustrations in an identification book. It may be easi er to make a
pencil drawi ng of one area of the speci men rat her t han ref er to the mi cro-
scope repeatedly.
The Peel Technique
Peels are used mai nl y to exami ne coal bal l s, those myst eri ous mason j ars of
perfectl y preserved veget abl e mat t er 250 mi l l i on years old. Coal bal l s have
been described i n Chapt er I Vt he y are rounded masses of seeds, l eaves,
stems, roots, and bark of Coal Age trees " pet r i f i ed" i n compl et e cellular
detail by a mass of cal ci um carbonat e. Thes e coal bal l s lie in the coal seam
whi ch was formed f rom similar pl ant materi al . The coal bal l s, i mpregnat ed
by cal ci um carbonat e, hardened i nto stone bef ore the rest of the plant
remai ns were compressed i nto coal .
Earl y peels were made by pouri ng liquid plastic over the flat aci d-etched
secti on of the coal bal l . Whe n the plastic was dry, usual l y hours or days
l at er, it was pulled and scraped off the speci men. Thi s process is rarely
used now except when ext remel y smal l st ruct ures must be preserved.
The modern met hod is to use a sheet of cellulose acetate dissolved by
acet one di rectl y ont o the speci men. It flows i nto all cellular spaces left
af t er the mat ri x has been dissolved by acid. As the acet one evaporat es, the
pl asti c hardens agai n and can be " pe e l e d" i n less t han an hour.
The peel t echni que can be used on some coral s, brachi opods, and other
f ossi l s. The fossi l must cont ai n some aci d-resi stant organi c substance.
Mos t pl ant petri fi cati ons do cont ai n such organi c mat eri al , even the hard-
est silicified woods. The acid di ssol ves the mat ri x, whi ch i s calcite (calcium
car bonat e) . Even agati zed woods can be peeled i f the silica i s dissolved
wi t h hydrofl uori c acid. A short bat h in acid removes a l ayer of matri x
perhaps 1/ 1000 i nch t hi ck, l eavi ng the cell wal l s and ot her organi c mat e-
rial standi ng f ree. The pl asti c fills the voids and tenaci ousl y holds the
organi c mat eri al i n exact l y the same posi ti on when the plastic i s ripped
l oose f r om the speci men. The peel needs no f urt her preparat i on t o be
exami ned, identified, or di spl ayed.
The speci men must first have a flat surf ace. Thi s is usual l y made wi th a
di amond saw. A coral may need to be ori ented careful l y in order to obt ai n
a usef ul peel , but a coal bal l may be cut into thi ck sl abs at random. (It is
i mpossi bl e to know what st ruct ures will be where i n a coal bal l . ) Af t er
sawi ng, the secti ons are ground perf ect l y flat, l i ke a thin secti on, on a flat
l ap, or wi t h l oose grit on a piece of plate gl ass. The speci men is finished
by gri ndi ng it on plate gl ass wi t h 400 grit f or a f ew mi nut es to make a
smoot h surf ace. The grit shoul d be washed f rom the speci men.
A sol uti on of 10 percent hydrochl ori c acid is prepared ( Al ways Add
Aci d to wat er) in a shal l ow pl asti c, gl ass, or enamel ed flat-bottomed con-
tai ner. At l east an i nch of acid shoul d cover the bot t om. Grasp the speci-
men wi t h rubber gl oves and hol d it, prepared surface down, i n the acid,
but do not let i t touch the bot t om. Any fine exposed structures will be
br oken off i f the speci men t ouches the bot t om. It should fizz vi ol entl y.
The time of the bat h will vary f rom five to fi fteen seconds, dependi ng on
the type of mat ri x, the st rengt h of the aci d, and how many times the acid
has been used. It does wear out. Ri nse the speci men by letting warm water
fl ow across i t gent l y f or ten seconds or so. Be careful not to bump or touch
the et ched surf ace.
Pl ace the wet speci men i n a box of sand or gravel wi t h the et ched sur-
f ace up and parallel to the floor. It can be al l owed to dry f or an hour or so
or the drying can be reduced to a f ew mi nut es if acet one is poured gent l y
across the surface a f ew ti mes. Thi s shoul d be done in a venti l ated pl ace
to avoid breat hi ng the acet one f umes. Whi l e the speci men is dryi ng, cut a
sheet of cellulose acet at e to a size somewhat l arger t han the speci men. The
acetate is a clear plastic and shoul d be about t hree mils ( 3/ 1000 i nch)
thi ck, or about the t hi ckness of heavy paper. Do not conf use cel l ul ose ace-
tate wi th pol yet hyl ene or Myl ar ; i t shoul d be ordered specifically f r om a
company f ound under Pl asti cs i n the Yel l ow Pages of the tel ephone book.
If none is avai l abl e l ocal l y, it can be ordered f rom the Col oni al Kol oni t e
Company, 2232 We s t Armi t age Avenue, Chi cago, Illinois 60647. Acet at e
comes in large sheets that can be cut to size.
Acet one should now be poured over the speci men. It evaporat es rapi dl y,
so it is necessary to work qui ckl y or the peel will be i ncompl et e. St art the
acetate sheet at one corner of the speci men, the l owest corner i f t he ace-
tone i s runni ng off that end. The sheet shoul d be held sl i ghtl y curved (see
i l l ustrati on) so that it is rolled across the speci men pushi ng a little
wave of acet one ahead of it. Do not touch the speci men or wi ggl e the sheet
to remove air bubbl es. Al l ow it to dry for at l east hal f an hour or unti l
there is no more acet one odor.
Whe n i t i s t horoughl y dry, careful l y pull on one corner of the sheet. It
Making a coal-ball peel. Step 1: After the coal ball has been sawed, it must be ground
perfectly flat. A small amount of number 4 0 0 silicon carbide grit is used on a sheet
of plate glass.
Step 2: The grit is moistened to a soupy consistency, and the coal ball is ground for
several minutes with a rotating motion. It is then washed thoroughly.
Step 3: The prepared surface is lowered into a shallow pan containing 10 percent
hydrochloric acid. Immersion time varies from five to fifteen seconds. Care must be
taken not to damage the prepared surface by striking it on the bottom of the pan.
Step 4: After the acid bath, water is run gently across the surface to remove the acid.
Care must be taken from here on not to touch the delicate, etched surface. The coal
ball is propped with the top horizontal and allowed to dry. When dry, the surface is
flooded with acetone, and a sheet of cellulose acetate is rolled onto it.
Step 5: The peel normally dries in half an hour. It can then be pulled carefully from
the coal ball and is ready for study under a microscope.
shoul d separate easi l y f r om the speci men. Pull i t off slowly and gentl y,
and the peel is compl et e. If anot her peel is desi red, the speci men should
agai n be ground f or a mi nut e or so on the gl ass wi th 400 grit to prepare
a new flat surf ace, and the peel operati on repeated. Wi t h care, more than
a hundred peels can be made f rom | inch of coal bal l .
Peel s made f rom coral s, brachi opods, or bryozoans may have to be made
several ti mes to arri ve at the opt i mum time of acid etch. Thei r small size
may make the pl aci ng of the acet at e film more difficult. It is advisable to
et ch silicified woods or coral wi t h hydrofl uori c acid, but onl y in a properly
equi pped l aborat ory.
The peel s can be stored i n envel opes, or parti cul arl y i nteresti ng struc-
tures can be cut out wi th sci ssors and mount ed on mi croscope slides. They
can also be pl aced in a proj ect i on slide, mount ed bet ween thin gl ass, and
proj ect ed ont o a screen. If some grai ns of mat ri x remai n, the peel can be
pl unged i nto acid f or a f ew seconds, washed careful l y, and dried. The
pl asti c i s unaffect ed by acid. Names or catal og numbers can be wri tten
wi t h a grease pen or marki ng pen on a corner of the peel.
Ma ny coal -bal l st ruct ures can be identified f rom pal eobot any texts.
Muc h specialized work has been done recent l y at the Uni versi t y of Illinois
on such st ruct ures, especi al l y of seeds. Wor ker s there have publ i shed a
number of papers i l l ustrati ng coal -bal l fossi l s. These are still avai l abl e.
Peel secti ons of coral s and ot her mari ne fossi l s are identified l i ke st and-
ard thin secti ons. Mos t books dealing wi t h identification of coral s and
bryozoans publ i sh i l l ustrati ons of thin secti ons.
PLASTIC EMBEDMENT
Liquid pl asti cs are bei ng used by hobbyi st s to create col orful wall decora-
ti ons, j ewel ry, and t abl et ops wi t h sl abs of agate and ot her gemst ones em-
bedded in the gl ass- cl ear resi n. Thi s casti ng plastic is a pol yester resi na
t hi ck, st i cky, sl i ghtl y bl ui sh liquid that hardens in a f ew hours at room
t emperat ure when several drops of a cat al yst are added. The materi al can
be poured into a pl asti c or cerami c mol d; it can also be cut and polished
af t er it hardens. It sells f or $4 to $10 a gal l on at hobby stores and rock
shops.
Mus eums have been experi ment i ng wi t h similar subst ances, and the
cast i ng techni ques t hey have devel oped can easily be adapted by the
amat eur.
Some fossi l s that are not di ssol ved by acid and that lie on the surface
of l i mest one or l i my shal e sl abs sol ubl e i n acid are excel l ent candi dates for
Fossil fish preserved in plastic after matrix was removed by acid. Specimen is in the
British Museum.
maki ng a plastic embedment . The met hod permi ts a vi ew of bot h sides of
very thi n, filmlike fossi l s such as carboni zed pl ant s, carboni zed wor ms, or
graptol i tes. It i s excel l ent for prepari ng fragi l e bony fossi l s, such as fossi l
fish. It can also be used for pyri ti zed or silicified fossi l s that are so paper
thin or fragi l e or so badl y f ract ured that they woul d fall apart i f freed
f rom the mat ri x. Shat t ered bones exposed at the surf ace of l i mest one can
be kept i ntact wi th the pl asti c.
The speci men should first be prepared as well as possi bl e on the ex-
posed side while the ot her side is still l ocked in the mat ri x. Al l mat ri x
clinging t o the surf ace shoul d be removed. The sl ab of rock shoul d be
sawed as close to the fossil as possi bl e wi t hout ri ski ng damage to hi dden
parts or weakeni ng the sl ab. If the mat ri x will not st and such t reat ment ,
or i f saw oil and wat er woul d damage the f ossi l , the speci men shoul d be
tri mmed by ni bbl i ng away at the edges wi t h st rong pliers or chi ppi ng i t
wi th a small hammer and chi sel .
The surface of the tri mmed bl ock shoul d be dry and cl ean. A piece of
plate glass should be scrupul ousl y cl eaned and treated wi t h a mol d rel ease
(or wax such as Pl edge) over an area l arger t han the fossi l . The gl ass
should be placed quite level, and a retai ni ng wall shoul d be bui l t about an
inch f rom the edge of the speci men on the surf ace of the gl ass. The easi est
material for such a wall i s an i nch- hi gh strip of Myl ar pl asti c sheet. Onl y
Myl ar will wor k; pol yet hyl ene or cel l ul ose acet at e will not. It shoul d be
thick enough to stand by i tsel f, about the t hi ckness of heavy paper, whi ch
i s about 5 / 1 0 0 0 i nch. Myl ar i s avai l abl e at most stores that sell liquid pl as-
ti cs, or i t can be obt ai ned f rom l arge mai l - order houses. The Myl ar strip
can be affixed to the glass wi t h a l eakproof band of model i ng cl ay, sel f-
adhesi ve rubber mol di ng stri ps, or maski ng tape. The band i s placed out-
side the stri p.
Enough pl asti c shoul d be mi xed wi t h the cat al yst (fol l owi ng directions
on the can) to cover the bot t om of this moderni sti c pool to a depth of \
inch or less f or smal l speci mens, a bi t deeper f or speci mens more than 6
i nches in l engt h. The l ayer shoul d never be more t han \ inch thi ck in one
pour i ngheat is generat ed as the pl asti c set s, and this may cause a thick
pouri ng to crack. The pl asti c can be mi xed conveni ent l y in a disposable
paper cup. The plastic shoul d be sti rred caref ul l y to prevent bubbl es f rom
f ormi ng. If bubbl es are trapped in the poured l ayer, they can be forced to
the top wi t h a t oot hpi ck.
Pl ace a piece of paper l oosel y over the pool to keep dust f rom the newl y
poured surf ace. The materi al will become t acky and hard enough t o sup-
port the speci men i n hal f an hour to an hour, dependi ng on the amount
of cat al yst and the ambi ent t emperat ure. It is necessary to wait onl y until
i t has set firmly bef or e adding anot her l ayer. Mi x anot her bat ch of the
pl asti c, and pour a thin l ayer agai n less than J i nchover the first pour-
ing. Pai nt the fossil and mat ri x surf ace wi th a heavy coat of the liquid
pl asti c, and caref ul l y pl ace the fossi l f acedown in the liquid in the mold.
If one corner is submerged first and then the speci men is sl owl y rolled into
the liquid, there i s less chance of capt uri ng bubbl es. Li ft the glass slab and
peer underneat h to see whet her the piece is relatively f ree of bubbl es; if
there are many l arge ones, pull out the sl ab and try agai n. Add more plas-
tic so that it rises around the sides of the speci men at l east a hal f inch
f or smal l pi eces, up to an i nch f or l arger ones. Cover and allow to set for
a day.
The top pl asti c may still feel st i cky even aft er it has set for a long time.
Thi s i s normal . The side agai nst the glass will be hard and dry. Remove
the side wal l s and try to separat e the plastic bl ock f rom the gl ass. If a
rel ease agent was used on the gl ass, it shoul d come right off; if not , try a
f ew gent l e taps. It may be necessary to tap a t abl e- kni f e bl ade under one
corner to f ree the bl ock. If it still st i cks, pl ace fossil and glass sl ab in the
ref ri gerat or f reezer for hal f an hour. The plastic should then come off
easi l y.
The fossi l shoul d be cl earl y vi si bl e t hrough the thin wi ndow of plastic.
Submer ge the bl ock i n ac i d10 percent hydrochl ori c for most fossi l s, and
aceti c f or bones i n a pl asti c or glass cont ai ner. The bl ock shoul d be
pl aced wi t h the fossi l wi ndow f aci ng up, and one side of the bot t om
bl ocked up on a piece of gl ass or ot her aci dproof materi al . Ref resh the
acid when necessary, and al l ow the enti re mat ri x bl ock to di ssol ve. In the
last st ages i t may be necessary to remove the bl ock and gentl y wash, the
surf ace to remove cl i ngi ng mat ri x.
Bony fossi l s may shed a f ew bones t hat were not at t ached to the skel e-
ton and not exposed enough at the surf ace t o be held by the pl asti c. Whe n
all mat ri x has been dissolved away, a skel et on shoul d remai n resti ng on
the pl asti c, or a delicate carbon film of a pl ant or grapt ol i t e firmly fixed on
the plastic. Ri nse the bl ock gent l y f or hal f an hour i n wat er to whi ch a
spoonful of sodi um bi carbonat e has been added. Thi s will neutral i ze acid
remai ni ng on the fossi l . Ri nse the speci men agai n wi t h cl ear wat er and
allow it to dry.
Whe n the fossi l is thoroughly dried ( bones can hol d moi st ure f or a day
or more) , more plastic can be mi xed wi t h cat al yst and gent l y poured i nt o
the well and over the newl y exposed back of the fossi l . No more t han
7 inch should be poured at one ti me, and the pl asti c must be al l owed to
set bet ween pouri ngs. Few fossi l s will need more t han one or two pouri ngs.
The plastic should be kept as thin as possi bl e, j ust enough to cover the
back of the fossi l .
The final pouring can be covered wi t h a liquid avai l abl e f rom the st ore
that supplied the plastic. The liquid will keep air f r om the surf ace and
allow it to dry hard. If the plastic is still t acky, the piece can be heat ed
gentl y i n an oven or an electric f ry pan unti l the plastic sets. You will
noti ce that the plastic will set more rapidly on a war m day t han a cold one.
However, plastic should not be poured on an excessi vel y warm and humi d
day, because the moi st ure will cloud the pl asti c.
The fossil i s now preserved wi t h all del i cate details of bot h sides cl earl y
exposed. Protrudi ng edges of the pl asti c can be ground away on a wheel
and sanded wi th sandpaper but the article shoul d be al l owed to dry f or
several days bef ore i t i s handl ed or pol i shed. Final pol i shi ng can be done
with a cot t on wheel and buffing compound, or on l eat her or fel t sheet s
with standard pol i shi ng agents such as ceri um oxi de, tin oxi de, or tripoli.
If the surface becomes scrat ched, i t can be repol i shed.
Casti ng resins do not have a l ong shel f - l i f e. Ma ke sure to buy f resh
resin and keep it in a cool pl ace, such as in a ref ri gerat or. Onc e it is opened,
use the cont ent s of the cont ai ner in a short ti me. Never mi x more t han can
be used in fifteen mi nut es, because in that time it will set. Spi c and Span
or ot her detergents can be used to remove the i nevi t abl e st i cky messes
f rom the hands. Acet one is a sol vent f or the liquid resi n but is not recom-
mended f or use on the hands. Wo r k shoul d not be done i n the ki t chen
because the odor of the casti ng resin can affect the taste of f ood.
Liquid casti ng plastics have ot her uses in the fossi l field. A speci men,
such as a cl am shell or a delicate snail embedded hal f way in mat ri x but
too badl y fractured to be l oosened f urt her, can be coated wi t h a thi ck l ayer
of plastic and then prepared f rom the ot her side. Hand preparat i on can be
used on shales and sandst ones that woul d not be affected by acids. The
This fossil tooth once belonged to a shark; it now adorns a collector. A standard
ceramic mold was used. Two pourings of casting resin were made: the first was of
clear resin (done upside-down) with the tooth embedded, followed by a backing of
white resin. With bola-tie slide attached, the fossil becomes a piece of jewelry.
(Jewelry by Cecelia Duluk)
pl asti c acts as a gl ue and a solid base f or the speci men. Ext reml y thin
f ossi l s, or fossi l s on thin sheets of shal y mat ri x, can be st rengt hened on
t he back wi t h l ayers of the pl asti c. The pl asti c can al so be used t o cement
a fragi l e but i rregul ar piece of mat ri x to a wooden mount . Of course, fully
prepared fossi l s can be embedded in the pl asti c, ei ther in a pol i shed bl ock
f or a decorat i on or in a mol d to make a shark- t oot h bol a tie slide, or a
pyri ti zed brachi opod pin. Commerci al mol ds are avai l abl e i n ri ng, bol a tie
sl i de, and pin shapes.
CASTING FOSSILS
Mos t fossi l col l ectors have been st ruck, perhaps at Chri st mas ti me, wi th
the beaut y of a fossi l used as j ewel ry. Si nce most fossi l s will not wear well
if cement ed to a ring or pin backi ng, the obvi ous answer is to cast the
speci men i n harder materi al .
Cast s of fossi l s are used i n school s, where there i s danger of damage to
i rrepl aceabl e speci mens that will be handl ed a great deal. Cast s can be
made by the hobbyi st f or donat i on t o school s and i nt erest ed j uni or col -
l ectors.
Some model s made commerci al l y are difficult to tell f r om the real fossi l .
One col l ector f ound a superb tri l obi te in a dust y drawer in a London
mi neral shop a f ew years ago and bought it f or a reasonabl e price. Lat er,
when he was washi ng the speci men, one st ark whi t e corner appeared on
the ot herwi se brown tri l obi te. The speci men turned out to be a pai nt ed
plaster cast, made perhaps fifty years ago.
The bl ack, shi ny, f at tri l obi tes f ound i n the Devoni an shal es at Syl vani a,
Ohi o, are parti cul arl y well adapted to cast i ng. A bl ack pl asti c cast is
startl i ngl y l i fel i ke. One col l ector cast a number of t hese tri l obi tes and t hen
on a cl ub trip to the quarry scat t ered t hem in likely pl aces bef or e anyone
else got there. Al l day t here were shri eks of exci t ement as one person
after anot her uneart hed these perf ect tri l obi tes. Ma ny f ound i t hard t o
bel i eve that the j oke was on t hem. At the quarry some weeks l ater a woman
exci tedl y showed fri ends her prize find of the day. It was one of the pl asti c
tri l obi tes, speckl ed wi t h mud f rom i nt erveni ng rai ns. Onl y its l i ght wei ght
bet rayed it. She was heart broken when told the truth. Undoubt edl y some
of these f ake art hropods, l abel ed i n good f ai t h as the real t hi ng, reside i n
col l ecti ons.
Cast s of t ype- speci mens of fossi l s are prof essi onal l y made to be sent to
ot her museums and uni versi ti es f or thei r st udy col l ecti ons. A good cast is
Cast in plastic of the crinoid Cactocrinus arnoldi, made in a rubber mold.
i n every way as useful as the real thi ng. It shows all detai l s, even the
smal l est pit and pore. It does not show col or vari at i ons and suggesti ons of
organi c fi l ms as well as t he ori gi nal does and, of course, cannot be furt her
prepared or exami ned under a mi croscope to see cryst al l i ne detail.
Cast s are also made i n nat ural mol ds, whi ch are the onl y fossi l s f ound
i n some rock l ayers. Thi s i s part i cul arl y true of dol omi tes. Somet i mes a
calcified fossi l is f ound in an ext remel y hard sandst one, slate, or shal e that
cannot be chi pped away wi t hout damagi ng the sof t er fossi l . In such cases,
the fossi l i s di ssol ved wi t h aci d, and the mol d cavi ty filled wi t h rubber.
Thi s yields a perf ect cast of the fossi l when the hard mat ri x i s broken
away.
A cent ury ago, cast s were compl i cat ed thi ngs to make. One met hod was
to coat the speci men wi t h shel l ac to seal the pores and then press it into
wax or paraffin. By anot her met hod the fossil was l i ghtl y coated wi th oil
and covered wi t h pl ast er. The mol d was removed f rom the fossi l , and
pl ast er casts were made f r om it. Of t e n onl y one coul d be made. Fossils
that had proj ect i ons or overhangs had t o be cast f rom el aborat e split
mol ds, somet i mes hal f - a- dozen pieces f or each speci men. Such mol ds were
not onl y difficult to make but difficult to cast.
Relatively smooth fossils with no undercuts can be cast using plaster molds. The
fossil is coated with oil and half buried in plaster (left mold). When thoroughly dry,
the plaster mold is treated with a release agent such as petroleum jelly, and the rest
of the fossil is covered with plaster. When dry, the two halves of the mold will
separate easily from the fossil and from each other. A filling hole must be cut into
the mold at the highest point of the cavity. The mold must be treated with a release
agent before each casting. This blastoid was cast in plaster in this mold.
Cast s made well over a cent ury ago by J ames Hal l turned up when his
collection was unwrapped f rom anci ent newspapers at the Field Mus eum
of Natural Hi st ory i n Chi cago, whi ch acqui red the col l ecti on. The casts
were made of sul fur and of lead.
The amat eur can make si mpl e cast s of fossi l s such as flat tri l obi tes,
small ammoni t es, flat snai l s, brachi opods, and ot her fossi l s that do not
have excepti onal l y i ntri cate detail or overhangs. Thi s i s easi l y done by
coating them lightly wi t h oil ( whi ch i s not well adapted to absorbent or
porous matri ces) and pouri ng mel t ed wax over t hem. Papi er- mache wor ks
well to cast fossi l s that are wi t hout fine detai l , such as bones or shark
teeth. Model i ng clay will hold an i mpressi on of any fossi l sturdy enough
to be pushed into it. These mol ds can be cast i n pl ast er but are usual l y
good for onl y one cast.
Mul t i pl e casti ngs f rom all except very fragi l e fossi l s can be made wi t h
rubber mol ds, the cont ri but i on of this cent ury to cast i ng. Hobby- and art -
supply shop sell liquid l atex in bot t l es. A pi nt bot t l e makes many mol ds.
The fossil i s painted wi t h several l ayers of this mat eri al , and then the
John Harris of the Field Museum shows use of rubber molds in casting large fossils.
He is touching the lower jaw; the plaster cast, a faithful reproduction, is in front of
it. This jaw was cast with only two molds (at right side of picture). Such large rubber
molds are good for making only about a dozen casts.
rubber mol d i s pulled f r om the fossi l . Si nce rubber st ret ches, i t can be
used on fossi l s wi t h some overhangs, or even on rolled tri l obi tes or other
t hree- di mensi onal fossi l s. If i t can be peeled off the fossil wi thout stretch-
ing out of shape or splitting the rubber, it can be used as a mol d.
The rubber mol d is filled wi th casti ng pl aster, whi ch is allowed to dry
and i s then removed. Rubber mol ds can be used dozens of ti mes bef ore
t hey split. Even split mol ds can be repaired wi t h liquid l atex. Cast i ng
pl asti c (pol yester resi n) can be cast i n these rubber mol ds, but i t must be
removed caref ul l y, as the surf ace will be st i cky no mat t er how long i t
cures. It can be hardened by gentl e heat i ng i n an oven or electric f ry pan.
The liquid pl asti c can be ti nted wi t h special dyes mi xed i n al ong with
the cat al yst . The surf ace of pl asti c cast s may be shi ny and may need t o be
dulled by a rubbi ng wi t h fine grit. Pl ast er casts can be pai nted wi th water-
col ors to resembl e the nat ural col or of the fossi l .
Rubber i s the best materi al f or maki ng casts f rom natural fossil molds
i n the rocks. The rubber cast can be pai nted, or i t can be used to make
Mold of a snail in dolomite. A release powder is dusted into the mold and casting
rubber is poured into it. The rubber cast is much easier to study than the fossil mold
itself.
anot her mol d that can be cast i n pl ast er or pl asti c. Unl ess the col l ect or
leaves some sort of handl e protrudi ng f r om the rubber when he pours i t
into a natural fossil mol d, he will wi nd up wi t h a hol e full of rubber and
no way to pull out the cast.
Mol ds have been made of si l i cone rubber and of pol yvi nyl chl ori de, a
type of plastic. But the amat eur will not have use f or t hem. Mol ds desi gned
for maki ng lead or ot her hot - met al casts requi re special t echni ques.
If a si mpl e natural mol d is seen in a rock, a field cast can be made by
coati ng the mol d l i ghtl y wi t h thin oi l , pressi ng model i ng cl ay i nto the
cavi ty, and gentl y pulling i t out. Even t hough di st ort ed, the mol d will pi ck
up fine details and disclose what once occupied the hol e.
X-RAY EXAMINATION
The use of X rays is a recent devel opment that has become the st andard
met hod of i denti fyi ng mi neral speci mens. The use of X rays i n i dent i f yi ng
fossils is less well known. It is beyond the capaci ti es of most amat eurs
except persons such as physi ci ans who may have access to such machi nes;
but the techni que shoul d be underst ood by all col l ectors so that t hey can
avoid dest royi ng a rare fossi l by at t empt i ng to prepare i t by ot her met hods,
when i t woul d have been a perf ect candi dat e f or an X- r ay pi cture.
X rays reveal fossi l s l ocked deep wi t hi n hard mat ri x j ust as t hey show
bones in a human body. Under the right condi t i ons, a fine X- r ay pi cture
can be made of a fossil that is not vi si bl e at the surf ace. Preparat i on mi ght
have been i mpossi bl e because of the nat ure of the mat ri x or so difficult
that there would have been much damage.
X rays produce a pi cture because t here is a di fference in the absorpt i on
of the rays by bone and flesh or fossi l and mat ri x as the rays pass t hrough
the obj ect to the film. Absorpt i on of rays i ncreases to the f ourt h power
of the atomi c number of the at oms that compose the fossi l and mat ri x.
Thus, if a pyri ti zed fossi l is embedded in a carbonaceous shal e, a fine X- r ay
picture can be made. Pyri te i s an iron sulfide, and iron has an at omi c num-
ber of 26. Car bon has an atomi c number of 6. Thi s di fference al l ows st rong
contrast because of the much great er absorpt i on of t he X rays by the
pyrite.
On the ot her hand, a pyritized fossi l inside an i ronst one concret i on will
make a very poor X ray. Bot h fossi l and mat ri x cont ai n iron. Li mest ones
are hard to X- ray unl ess very thin because t hey absorb all X rays. A cal ci te
fossil would not show up; i t i s chemi cal l y the same as l i mest one. Car bona-
ceous shales wi th pyri ti zed fossi l s are excel l ent subj ect s. Thi s i s f ort unat e,
because they are the most difficult fossi l s to prepare mechani cal l y.
Dr . Eugene Ri chardson and Dr . Rai ner Zangerl of the Field Museum i n
Chi cago did a massi ve research proj ect on a fossi l occurrence in central
I ndi anaa mass buri al ground f or Pennsyl vani an fish. The fossils required
sl ow, pai nst aki ng preparat i on. Ther e were t housands of speci mens. Af t er
much experi ment at i on and the addi ti on of an el ectroni c dodging machi ne
to compensat e f or the wild cont rast s i n the negat i ves, superb X- ray pi c-
tures of the fish were produced. The pi ctures were more useful than even
the best - prepared speci mens. Thi s t echni que is descri bed in Handbook of
Paleontological Techniques (see Appendi x: Recommended Books. )
If an amat eur finds bl ack, sheet y shal es havi ng suspi ci ous swellings and
some exposed scal es or bones i n t hem, whi ch he i s unabl e to prepare, he
may find they are of great i nterest to a wel l -equi pped museum.
Ther e will probabl y be ot her devel opment s i n this area. Research i s
bei ng done wi t h neut ron radi ography, whi ch can be used to produce pi c-
tures si mi l ar to X rays. A neut ron radi ograph of an obj ect contai ni ng a
vari et y of subst ances, such as wood, pl asti c, and several different metal s,
Dr. Rainer Zangerl of the Field Museum of Natural History preparing fossil shark in
hard shale. Broken fossil was reassembled in a frame and prepared with small
scrapers and flaking tools. Pennsylvanian; Mecca, Indiana. (Photo Field Museum of
Natural History)
Fossil fish apparent only as a swelling on surface of the slab but disclosed in X-ray
photograph in perfect detail. Pennsylvanian; Mecca, Indiana. (Photo by Eugene
Richardson)
would show each hi dden obj ect di sti nctl y in a di fferent shade of gray. A
standard X ray would not di fferenti ate as well and woul d i gnore some of
the obj ect s.
Whi l e this has not yet been applied experi ment al l y to f ossi l s, i t un-
doubtedl y would give much bet t er resul ts t han X rays wi t h fossi l s and
matri ces. Its drawbacks are the hi gh cost of the equi pment , whi ch i s now
limited to nucl ear l aborat ori es, and the danger to users and passersby f rom
radiation.
FLUORESCENCE
Whi l e exami ni ng a col l ecti on of the J urassi c fossi l s f rom Sol nhof en, Ger -
many, a researcher was startl ed to see a beaut i f ul l y detai l ed i nsect fluo-
rescing bri l l i antl y on one sl ab. Whe n he turned on the room l i ght s, the
insect could not be seen on the piece of l i mest one. Ot her di sappeari ng
i nsects were f ound on ot her sl abs. The concl usi on was that the i nsect-
shapes were i ndeed f ossi l s, but fossi l s whose subst ance had decomposed
bef ore the rock hardened. No swel l i ngs or vi si bl e fossi l s remai ned, but
organi c fl uorescent subst ances once cont ai ned i n the i nsects were left
behi nd, creat i ng ghost l y i mages of their bodi es. Vi si bl e fossi l s were found
t o show details not vi si bl e bef or ef or i nst ance, shri mp showed ant ennae
and l egs under the ul travi ol et light that could not be seen under the most
caref ul scruti ny i n dayl i ght.
Thi s was an except i onal case of fossi l f l uorescencet he i nsects that
weren' t t here. Some fossi l s fl uoresce, but none as bri l l i antl y as mi neral s
do; and the mi neral s that repl ace the organi c materi al of fossilized orga-
ni sms are not fl uorescent at all or onl y f eebl y so. Consequent l y, the cause
of t he fl uorescence of some fossi l s is a chal l enge to sci ence.
It has been suggested t hat , as wi th the Sol nhof en f ossi l s, the fluorescing
mat eri al is a subst ance remai ni ng f r om the organi sm. A f ew snail shells
di spl ay fl uorescent bands and stri pes, perhaps the remai ns of l ong-vani shed
col or pat t erns.
J ust as crabmeat canners separate the fl uorescent crab shell f rom the
nonfl uoresci ng meat by ul travi ol et light, so the col l ector occasi onal l y may
use the same t echni que to di sti ngui sh smal l fl uorescent fossi l s f rom the
mat ri x. In t he same way, he may find that fossi l s f rom one l ocal i ty closely
resembl e t hose f rom anot her, but those f r om one l ocal i ty are fl uorescent
and the ot hers are not . Here he has a ready means of separat i ng t hem.
One f urt her use i s aki n to the use of ul travi ol et l i ght to detect al terati ons
and f orgeri es i n art wor ks, rare st amps, etc. Mos t gl ues and cement s used
in pat chi ng fossi l s are fl uorescent, so that the l amp may be a means of
detecti ng even the cl everest repair work.
The ul travi ol et l amps, bot h short wave and l ong, that are used for
mi neral s are sat i sf act ory f or fossi l s. The y come i n a wide range of prices
and si zes, varyi ng degrees of port abi l i t y and powers.
XI
CATALOGING
AND DISPLAYING FOSSILS
A j umbl e of fossi l s on a shel f is not hi ng but a heap of curi osi ti es of nei t her
scientific nor monet ary val ue. Among t hem may lie a one- of - a- ki nd fossi l ,
a new speci es, perhaps even a " mi ssi ng l i nk" that coul d t hrow l i ght on
the rel ati onshi ps of some group of pl ants or ani mal s. Or a common fossi l
may take on new i nterest because it is f rom a l ocal i ty where such a speci es
has not been f ound bef ore or f r om a rock series i n whi ch i t has never been
seen previ ousl y. But i f the fossi l has not been caref ul l y l abel ed and cat a-
loged wi t h the exact l ocati on and rock l ayer i n whi ch i t was f ound, i t has
lost all si gni fi cance. Recordi ng, l abel i ng, and di spl ayi ng are the steps by
which the col l ector educates hi msel f as well as cont ri but es his bit to the
science of pal eont ol ogy.
LABELING
All fossils should be l abel ed as soon as possi bl e. Fossi l s t aken f rom sepa-
rate f ormat i ons shoul d be separated i n the field. Fossils f rom one l ocati on
should not be mi xed wi th those f r om anot her, even t hough the two l ocal -
ities are onl y hal f a mile apart. The fossi l s may be f rom si mi l ar but di s-
tinct f ormat i ons. Furt hermore, di scards f r om one site shoul d not be
201
dumped at anot her si t e; t hey shoul d be saved f or the dri veway. Dumpi ng
t hem t hought l essl y may t horoughl y conf use research on that l ocal i ty.
Mos t fossi l s f ound by the amat eur will be l ooseweat hered f ree f rom
the mat ri x. If t hey are col l ected i n mat ri x, the bl ocks of rock contai ni ng
the fossi l s will probabl y be f ound some di stance f rom thei r source. Thi s
makes i t difficult to say wi t h cert ai nt y whi ch l ayer cont ai ned the fossi l s.
The y shoul d be so l abel ed.
Few amat eurs have to go t hrough the sweat and tears of mi ni ng out
l ayers of rock to be sure that fossi l s are f ound i n pl ace. Thi s i s what the
prof essi onal must do; the l oose fossi l s so readi l y avai l abl e are onl y col orful
obj ect s to hi m. If a fossi l is t aken f rom a specific l ayer of rock, the general
descri pti on of the rock l ayer shoul d be not ed on the catal og card for the
f ossi l ; f or exampl e, a record mi ght read, " t hi n, t hree- i nch gray l i mestone
l yi ng bel ow a one- i nch bl ack shal e and three feet above a thin coal s eam. "
The l ocati on i nf ormat i on shoul d be as specific as possi bl e. Thi s could be
the name of the quarry, a specific spot in a river (such as " 1 0 0 yards
downst ream f rom crossi ng of St at e 4 1 " ) , roadcut (descri bed by mi l epost or
mi l eage f r om i mport ant j unct i on or ri ver crossi ng) , or beach cliff (distance
f r om some promi nent f eat ure) . The best descri pti on i s by precise position
wi t hi n a t ownshi p. Thi s woul d have to be done by ref erence to a quad-
rangl e map (see Chapt er VI I I ) . An exact descri pti on will outl ast road
changes, river meanderi ng, fluctuating city l i mi ts, and filled quarri es. Ther e
are many fossi l s i n old museum col l ecti ons wi th descri pti ons of l ocati ons
such as " 3 0 0 rods sout hwest of Mi l l s Ferry Cr os s i ng. " A town now thrives
where Mi l l s ferri ed a cent ury ago, and nobody now knows where the
crossi ng was.
A l abel can be wri t t en on a piece of paper and wrapped wi th the fossils
i n the field, or the bag or box can be l abel ed. As much i nf ormat i on as pos-
sible shoul d be included at the t i me; memor y fades fast.
CATALOGING
As soon as the fossi l s have been prepared at home, they should be cat a-
l oged. Each speci men shoul d have a cat al og number, even t hough t went y
f r om the same l ocal i ty are kept f or di spl ay or research. Al l can be given
the same number i f t hey are i denti cal , or each can be given the same num-
ber f ol l owed by a di fferent l etter.
Ther e are as many syst ems of numberi ng as there are col l ect ors. The
easi est syst em is to start wi t h the first fossi l as No. 1 and number speci -
mens as they are recei ved. Anot her is to start wi th a l etter fol l owed by a
number : the l etter ref erri ng to the fossi l phyl um, peri od, or l ocal i ty, and
the number to its order of acqui si ti on.
CATALOGING AND DISPLAYING FOSSILS 2 0 3
Fossils are numbered by painting a white spot on the fossil with lacquer or enamel.
After the paint has dried, number the fossil with India ink. When it is dry, seal it
with a dab of household cement. Save old labels, such as this 19th-century English one.
The most permanent met hod of l abel i ng a speci men is to write the
number on the speci men i n some obscure pl ace. On l i ght-col ored matri x
this can be done wi t h a pen fitted wi t h a fine ni b (such as a crow-qui l l
pen) usi ng India i nk. The number can be wri t t en di rectl y on the matri x.
The Indi a i nk will be permanent . On dark mat ri x, such as bl ack shal e,
whi te i nk can be used, but this i s not as permanent .
For uni f ormi t y, a spl otch of whi te can be pai nted on the speci men to
recei ve the number i n India i nk. The whi te enamel or l acquer sold i n most
hobby shops f or model pai nti ng is excel l ent. A strip of paint the wi dth of
a paper mat ch and a quart er inch l ong will easily hol d a four-di gi t number;
in f act , a mat ch makes a good t hrow- away pai nt brush.
The pai nt is dry enough to wri te on in ten mi nut es. If a mi st ake is made,
the Indi a i nk can be washed off i mmedi at el y. Af t er the i nk i s thoroughl y
dry, at l east fi fteen mi nut es, pai nt a thin l ayer of plastic househol d cement
(such as Duco) over the number. Do this rapidly i n one st roke, as the
cement will smear the i nk i f i t i s brushed on. The cement protects the
number f rom wear and f rom repeat ed washi ngs.
On except i onal l y rough mat ri x, such as sandst one, a thi ck l ayer of
househol d cement will smoot h the spot bef ore pai nti ng.
Pai nt the number on the mat ri x rat her than di rectl y on the fossil. If
the actual fossi l must be numbered, do it in a spot that will be hidden
when the speci men is di spl ayed and in an area not vital f or proper iden-
tification. Ti ny fossi l s may not have room f or a spl otch of whi t e. If they
are not porous they can be numbered di rectl y wi th i nk.
The number shoul d be entered i n a catal og al ong wi t h pert i nent data.
Some col l ectors pref er a doubl e syst em of bookkeepi ng, wi t h bri ef descri p-
tion i n one book f or rapid ref erral , and anot her book or series of index
cards cont ai ni ng full data. An ent ry shoul d include names of the fossi l ,
preci se l ocati on where f ound, age and f ormat i on when known, date col -
l ect ed, and any comment s of i nt erest about the fossi l . It i s hel pful to in-
clude a descri pti on of the fossi l , listing size, condi t i on, and even approxi -
mat e val ue. If a speci men is purchased, the deal er' s name and price should
be i ncl uded. Havi ng two separat e cat al ogs will be added protecti on i f one
is lost. Whenever maki ng an ent ry, try to ent er a descri pti on that would
make sense t o the museum curat or who may acquire the col l ecti on many
years l ater.
DISPLAYING
Enti re books could be wri t t en about techni ques of di spl ay. Museums hire
arti sts and decorat ors to prepare exhi bi ts that are educati onal and i nter-
CATALOGING AND DISPLAYING FOSSILS 205
esti ng to the public. The amat eur may keep his col l ecti on t ucked away i n
drawers or shoeboxes, or he may di spl ay i t so as to amaze and del i ght his
nei ghbors and i nstruct the local Cub Scout s.
Cabinets and Drawers
Mos t fossi l s are smal l several i nches l ong or l es s and are uni mpressi ve
i f hidden behi nd ot her speci mens on wide shel ves. The usual wooden shel ves,
china cabi net s, or depart ment - st ore di spl ay cases are not wel l desi gned f or
small fossi l s, whi ch are best seen in an open t ray, such as a shal l ow drawer
or a flat case not more t han a f ew i nches deep covered wi t h gl ass. If an
upright case must be used, i t shoul d not be deep, or the fossi l s i n the rear
rows will be poorl y l i ghted. Si nce f ew fossi l s have the overpoweri ng col or
and beaut y of fine mi neral s, most vi si tors to a basement museum pref er to
l ook at onl y a f ew cases of parti cul arl y i nteresti ng speci mens. The rare
ones of i nt erest onl y to col l ectors can be kept i n drawers.
Museums and uni versi ti es house col l ecti ons i n cabi net s that may stand
thi rty drawers hi gh. Each drawer i s about t went y- f our i nches square and
two i nches deep. Few speci mens except some cephal opods, gi ant coral s,
and vert ebrat e fossi l s are too l arge to fit i nto such a drawer. Dr awer s can
be bui l t at home or can be bought i n sect i ons f r om geol ogi cal -suppl y
houses (see Appendi x) . Dent i st s' and t ypeset t ers' cabi net s and map- st orage
units f or libraries occasi onal l y appear on the market . The y are excel l ent ,
al though a bi t shal l ow. Dr awer s have many advant ages. The y afford a
maxi mum of usabl e di spl ay space; they t ake up little space t hemsel ves
and they keep speci mens f ree of dust. Furt hermore, speci mens can be
exami ned cl osel y i n drawers and even removed f or cl oser i nspect i on, i f
desired.
Speci mens on l arge thin sl abs can be hung f rom nails or pegboards by
hooks attached to their backs wi th tape or epoxy.
Flat di spl ay cases can be bui l t f rom shal l ow drawers or f r om t wo- by-
one-i nch l umber (furri ng stri ps) attached to a pl ywood backi ng. A thin rail-
ing of wooden mol di ng strip can be at t ached inside the case an ei ghth of
an inch bel ow the t op, j ust deep enough f or a sheet of thin glass to be flush
with the surface when resti ng on this rai l i ng. A smal l hol e in one side
allows a finger to slide under and lift up the glass when it is to be removed
for cl eani ng or for changi ng speci mens. Thes e cases can be bui l t i n a
variety of shapes and sizes to sit at op tabl es or benches.
Smal l fossils can be di spl ayed i n the cardboard cases known as Ri ker
mounts. These are a f oot or less l ong and an inch deep. The y are filled
with cot t on, have a gl ass cover, and are not very expensi ve.
Museum-type method of arranging and storing fossil collection in shallow trays
placed in drawers. Each tray contains card with place, date, and collector of the
fossil, and vertical card with catalog number, name, and other data for quick reference.
Collector is shown comparing a specimen ammonite with reference book. (Photo
California Division of Mines and Geology)
Backgrounds and Supports
Fossi l s are not col orf ul , and a good di spl ay will t ake advantage of back-
ground mat eri al and props to pl ease the eye. Flat cases and drawers should
be l i ned wi t h some materi al that will hel p stop round fossi l s f rom rolling
every time the drawer i s opened. The best background for most fossils i s
a dark materi al of fine t ext ure, unl ess the fossi l s are very l arge. Bl ack con-
Styrofoam blocks make attractive mounts for dark-colored fossils. The front of the
block can be beveled and a label attached with pins.
structi on paper is cheap and can be cut to fit a drawer wi t hout overl appi ng.
Bl ack cl oth is even bet t er.
In chi na cabi net s or ot her l arge cases wi th shel ves, speci mens will have
to be supported i n posi ti on. Thi s can be done by cutti ng the mat ri x into
a bl ock so that the speci men sits upri ght , or the fossi l can be pressed into
a piece of st yrof oam. Smal l bl obs of non- oi l y cl ay or Pl ay- Do can be
molded to the bot t om of the fossil as a base. Oi l y cl ays will t ransf er their
oil to the speci men; it will soak i rret ri evabl y into the fossi l . Somet i mes a
small piece of st yrof oam or wadded paper put behi nd the speci men will
hold it at a proper angl e. Ther e is no need to glue a speci men to a bl ock
of wood, plastic, or st yrof oam unl ess it is for a permanent museum di spl ay.
Grouping Fossils for Display
Fossil displays are usual l y arranged ei ther by groups of pl ants or ani mal s
or by age. Tri l obi t es woul d be in one secti on, fossi l f erns in anot her, and
brachi opods in a third. Fine di spl ays have also been created by groupi ng
fossils f rom one l ocal i ty. In compet i t i ve di spl ays at rock- cl ub shows and
geol ogi cal -soci ety convent i ons, fossi l s are of t en exhi bi t ed i n ot her cl assi -
fications, such as fossi l s personal l y col l ect ed; fossi l s of one genus or f am-
ily; fossils showi ng repl acement by ot her mi neral s; fossi l s of a certai n size
(such as mi cr of ossi l s) ; or fossi l s di spl ayed to show vari et y of f orms within
one smal l group. Thes e t hemes make home di spl ays more i nteresti ng than
endl ess rows of bat t ered brachi opods col l ected over the last decade f rom
the local gravel pit.
Repairs and Retouching
For di spl ay purposes, some fossi l s may need to be touched up to enhance
their good f eat ures. But they shoul d onl y be touched up, not repai nted,
refi ni shed, or remodel ed. Even af t er caref ul preparat i on, a fossi l may have
so little col or cont rast wi t h the mat ri x that it is hard to see. Thi s is par-
ti cul arl y true of fossi l l eaves and sof t - bodi ed ani mal s that are only a film
on the rock. Such speci mens shoul d never be coated wi th shellac or paint
to bri ng out cont rast , as this may dest roy the fine f eat ures needed for
i denti fi cati on.
Ma ny pl ant fossi l s f r om Illinois and Indi ana have been daubed with
t hi ck, shi ny varni sh or shel l ac, whi ch not onl y decreases cont rast but also
l eaves an annoyi ngl y shi ny surf ace that i s i mpossi bl e to remove.
Fossi l s that need i ncreased cont rast shoul d be coated wi th yel l ow dextri n,
an i nexpensi ve subst ance f ormerl y used i n baby f ood. It can be obtai ned at
l arge drugst ores or at some rock shops. Whi t e dext ri m will not wor k; de-
mand the yel l ow. A pi nch of the yel l ow powder di ssol ved in a teaspoon
of hot wat er will coat several dozen fossi l s. Appl y the dextri n wi th an
art i st s' pai nt brush, and be careful not t o pai nt the mat ri x. The coati ng
shoul d darken the fossi l wi t hout l eavi ng a parti cul arl y shi ny surface. If it
i s too shi ny, the amount of dextri n i n the mi xt ure shoul d be decreased.
Mi s t akes can be washed away i n war m wat er.
Some speci mens benefi t f rom an al l -over bat h of the dextri n, while
ot hers l ook bet t er wi t h the mat ri x pai nted and the fossi l l eft untouched.
Experi ment , but i f you can' t do i t wi t h dext ri n, you can' t do i t with paint,
varni sh, or pl asti c, ei ther.
Now and then, speci mens that have been unf ai rl y restored appear i n
col l ect i ons. Bl ack carboni zed- f ern fossi l s mi ssi ng some of their detail have
been restored wi t h touches of Indi a i nk. Normal l y dark- brown or bl ack
tri l obi tes have been made more so wi t h a l ustrous coati ng of shoe polish.
Mi ssi ng spines of some fossi l s are scrat ched i nto the mat ri x and colored.
Pl ates of unusual fossi l combi nat i ons are concoct ed by gluing speci mens
in desired pl aces. Whet her such thi ngs bel ong in a fossi l col l ecti on is a
quest i on that must be l eft to the consci ence of the col l ector.
Some smal l repairs are permi ssi bl e. It is fai r to cover up glue j oi nt s in
broken speci mens. Whe n repai ri ng a broken fossi l , t ake care not to allow
Before treatment, this fossil fern lacked contrast with its matrix.
The fossil, painted with weak yellow dextrin solution, shows improved contrast.
Matrix is not painted.
surplus cement to show at the surface. Dust the exposed top of the crack
with scrapings from the fossil mat ri x; when the glue dries the crack will be
camouflaged. Holes and chipped areas can be refilled with a dough made of
epoxy and rock dust of the proper color. Fossil bones missing some por-
tions or skeletons missing some bones often are filled into their original
form in museum preparations. Plaster is used to do this, and usually the
museum is careful to color this plaster so that it is noticeably different from
the real bones.
PHOTOGRAPHING FOSSILS
Many fossil collectors will never wish to take pictures of their prizes, but
some will want to make color slides to illustrate lectures or black-and-
whi t e pri nt s to submi t wi t h arti cl es. The y will find that photographi ng
fossi l s is a specialized aspect of the craf t .
Mos t fossi l s are onl y an inch or two l ong, too smal l to be phot ographed
wi t h i nexpensi ve fi xed-l ens cameras that cannot be adapted for closeup
l enses. A good 35 mm. si ngl e-l ens reflex camera wi t h a fast lens and a
set of ext ensi on tubes or a bel l ows is necessary f or col or slides. It also
works well f or bl ack- and- whi t e pri nt phot ography. Larger cameras, f rom
l\" x 2\" to 4" x 5" press cameras, are excel l ent if pri nts are want ed.
Port rai t or cl oseup l enses are sold f or at t achment to cameras wi th fixed
l enses. These are not expensi ve and will produce good pi ctures of large
fossi l speci mens. Some l enses bri ng the camera i nto focus wi thi n a few
i nches of the speci men, but unl ess the phot ographer is a good guesser, the
fossi l will rarel y be centered in the film.
The si ngl e-l ens reflex camera has certai n advant ages f or this type of
work. It al l ows si ghti ng di rectl y t hrough the lens that will take the picture
i nstead of t hrough the auxi l i ary vi ewi ng lens whi ch i s an inch above the
real l ens. In di stance shot s, bot h l enses see essenti al l y the same pi cture,
but in cl oseups a small fossi l that appears di rectl y centered through the
auxi l i ary vi ewi ng lens may not even appear i n the final pi cture. The si ngl e-
lens reflex shows thi ngs exact l y as they will appear on the film, even in-
cluding the depth of field.
Numer ous books that expl ai n how t o t ake cl oseup pi ctures of small
obj ect s are avai l abl e i n camera shops. One of these books shoul d be con-
sul ted f or its tabl es about magni fi cati on achi eved wi t h combi nat i ons of
di fferent portrai t l enses and ext ensi ons of the lens f rom the camera body.
As the camera lens i s moved f art her away f rom the film, the i mage size
becomes l arger and l arger until a small fossi l compl et el y fills a negati ve.
By the use of bel l ows or ext ensi on tubes t wo- or threefol d magnification
can be achi eved, whi ch i s more than ampl e f or normal phot ography.
Hi gher magni fi cati ons can be made by usi ng a mi croscope wi th camera
at t achment .
Two thi ngs happen when ext ensi on tubes or bel l ows are used. The
exposure time i ncreases dramati cal l y but accordi ng to a definite formul a
that will be listed i n any book about cl oseup phot ography. The depth of
field also decreases, until at the magni fi cat i on needed to take a picture of
a one- i nch brachi opod wi t h a 35 mm. camera onl y a fract i on of an inch
will be i n f ocus. Thi s means that much of any rounded fossi l will be out
of f ocus. Smal l l ens- apert ures of f / 32 or f / 6 4 help i ncrease this slim depth
of field, as do special l enses desi gned for cl oseup phot ography. A book or
a prof essi onal phot ographer shoul d be consul ted about these.
Fast film and a sturdy tripod are needed f or col or-sl i de phot ography.
If a lens ext ensi on or portrai t lens is used, the exposure ti me, even wi th
fast film and bri ght sunl i ght, will still be too l ong to get a sharp pi cture
wi th a hand- hel d camera. Ekt achrome is the f avored film, but Anscochr ome
works well. Kodachrome i s excel l ent , but sl ower. European col or films
work well.
Outdoor Lighting
Whenever possi bl e, phot ography shoul d be done out doors t o t ake ad-
vant age of the light, whi ch i s at its best f or fossi l s i n the morni ng and l ate
af t ernoon. Around noon, the overhead sun does not cast shadows i n the
low spots of a speci men, and wi t hout this model i ng the fossi l will l ook
fl at and drab. Ver y earl y or very l ate sunl i ght shoul d also be avoi ded f or
color phot ography because i t creates too many shadows and i s excessi vel y
orange.
The camera should be mount ed at op the tri pod at a conveni ent l evel .
A tabl e or pl at f orm is needed to bri ng the speci men up to the camera level.
Some speci mens should be phot ographed on a background of textured
cl oth, whi l e ot hers l ook bet t er " f l oat i ng" above an out - of - f ocus back-
ground. Thi s effect is created by pl aci ng the fossi l on a l arge gl ass shel f
supported at least two feet above the ground. The ground i s covered wi t h
cl oth or paper of an appropri ate col or. It will be out of focus in the pi cture.
The glass shel f, unl ess dust y, will be i nvi si bl e i n the pi cture.
Refl ecti ons are a probl em when using gl ass, and the phot ographer may
wind up wi th a pi cture of a fossi l sitting inside a reflection of the pho-
tographer taki ng the pi cture. Af t er si ghti ng t hrough the lens to make sure
no reflections are seen i n the pi ct ure, the phot ographer may move his head
a f ew i nches to snap the pi cture and i nadvert ent l y create a bad refl ecti on.
Few fossils will pose well by t hemsel ves. The y need to be coaxed i nto
position by props made of model i ng cl ay or wadded paper. The surf ace of
the fossil should be placed so that it is parallel wi t h the lens to make sure
that all of it will be in f ocus.
Si nce camera movement i s magni fi ed as much as the fossi l i n cl oseups,
long exposures require use of a cabl e rel ease. The movement of the mi rror
during exposure in a si ngl e-l ens reflex camera creates vi brat i ons, and this
is compounded if the shut t er is rel eased manual l y. A breeze can j i ggl e
camera or speci men enough to make a bl urry pi ct ure; so can a passi ng
truck.
If the camera has a behi nd- t he- I ens met er, the exact exposure ti me and
lens aperture can be accurat el y and i mmedi at el y read. If the met er i s
located el sewhere on the camera or i s separat e, al l owance must be made
by increasing the exposure to compensat e f or use of bel l ows or ext ensi on
t ubes. Thi s can be det ermi ned by experi ment or f rom tabl es supplied by
camera manuf act urers.
Pi ct ures can be t aken i ndoors usi ng artificial l i ghti ng, but for the occa-
si onal phot ographer the bot her of acqui ri ng the necessary equi pment and
of set t i ng i t up i s hardl y wort hwhi l e. Ther e will be many days when good
pi ctures can be made out doors. Bri l l i ant sunshi ne i s not needed; a hazy day
or one wi t h thin cl ouds i s fine, as such l i ghti ng sof t ens the cont rast be-
t ween the shadows and hi ghl i ghts and seems t o make col ors ri cher. Dar k
shadows can be reduced on a sunny day by hol di ng a piece of frosted gl ass,
cl oudy pl asti c, or thin fi bergl ass mat t i ng above the speci men to diffuse the
sunl i ght. Dar k shadows can be filled i n by pl aci ng a piece of al umi num
foil or whi t e paper to the side of the speci men so that sunl i ght is reflected
into t he dark areas. Exposures shoul d be figured wi t h these devices i n
pl ace.
Bl ack- and- whi t e phot ography i s the most hi ghl y devel oped f orm for
fossi l s. Pri nt s made f or reproduct i on i n j ournal s, magazi nes, and books
must be of hi gh qual i ty because the pri nt will lose some detail even with
the best reproducti on.
Improving Contrast
Fossi l s rarel y have an even col or. Whe n phot ographed, bl ot ches and stains
l ook l i ke shadows and obscure the real shape of the fossi l . A dark speci-
men i s difficult to l i ght : there must be sufficient cont rast bet ween the
hi ghl i ght s and shadows to show the t hree- di mensi onal i t y of the speci men.
A whi te fossi l phot ographs best of all, so a bl ot chy fossi l can be whi tened
t emporari l y f or phot ography. Ther e are t hree di fferent met hods of doing
thi s.
The easi est way, and one that i s used prof essi onal l y, i s to coat the speci-
men wi t h magnesi um oxi de. Thi s does not harm the speci men, because i t
can be washed off af t er t he fossi l i s phot ographed. A piece of magnesi um
ri bbon several i nches l ong is held by one end wi th a long pair of tweezers
or pl i ers. The f ree end is lit by hol di ng it in a gas flame or ci garette lighter
f or a f ew seconds. Magnesi um, a met al , burns wi th a bri l l i ant, i ntense
fl ame and gives off cl ouds of whi t e smoke. Thi s whi te smoke i s magnesi um
oxi de.
The speci men shoul d be hel d by one corner wi t h a pair of tweezers and
pl aced several i nches above the burni ng magnesi um stri p. The strip burns
f or onl y a f ew seconds, so the work must be done qui ckl y. It is wi se to
wear sungl asses to cut down the bri l l i ant gl are f rom the burni ng mag-
nesi um. If the speci men i s held i n one pl ace, essenti al l y parallel wi th the
CATALOGING AND DISPLAYING FOSSILS 2 1 3
smoke col umn rather than at right angl es to it, more of the whi t e oxi de
will be deposi ted on one side of the bumps and corrugat i ons of the fossi l
surface than on the ot her side. Thi s del i neates t hese f eat ures and i n the
phot ograph will l ook qui te nat ural . The coat i ng i s so fine that no surf ace
detail is l ost, and if the result is not sat i sf act ory the speci men is easi l y
cleaned and resmoked.
A more control l ed deposi t of fine whi t e powder can be made wi t h am-
moni um chloride. A bot t l e of dilute hydrochl ori c acid and a bot t l e of
ammoni a ( ammoni um hydroxi de) are connect ed wi th glass tubi ng that runs
through a rubber stopper in the top of each bot t l e. Ai r is f orced into the
first bot t l e by bl owi ng t hrough a separat e t ube, dri vi ng the combi ned
vapors of the two chemi cal s t hrough anot her glass t ube (see i l l ust rat i on) .
The combi nat i on creates ammoni um chl ori de, a fine, whi t e powder that
is deposited on the fossi l held in f ront of the exi t t ube. It is easi er to
control this chemi cal f oggi ng than that f rom the rapi dl y burni ng mag-
Fossil is whitened for photographing by blowing fumes of hydrochloric acid and
ammonia simultaneously through both tubes. The white powder forms as the fumes
meet at the fossil.
nesium ribbon, though the apparatus is clumsy. Excessive humidity will
cause the ammoni um chloride coating to disappear. Aft er the photograph
has been taken, the fossil can be washed clean.
A third method, the least satisfactory but better than none, is to dip the
specimen in thinned white watercolor paint or nonpermanent white ink.
This may sink into the specimen and ruin it; try a scrap fossil before
whitewashing a good one.
The ultimate in contrast is produced by dipping the specimen in India
ink before coating it with one of the whitening agents. The whitening
chemical is directed onto the specimen so that only the highlights are
whitened, leaving the low spots coal-black. A fossil treated this way will
clearly show every tiny pore and ridge in impressive contrast. Unfor-
tunately, the India ink remains a permanent part of the fossil.
Photographing Fluorescence
Fluorescence of fossils can be photographed. Inexpensive black light bulbs
are adequate light sources for photographing most fluorescent fossils, such
as the mysterious insects from Solnhofen, Germany, or the color patterns
in snails and clams that are invisible in normal lighting. There is an added
advant age; in ultraviolet light the depth of field is markedly increased,
allowing more of the surface of a rounded specimen to be in focus. Fast
panchromat i c film must be used for black and white pictures, but even
then exposures are extremely long, often over thirty minutes. Filters such
as Kodak Wr at t en 2A, 2f3, or K2, Ilford Q, or Corning Noviol C must be
used. Color slides can be made with Kodachrome or similar films, without
using filters.
Infrared Photography
At the other end of the invisible wave lengths of light is another inter-
esting field of phot ogr aphyt he infrared. Cont rast is often much improved
in fossils photographed in infrared light. Fish scales or graptolites are
transparent in infrared light, and crustaceans in dark shales photograph
much more clearly. This contrast cannot be seen by the naked eye, so the
fossil must be photographed in order to find out whether contrast is indeed
improved.
Any tungsten bulb (regular light bulb) is a satisfactory source of infra-
red radiation, but a camera filter such as Kodak Wr at t en 2 5 A or 87, Agfa
85, or Ilford 207 must be used. Special infrared film is available, and the
film must be devel oped i n the dark. No saf el i ght may be used. Cameras
must be i n perf ect condi t i on, as the bel l ows or wood used i n some cameras
may leak i nf rared light even t hough they are i mpervi ous to vi si bl e light.
Si nce i nfrared light focuses at a di fferent spot f r om vi si bl e light, the lens
should ei ther be moved sl i ghtl y f art her away f rom the film af t er f ocusi ng
in normal light, or a very small l ens openi ng shoul d be used to compensat e
for the change in focus.
Devel opi ng and pri nti ng phot ographs of fossi l s i s carri ed on j ust as wi th
other pi ctures.
Photographs for Publication
For publ i cati on, most edi tors pref er a gl ossy pri nt wi t h good cont rast that
i s at least five by seven i nches i n size. Several fossi l s can be phot ographed
together on one plate i f they can be kept i n f ocus. Li ghti ng shoul d al ways
be f rom the upper-l eft corner (this is a standard accepted by all prof es-
sional pal eont ol ogi st s) . Whe n submi t t i ng phot ographs to a magazi ne, be
sure to include in the mailing envel ope a t hi ck piece of cardboard as l arge
as the l argest phot ograph. Thi s will di ssuade the post man f rom fol di ng the
package when he stuffs i t into the mai l box. Wr i t e cl earl y on the envel ope:
PhotosDo Not Bend or Fold.
Never wri te capt i ons or identification on the reverse of the pri nt s; the
writing will show t hrough as raised script when the pri nt is reproduced.
Identification i nf ormat i on shoul d be on a separat e sheet but not stapl ed
or clipped to the phot ograph. Paper clips press into the phot ographi c paper
under the wei ght of ot her l etters i n the post office. If wri ti ng must be done,
do it on the margi n of the phot ograph, pref erabl y wi t h a crayon or a
grease pencil.
Be sure to note the degree of magni fi cati on or reducti on of the fossi l s as
they appear in the phot ograph or to i ncl ude the actual size of the speci mens
in the not es. If a one- i nch fossi l is three i nches l ong in the phot ograph,
this is expressed as x 3 ; if a t hree- i nch fossi l is onl y one inch long in the
phot ograph, it is x j . It is hel pful to consul t the Journal of Paleontology to
see how a typical article is i l l ustrated.
TRADING AND SWAPPING
When the col l ector get s home, unpacks his t rophi es, and cl eans and labels
t hem, he will of t en find that he has dupl i cates of some speci es. He i s now
in a position to augment his col l ecti on by tradi ng wi t h ot her col l ectors.
Tradi ng can be done at the many mi neral - and f ossi l - cl ub shows held
t hroughout the nat i on, and at the convent i ons hel d annual l y by the six
maj or mi neral and geol ogi cal soci ety f ederat i ons. Swaps can be arranged
bet ween persons who have met at such shows or who have obt ai ned each
ot her' s names by mai l or by adverti si ng i n the several amat eur hobby
magazi nes (see Appendi x) .
Mat eri al to be swapped i s al ways more appreci ated by col l ectors who
live near the l ocal i ty where i t has been f ound. They understand its desir-
abi l i ty and f rom personal experi ence can est i mat e the time and effort that
has gone i nto col l ecti ng it. But except i onal l y good materi al is likely to
find a market anywhere.
The rule i s to bri ng to rock swaps onl y good, clean fossi l s, marked wi th
as much i nf ormat i on as i s known about each speci men, including its
scientific name, age, f ormat i on, the l ocal i ty where i t was collected and the
date when i t was f ound. Mat eri al neat l y arranged i n fl at trays or boxes
wi t h paper col l ars around the speci mens to keep t hem unbrui sed will
at t ract the swapper' s eye. Some swappers mount speci mens on st yrof oam
bl ocks usi ng a si l i cone rubber cement whi ch hol ds t hem firmly but can
easi l y be peel ed off by the new owner. Thi s al l ows the speci mens to be
packed ti ghtl y in a box wi t hout requiring wrappi ng. It is well to take
several grades of speci mens, however ; some to be moved qui ckl y to keep
the swappi ng acti ve wi t hout too much regard to val ue, or to give to j uni or
col l ect ors, and some to hold ont o until hi ghl y desi rabl e speci mens can be
had in exchange.
A canny swapper l ooks over ot her swappers' materi al wi th an eye for
what he want s, t hen bri ngs out his best materi al . He must l earn, however,
to say No when some charmi ng child or seemi ngl y patheti c ol dster tries
to cozen him out of a prize speci men, or when somet hi ng that he does not
need or want i s pressed on hi m.
An amat eur fossi l col l ector, mi ndful that he col l ects what he needs for
personal use, swaps wi th ot her amat eurs, but he buys f rom dealers and
does not at t empt to profit f rom his materi al .
XII
MICROFOSSILS
Col l ecti ng and prepari ng mi crofossi l s bri ngs out the engraver i n some
col l ectors, for they must learn to handl e, mount , and i dent i f y fossi l orga-
ni sms smal l er than grai ns of salt. The worl d of the ul t ra- smal l has been
extended to the tiniest fossi l s of all, the coccol i t hs, whi ch become vi si bl e
onl y wi th scanni ng by the el ectron mi croscope. Thes e little shel l - l i ke f os-
sils are so small that many species are i nvi si bl e under a good opti cal mi cro-
scope and require a magni fi cati on of 40, 000 power to make t hem cl earl y
visible in detail. A col l ecti on of coccol i t hs coul d be mount ed on the head
of a pin with pl enty of room remai ni ng f or a l abel , but nobody has yet
solved the probl em of how to mount t hem.
A mi crofossi l is any fossi l that requi res magni f i cat i on to be identified
properly or to be seen cl earl y. For all practi cal purposes, this means a
fossil less than i inch in the l ongest di mensi on. Few peopl e col l ect these
organic mi ni at ures, probabl y because of l ack of i nf ormat i on about t hem,
difficulty of i denti fi cati on, and the i mpossi bi l i ty of persuadi ng anyone el se
that a speck of dust is as i nteresti ng as a 6- i nch tri l obi te.
Professi onal pal eontol ogi sts have become great l y i nt erest ed i n certai n
mi ni -fossi l s i n the past decade, as pal eont ol ogy swi ngs f rom the adven-
turous science of digging up di nosaurs to the l aborat ory drudgery of iden-
tifying conodont s and ot her mi crof ossi l s.
217
Despi t e thei r si ze, mi crof ossi l s have uses, parti cul arl y to the oil geol o-
gi sts, f or t hey tell the driller when he has gone past where the oil should
have been. In anot her hol e, mi crof ossi l s cont ai ned i n the slender cores of
st one removed f r om the hol l ow drill tell the geol ogi st where he can expect
a product i ve oil or coal hori zon. Bi g fossi l s, the brachi opods and trilo-
bi t es, are too rare to be conveni ent l y centered in a drill core where the
geol ogi st happens to break it. So he must rely on fossi l s that are wi de-
spread, ext remel y common, and lived onl y duri ng short peri ods of geologic
ti me. Thes e are the three qualities of an i ndex fossi l , whi ch, when f ound,
date and l ocate that rock l ayer. Thus , i n the i nt erest of hi gher profits to
the mi ni ng and oil i ndustri es, mi cropal eont ol ogy has been hi ghl y
devel oped.
Represent at i ves of all maj or groups of the l arger macrof ossi l s are also
f ound as mi crof ossi l s. Ma ny j uveni l e f orms of l arger i nvert ebrat es, such
as cri noi ds and tri l obi tes, are mi croscopi c. Fasci nati ng col l ecti ons of these
j uveni l e f orms can be made and mat ched wi t h their grown- up count er-
part s. Thousands of speci es of di mi nuti ve pel ecypods and snails lived on
the ocean floor. Brachi opods cont ai n a f ew smal l member s, as do the
cephal opods and coral s. Onl y the di nosaurs and l arge mammal s have no
real mi crof ossi l s, except f or thin secti ons of their bones, but the smaller
mammal s and fish have mi cro- part s, such as t eet h, bones, and scal es. There
are several l arge groups of ani mal s that have l eft no fossi l s except mi cro-
f ossi l s, not abl y the conodont s, ost racods, and f orami ni f era.
CONODONT S
Conodont fossi l s resembl e a st range j awbone set wi th moderni sti c teeth.
The l argest run a dozen to the i nch; most are hal f that size, still visible
enough to the naked eye so that they can be pi cked up on the tip of a
needl e and mount ed on a slide or can be seen on the surface of a slab or
l oose i n the field. The y are composed of solid cal ci um phosphat e, maki ng
t hem a bi t heavi er t han the quart z, dol omi t e, or cal ci te sedi ments in whi ch
t hey are f ound.
For qui te a whi l e conodont s were in a never- never land of classification,
bel i eved t o be t oot h st ruct ures of fish, wor ms, cephal opods, crust aceans,
or snai l s, dependi ng on whom you tal ked to. Because conodont s were
of t en f ound al ong wi t h vert ebrat e mari ne fossi l s, such as those of fish,
many pal eont ol ogi st s tried to pl ace t hem i n some vert ebrat e order. But the
el usi ve conodont s never came at t ached to any ani mal or even part of an
ani mal , al t hough t hey exi st by the mi l l i ons i n al most every Paleozoic
sedi ment ary rock.
MICROFOSSILS 219
At the 1969 meeti ng of Nor t h Amer i can pal eont ol ogi st s at the Field
Museum i n Chi cago, the real conodont appears to have stepped f orward
to reveal its i denti ty. In a surpri se pr ogr am present ed by Wi l l i am G.
Mel t on of the Uni versi t y of Mont ana, t he fossi l of a st range worml i ke
creature two to f our i nches l ong wi t h conodont st ruct ures i nsi de i t was
shown to the assembl ed sci enti sts. The conodont ani mal , i f i t i s such, was
descri bed as a sof t - bodi ed, bot t om- dwel l i ng organi sm f ound wi t h ot her
coal -age organi sms, most l y fish, i n the Little Snowy Mount ai ns of Mo n-
tana. Whet her it is the conodont ani mal , wi t h a f ood- gri ndi ng mechani sm
in its mi dparts, or j ust a wor m that swal l owed a conodont assembl y, has
provided the pal eontol ogi sts wi th a chal l engi ng new probl em that may
solve the old probl em of the conodont ' s i denti ty.
Conodont fossi l s are f ound i n rocks rangi ng f rom Ordovi ci an t o Tr i as -
sic, pri mari l y in shal es rich in organi c mat t er, but are also f ound in some
sandstones and l i mest ones, parti cul arl y those i nt erbedded wi t h thi n l ayers
of shale. Some gray shal es cont ai n as many as 500 conodont s a pound,
but the average for shal e or l i mest one i s more like 10 to 50 a pound.
Scol ecodont s somewhat resembl e conodont s but are composed of chi t i -
nous or horny mat eri al , similar to a fi ngernai l . Thes e are definitely wor m
j aws, f ound on occasi on i n associ ati on wi th fossi l worms. The y are not
nearl y as common and wi despread as the conodont s, but some Pal eozoi c
rocks do contai n a fair number of t hem.
Left to right: Leperditia sp., a crustacean about 3 mm, Ordovician through
Pennsylvanian; scolecodont, worm jaw about 1 / 2 mm, ranging from Cambrian to
Recent; conodont, toothlike microfossil about 1/ 2 mm, ranging from Ordovician to
Triassic. (This and the following drawings by Betty Crawford)
OS TRACODS
Ost r acods are ti ny fossi l s that l ook exact l y l i ke an ornament ed cl am, com-
pl ete wi t h bot h val ves. The l argest member s of this wi despread and rather
common group of fossi l s border on macrof ossi l size, a f ew bei ng the size
of a smal l bean, t hough most are i n the size range of the conodont s, 1 / 1 0
i nch or less i n l engt h. Unl i ke the conodont s, whi ch di sappeared someti me
i n the Tri assi c, the ost racods first l eft their fossi l record i n the Ordovi ci an
and are still swi mmi ng about today.
Ost r acods are member s of the class Crust acea, subcl ass Ost racods. Thi s
makes t hem smal l brot hers and si sters to l obst ers, shri mp, and trilobites
and no rel ati on at all to cl ams or brachi opods, whi ch they cl osel y resembl e.
If one t hi nks of the ost racod shell as bei ng l i ke the chi ti nous coveri ng of the
crab, l obst er, or shri mp, t hough divided st rongl y down the middle to f orm
a top and bot t om, wi t h most of the organs tucked i nsi de, it is easi er to rec-
ogni ze ost racods as rel ati ves of the ot her crust aceans. They are not bot t om
crawl ers l i ke crabs or l obst ers but swi m i n bot h f resh and salt water.
Act ual l y, the sea is full of ti ny crust aceans, but f ew of these l eave a
fossi l record because their prot ect i ve shell di si ntegrates easi l y. It is made
of organi c materi al rat her than the st ony cal ci um carbonat e of the brachi o-
pods and cl ams. Ost racods deposi t a l ayer of cal ci um carbonat e beneat h
their more typi cal crust acean outer shel l , and it is this part that becomes
the typi cal ost racod fossi l . The fossi l shells are cl aml i ke i n shape, orna-
ment ed wi th bumps, ri dges, or proj ect i ons, general l y light i n col or, and are
f ound i n vast numbers i n some rock l ayers.
Any f ossi l - beari ng l ayer of l i mest one or shal e, but parti cul arl y l i me-
st one, i s l i kel y to cont ai n numbers of these little creat ures. Si nce they
di ssol ve i n aci d, t hey cannot , l i ke the conodont s, be removed f rom a cal -
careous mat ri x. Somet i mes, by sheer l uck, they will be f ound exposed on
top of a l i mest one sl ab or weat hered f ree in the soil. Shal es contai ni ng
ost racods can be di si ntegrated to rel ease the speci mens. The fossi l record
cont ai ns a vast number of species of these little thi ngs, whi ch are widely
used in rock dati ng, as are the conodont s.
FORAMINIFERA
Forami ni f era are also f ound i n the washi ngs of shal es, or more commonl y,
l yi ng l oose by the t housands near weat heri ng l i mestones and chal ks. They
are general l y in the cat egory of mi crof ossi l s, though a f ew very large
speci mens are the size of a coi n. One even reaches a di ameter of four
MICROFOSSILS 221
i nches, but most are about the size of a grai n of rice or l ess. Forams, as
they are usual l y cal l ed, are member s of the phyl um Prot ozoa and are f ound
i n prodigious numbers i n present - day seas. Moder n descendant s live onl y
i n salt wat er, t hough some are f ound i n bracki sh wat er t hat cont ai ns onl y
a trace of salt. A f ew advent urous types live f ar underground in the
slightly saline groundwat er of wells i n cent ral Asi a and nort hern Af ri ca.
It appears that all f orams f ound as fossi l s were ocean dwel l ers.
The first fossi l f orams are f ound i n the Ordovi ci an, but they are not
particularly common unti l they burst f ort h wi t h t remendous prodi gal i ty i n
the Pennsyl vani an and Permi an peri ods. The y are not rare as fossi l s i n
any rocks since the late Pal eozoi c but are agai n f ound i n expl osi ve num-
bers i n Cret aceous rocks, somet i mes maki ng up the bul k of t hi ck l ayers of
l i mestone. In general , the post - Pal eozoi c f orams are l arger t han thei r earl y
count erpart s.
Forams built outer skel et ons (called " t e s t s " ) of several hard mat eri al s.
These are ideally suited to becomi ng fossi l i zed. Mos t of t hese little ani mal s
built tests of cal ci um carbonat e, but a f ew, part i cul arl y the earl y ones,
built a test of careful l y sel ected sand grai ns, sponge spi nes, or even tests
of smal l er f orams. Each species was f ussy about its bui l di ng bl ocks, sel ect-
ing onl y one type of sand (quartz grai ns, cal ci te grai ns, or even mi ca
grai ns) or one parti cul ar shape of sponge spicule or f or am skel et on.
The f orams that const ruct ed thei r houses of such caref ul l y sel ected
building bl ocks l ook like a rat her baggy l ump, usual l y rounded but some-
Three foraminifera. Left to right: Hantkenina, 1/ 2 mm, ranging from Eocene to Mio-
cene; typical fusulinid, side view and cross section, about the size of a wheat grain,
ranging from Mississippian to Permian; Nodosaria, 2 mm, ranging from Triassic to
Recent.
ti mes i rregul ar or el ongat ed. The cal careous ones are f ar more interesting
t o the mi cro- col l ect or because t hey have definite shape. The typical cal-
careous f oram l ooks like a mi ni at ure ammoni t e, especi al l y in cross section,
wi t h a spiral arrangement of chambers. Some l ook l i ke a rattl esnake rattle
or a rose. The y cannot be mi st aken f or any ot her mi crofossi l .
Fusilinids
One special group of f or ams t he f usi l i ni dswere abundant during the
Pennsyl vani an and Permi an and then became exti nct. The fusi l i ni ds, mem-
bers of the f ami l y Fusilinidae, l ook l i ke grai ns of rice on the outside and
have a series of ti ny chambers in a spiral on the inside. Mos t are about
the size of a grai n of rice. Chert filled wi t h these tiny fossi l s is known as
" r i ce agat e" i n I owa and i s used as a gemst one. Some speci es are larger
i n size, up to hal f an inch i n l engt h, but retain the ri ce-grai n shape. These
fusi l i ni ds are common in some rock l ayers l yi ng in a bel t f rom Iowa to
Texas , where t hey weat her out by the mi l l i ons. The y are parti cul arl y at
home i n l i mest ones but are not common i n shal es.
RADIOLARIANS
The radi ol ari ans are not wi despread as fossi l s i n the Uni t ed St at es, but i n
some areas t hey are abundant and parti cul arl y show mi crofossi l s. Like the
f or ams, t hey are members of the phyl um Prot ozoa, and the order Radi o-
laria. Of all mi crof ossi l s, they have the wi dest range i n ti me, f rom the
pre- Cambri an to recent t i mes, t hough i n this count ry they are f ound com-
monl y onl y i n Devoni an chert s of Texas and Cal i f orni a and i n Jurassi c
rocks of Cal i f orni a. The radi ol ari an skel et on i s made of silica and, like the
snowf l ake, of t en has t hreef ol d or si xfol d symmet r y, wi t h proj ect i ons also
much l i ke a snowf l ake. Ot her s l ooks l i ke a symmet ri cal wi shbone. A few
l ook l i ke a cross or the head of a medi eval mace. These creatures can be
f ound i n silica rocks, part i cul arl y quartzi tes and sandst ones.
DIATOMS
Rat her similar to the radi ol ari ans i n shape, but f ar more i nt ri cat e, are the
dazzl i ng beaut y queens of the mi crof ossi l worl d, the di atoms. They, too,
have a skel et on of silica, but of opal rat her t han quartz. Opal i s an un-
st abl e f or m of silica, and thei r skel et ons were of t en damaged or destroyed
MICROFOSSILS 223
as the opal changed to chert . Whe r e t hey are well preserved, as in thi ck
beds in Cal i f orni a, the di at omaceous eart h is mi ned f or use as filters in such
industries as brewi ng.
The di atoms make excel l ent filters because their i ncredi bl y i ntri cate l acy
skel et ons are full of mi croscopi c hol es. Typi cal l y rounded i f f r om mari ne
deposits and el ongat ed i f f rom f resh wat er, the ti ny skel et ons have i n
places piled up into a solid l ayer of rock many feet thi ck. No fossi l di atoms
have been f ound i n rocks ol der t han Upper Cret aceous, but because t hey
were quite i ntri cate and hi ghl y evol ved by this time it is suspected that
their origin goes back much f urt her i n ti me.
Di at oms are pl ant s, not ani mal s: st range pl ants that still live i n bot h
fresh and salt wat er. The l acy opal skel et on i s the support of the ti ny
pl ant, whi ch i s vi si bl e onl y under hi gh magni fi cati on. The fossi l s are
symmet ri cal and have t housands of ti ny openi ngs, al ways i n mat ched
pairs, piercing the cl ear opal i ne mat ri x. The y seem to try to outdo each
ot her i n compl exi t y, and many are somewhat remi ni scent of snowf l akes.
Because t hey are so ti ny, di at oms are not likely to be pi cked up i n the
field except where a l ayer of di at omaceous earth is bei ng mi ned. It is a
simple mat t er to t ake a chunk of this whi t e subst ance, crumbl e it, and
exami ne the dust f or desi rabl e speci mens. A piece the size of a fist may
contai n not hundreds, or t housands, but mi l l i ons of di at oms. The y are too
small f or an amat eur col l ector to mount si ngl y, but a little si fti ng of the
dust on a slide should provi de hours of f un at the mi croscope.
Left to right: a radiolarian, ranging from Cambrian to Recent; a diatom, ranging from
Jurassic to Recent; a coccolith. These microfossils are all greatly magnified.
OTHER MI CROFOSSI LS
Ot her fossi l s are f ound solely as mi crof ossi l s. Some are val uabl e tools for
the prof essi onal pal eont ol ogi st , telling hi m not onl y the age of the rock
but what the cl i mat e, or sea t emperat ure, or oxygen level of the wat er was
at that ti me. Fossil spores and pol l en are now widely studi ed, but this field
is of little i nt erest to the amat eur col l ector.
Al t hough every maj or group of i nvert ebrat es and pl ants has some spe-
cies that can be consi dered mi crof ossi l s, t here are st range fossi l occurrences
of normal l y l arge-si zed creat ures f ound i nstead as smal l , but apparentl y
mat ure, mi ni at ure versi ons of t hemsel ves. A Lilliputian communi t y of this
ki nd i s called a depauperat e f auna. The reason f or the communal disregard
f or normal size i s not at all cl ear. Such depauperat e areas are not l arge but
are wi del y scat t ered i n time and space. Famous depauperate zones are
f ound i n the Ordovi ci an of I owa and the Mi ssi ssi ppi an of Indi ana. In bot h
pl aces mi crof ossi l s of cephal opods, snai l s, and several ot her types can be
col l ect ed, many onl y a quart er normal size.
COLLECTI NG A ND PREPARING MICROFOSSILS
Except f or these depauperate zones i n ot herwi se normal fossi l -beari ng l o-
cal i ti es, there i s no parti cul ar pl ace to l ook specifically f or mi crofossi l s.
The y can be f ound i n most rocks that carry bi gger f ossi l s, si nce the small
Collecting microfossils is best done horizontally. Dr. Dwayne Stone demonstrates the
proper position. A small plastic bucket is an ideal container for this kind of collecting.
(Photo by Betty Crawford)
MICROFOSSILS 225
creatures lived among the l arger ones. Ther e are some rock l ayers that
have onl y mi crof ossi l s, parti cul arl y t hose of such organi sms as di at oms or
protozoa. In f act , t here are f ew mari ne sedi ment ary rocks that do not con-
tain some mi crof ossi l s.
Col l ecti ng these little f el l ows can be done by hands- and- knees scrut i ny
of weathered shal es and l i mest ones i n the field, poppi ng the ti ny fossi l s i nto
a pill bot t l e. Thi s will do f or some l arger mi crof ossi l s; but to make a real
col l ecti on, chunks of unweat hered rock must be di si ntegrated to rel ease
their tiny capti ves. Thi s may be done by crushi ng the rocks, washi ng the
residue, and i nspecti ng i t f or unbr oken i ndi vi dual s. Some shal es fall apart
easily when al ternatel y wet and dried or chemi cal l y t reat ed. A f ew speci es
of mi crofossi l s not composed of cal ci um carbonat e can be rel eased by di s-
solving bl ocks of l i mest one wi t h acid. The resul ti ng sl udge i s washed,
dried, and spread thin on a mi croscope slide f or sort i ng.
Shal es of dark col or are likely to cont ai n conodont s and scol ecodont s,
parti cul arl y i f there i s much organi c materi al i n the shal e. Gr ay shal es are
of t en the home of small i nvert ebrat es or j uveni l e f orms of l arger ani mal s.
Many sheet y bl ack shal es cannot be di si nt egrat ed, but most shal es will
crumbl e into their original silt and clay if properl y treated.
Cleaning
Boiling wi th the Quat er nar y- O, as descri bed i n Chapt er IX under cl eani ng
techni ques, will rel ease fossi l s of conodont s and ot her mi ni - creat ures as
well. If this chemi cal i s not avai l abl e, sat i sf act ory resul ts can be obt ai ned
by gentl y boi l i ng the shal es i n wat er i n whi ch tri sodi um phosphat e or
sodium hydroxi de has been added. The shal es will turn i nto mud, rel easi ng
the mi crofossi l s.
The di saggregated shal e i s bul ky compared to its fossi l s. Bef ore pouri ng
off the wat er used to boil the shal e, exami ne its surf ace caref ul l y for float-
ing fossi l s. Some f orams are hol l ow and bob about l i ke corks. The y coul d
easily wind up i n the sewer i nstead of the cabi net . Then the chemi cal s
can be poured off and the muddy residue flushed several ti mes wi th f resh
water. The wat er shoul d be al l owed to remai n still f or at l east a f ew sec-
onds bef ore it is poured off, in order to al l ow the fossi l s to settl e to the
bot t om. If this washi ng i s done caref ul l y, much of the cl ay still i n suspen-
sion can be poured away wi th the wat er wi t hout l osi ng too many fossi l s.
Pouring this cl ay-l aden wat er down the si nk may stop up the drains or
sewer. It is bet t er to pour the muddy wat er into a bucket and t hen on the
ground.
When i t seems i nadvi sabl e to pour off any more wat er, the residue
shoul d be washed wi t h distilled wat er. Mos t wat er cont ai ns some dissolved
mi neral s whi ch woul d be deposi ted around the ti ny cl ay grai ns and mi cro-
fossi l s when the wat er evaporat es. For a tiny fossi l this mi neral water acts
as an effecti ve gl ue, cement i ng it to fel l ow f ossi l s, mud grai ns, or the side
of the cont ai ner. Fragile fossi l s so f ast ened will break i n pieces bef ore
comi ng l oose. But distilled wat er removes most of the chemi cal glue. For
f ast er dryi ng, the residue can t hen be soaked wi t h al cohol or acetone after
the washi ng wi th distilled wat er.
The final dryi ng can be done on a sheet of metal such as a cooki e sheet,
or on a piece of filter paper or smoot h whi t e paper. Do not f orce- dry the
mud. If i t i s heat ed i t will not onl y spl atter, but tiny fossi l s may explode
when the wat er included wi th t hem turns to st eam.
Whe n the sedi ment has dried t horoughl y, it can be spread thin, a small
amount at a ti me, on a mi croscope slide and exami ned under l ow power for
fossi l s. These can then be removed f or mount i ng.
Li mest ones can be di ssol ved to rel ease conodont s and scol ecodont s, bot h
of whi ch are i mpervi ous to gent l e acids such as 10 to 15 percent acetic
acid. Pyri ti zed or silicified mi crof ossi l s obt ai ned by dissolving the host
rock are much bet t er speci mens than those obt ai ned f rom the surface of
a nat ural exposure. The pieces of l i mest one are placed in pl asti c or glass
bowl s and covered wi t h the acid. The acid i s ref reshed when i t appears
Disintegrated shale spread on white paper is examined for microfossils under a low-
power microscope. Pointer touches a Pennsylvanian brachiopod from Danville, Illinois.
MICROFOSSILS 227
that its action has stopped af t er some hours or days, dependi ng on the
quanti ty of stone and acid. Be caref ul not to move the st one when pouri ng
i n new aci d; tiny fossi l s protrudi ng f rom the mat ri x at that poi nt can easi l y
be broken. Do not cover the bowl ti ghtl y. Car bon dioxide gas i s produced
during the destructi on of the l i mest one and can build up dangerous
pressure.
The sedi ment remai ni ng af t er acid t reat ment of l i mest one must be care-
fully washed wi th many changes of wat er. Ther e i s usual l y not much excess
sedi ment, such as there is wi th shal es; so the wat er shoul d settl e f or at
least fifteen seconds bet ween changes to al l ow all fossi l s to si nk to the
bot t om. A pi nch of sodi um bi carbonat e tossed i n the wat er of one of the
last changes and al l owed to remai n f or a f ew mi nut es will neutral i ze any
acid remai ni ng in the fossi l s. From this poi nt, the resi due is treated l i ke the
shale resi dues, washed in acet one or al cohol , and spread out to dry.
Sorting Microfossils
Commerci al sorting techni ques have devel oped among those who spend
most of their lives l ooki ng for mi crof ossi l s i n drill cores. But t hey are be-
yond the means of the amat eur col l ector. Conodont s are composed of cal -
cium phosphat e, whi ch makes t hem a bit heavi er than cl ay or l i mest one
parti cl es, and they can be separated by using heavy liquids to float off the
lighter sedi ment, whi ch i s usel ess. Conodont s are also weakl y magnet i c
and have been successful l y sorted out by j i ggl i ng the residues down a
slight sl ope; a strong magnet on one side pulls the conodont s t oward it
and feeds them into a separat e chut e.
Whe n t horoughl y dry, the dust y remai ns of the amat eur' s washday are
spread out thinly on a glass slide and exami ned under a l ow- power mi cro-
scope or a powerful hand l ens. Whe n an out st andi ng or unusual speci men
is f ound, it is t ransf erred to a special mi crof ossi l mount i ng slide. Thi s ki nd
of slide is desi gned to hold a piece of bl ack, ruled paper (whi te f or dark-
colored speci mens) in a little wel l , wi t h room above f or a cover slide that
will keep out dust and prevent stray fingers f rom dislodging the fossi l s.
One such slide can hold several dozen speci mens. A homemade mount i ng
slide can also be used, but unl ess the speci mens are protected t hey are
likely to pop off and get lost. On rul ed-paper mount i ng slides, a code
number can be wri tten next to each speci men f or i denti fi cati on. It is also
possible to mount several speci mens at op a cork in a st andard mi cromount
box.
The mi crofossi l s are most easi l y removed f rom the debri s on the sorti ng
slide with the moi stened tip of an art i st s' pai nt brush. The y can then be
t ransf erred to thei r permanent home and placed on a ti ny spot of glue to
hold t hem down. Several wat er- sol ubl e glues are used professi onal l y, but
the amat eur col l ector can cement the ti ny thi ngs wi t h the glue from
gummed paper tape such as i s used f or sealing boxes. If an art i st s' brush
i s moi st ened, passed al ong the glue side of the tape, and then touched to
the mount i ng spot of the fossi l , the muci l age remai ni ng on the mount will
be sufficient t o hol d the fossi l . Thi s met hod works well for smal l , light
mi crof ossi l s. Heavi er cement s such as Duco or El mer' s are too bul ky to
wor k wel l . Prof essi onal pal eont ol ogi st s of t en at t ach the speci mens wi th
a sol uti on of gum t ragacant h.
Identifying Microfossils
Mi crof ossi l s are identified j ust l i ke their bi gger rel ati ves. Ther e will be
much difficulty i n i dent i f yi ng j uveni l e f orms of cri noi ds and tri l obi tes,
because t hese creat ures are not commonl y illustrated i n texts available to
the amat eur. Prof essi onal j ournal s and papers dealing wi t h the locale
where the fossi l s were col l ected may be of hel p. The easi est way to spe-
cialize in j uveni l e f orms and i dent i fy them is to find a paper wri tten about
the j uveni l e fossi l s of a specific l ocal e, then go to that locale and collect.
Such articles appear occasi onal l y in the Journal of Paleontology.
Young individuals rarel y have more than a slight resembl ance to their
parent s, but depauperat e f orms have the f orm and shape of their normal
count erpart s on a smal l er scal e. The y can be identified wi t h standard texts,
as can t hose fossi l s that are normal l y f ound onl y as mi crof ossi l s. Latel y a
weal t h of materi al has been wri t t en about conodont s, ost racods, and other
commerci al l y useful mi crof ossi l s. St at e Geol ogi cal Survey bul l eti ns and
such magazi nes as the Journal of Paleontology are good sources of locales
and i denti fi cati on f or these ti ny creat ures.
Microscopes
As wi t h mi cromount col l ecti ons of mi neral s, the best vi ewi ng device for
mi crof ossi l s is the bi nocul ar mi croscope, whi ch al l ows a three-di mensi onal
vi ew. A hi gh- powered scope is not necessary; most mi crofossi l s need onl y
about ten to si xty ti mes magni fi cat i on. I nexpensi ve (under $15) bi nocul ar
scopes i mported f rom J apan will do a sat i sf act ory j ob, and a secondhand
bi nocul ar di ssecti ng mi croscope, such as is used in school bi ol ogy cl asses,
can somet i mes be bought f or $50. Whe n purchased new, l arge bi nocul ar
scopes (the J apanese ones are smal l ) are rarel y avai l abl e f or less than $100,
and most cost more than $200.
MICROFOSSILS 229
A monocul ar scope is usual l y cheaper and gi ves sat i sf act ory resul t s.
New i mported small scopes cost $ 1 0 , and a sat i sf act ory used one of a
larger type can be f ound f or $25.
Mos t mi crofossi l s are not t ransparent . The y have t o be l i ghted f r om
above rather than f rom underneat h. Mos t mi croscopes have ei ther a l i ght
under the stage that hol ds the slide or a mi rror underneat h that reflects
light f rom an outsi de source. Si nce such devi ces are usel ess f or most
mi crof ossi l s, a special l i ght that gives an i ntense smal l l i ght f rom above
will be needed. Such a l i ght can be purchased, but it is cheaper to buy a
small hi gh- i nt ensi t y l amp that uses six or twel ve vol t bul bs. Thes e little
l amps usual l y are j oi nt ed so that they can be twi sted to shi ne the l i ght j ust
where i t i s needed. The l i ght shoul d not be l eft burni ng too l ong above a
speci men, or the heat i t creates may pop the fossi l f rom its mount i ng.
Prepared slides wi th mi crof ossi l s can be stored i n st andard slide files ob-
tai nabl e at any store that sells mi croscopes. Si nce most slide files are de-
signed to hold a slide verti cal l y and si nce mi crofossi l slides must be
stored hori zont al l y, the col l ector shoul d ei ther buy a hori zont al hol der or
Microfossils that are not too small can be mounted in a micromount box. This ray
tooth is mounted on top of a blackened tooth pick. Identification is written on a label
on the lid keyed by number to the box.
Storing
store a verti cal one on edge. The tiny spot of gl ue hol di ng a microfossil
may break l oose when the slide i s verti cal , and the fossil wi l l be left hang-
i ng out i n space. These slides shoul d al ways be handl ed wi t h utmost care.
Sl i ght l y l arger mi crofossi l s can be mount ed i ndi vi dual l y in a standard
mi cromount box such as the ki nd used for mi neral s. These boxes are ob-
tai nabl e f rom most mi neral suppl y deal ers; some are made of bl ack plastic,
others of clear plastic that must be pai nted flat bl ack to cut down light
reflection. The fossil is mount ed on a small cork or atop a toothpi ck or
thin bal sa rod, also pai nted bl ack. A plastic cement such as Duco or sili-
cone rubber can be used to cement the speci men to the mount i ng rod. The
name of the speci men and l ocal e are wri t t en on a l abel attached to the
pl asti c cover of the box, and the boxes are stored i n shal l ow drawers.
XIII
FOSSILS
AND THEIR FAMILIES
A col l ector' s interest lies in his fossi l s, in the f un he has had obt ai ni ng
them, and in the skills he has devel oped in prepari ng and di spl ayi ng them.
But fossils are somethi ng more than st ones: they once l i ved, and the true
collector wi l l wi sh to understand general l y where each of his fossils be-
l ongs i n the grand scheme of life. Whe n he does underst and, his vi ew i s
enl arged, and his fossi l s attai n i n hi s eyes the di gni t y and meani ng to
whi ch their age and i mportance entitle them.
Furthermore, acquai ntance wi t h the maj or fami l i es of ani mal s and pl ants
and their pecul i ar patterns as fossi l s equi ps the col l ector to recogni ze basi c
habits and structures. For exampl e, fi vefol d symmet r y in a fossil woul d
i nstantl y alert the col l ector to the strong probabi l i t y that it was one of the
echi noder mswhi ch i ncl ude the starfish, sand dol l ars, and cri noi ds. A
spiral or conel i ke shell wi t h a si ngl e aperture woul d tell hi m that he had a
gastropod, or snai l ; t wo l i ke shells wi t h a central hi nge, that he had a
pel ecypod, or cl am; unequal shel l s (in profile) wi t h one hangi ng over the
other at the hi nge woul d mean a brachi opod, whi ch is a very different
breed of shellfish.
Such acquai ntance wi t h gross characteri sti cs of the vari ous phyl a and
classes is also necessary to enabl e the col l ector to make i ntel l i gent use of
reference books. Instead of pagi ng t hrough a book unti l he chances on
231
Page from a report by James Hall, New York paleontologist, with sketch of fossil and
woodblock from which it was printed. Inset is the fossil itself.
FOSSILS AND THEIR FAMILIES 233
fossils resembl i ng the one he is t ryi ng to i denti fy, he wi l l turn at once to
the chapter deal i ng wi t h the group to whi ch his fossil probabl y bel ongs.
He can understand the technical terms and descri pti ons he wi l l encount er
in such books.
Thi s brief revi ew of fossi l s by phyl a i n the order of their i ncreasi ng
compl exi ty of structure is desi gned to hel p the col l ector make the best use
of his time wi t h his fossi l s and to deepen hi s enj oyment of them. Thos e
who want to know more about the subj ect can consul t the wor ks listed
i n the Appendi x: Recommended Books.
PLANTS
Plants had to come bef ore ani mal s, for pl ants in a sense create their own
food, whereas ani mal s cannot. The energy of sunl i ght i s used by pl ants to
f orm sugars, starches, cel l ul ose, and other compl ex organi c materi al s f rom
carbon di oxi de and wat er. Thi s process, phot osynt hesi s, i s the very basi s
of life. It creates the foodstuffs that ani mal s must have to sati sfy their
appeti tes, to gr ow, and to reproduce. Some ani mal s eat other ani mal s, but
somewhere at the start of the line was a grazi ng ani mal that l i ved on
plants.
The first cell must have been more pri mi ti ve than any exi sti ng t oday,
even the bacteria, but it did have life and the abi l i ty to di vi de and create
another i ndi vi dual , and i t must have f ound some wa y to create its own
food as all pl ants do.
Wel l -defi ned remai ns of al gae and bacteri a nearl y t wo bi l l i on years
old have been identified in the Gunfl i nt cherts of Lake Superi or. Si mi l ar
fossils are known f rom Canada, Af ri ca, and other parts of the Uni t ed
States. They are not showy, and are of little i nterest to the amateur col -
lector except as indications of the chronol ogi cal vast ness of his hobby.
But in the iron mi nes of Mi nnesot a, especi al l y at the Ma r y Ellen mi ne
near Bi wabi k, he can col l ect a red jasper handsomel y marked wi t h swi rl
patterns. Thi s is called al gae agate, and the swi rl s are bel i eved to be fossil
colonies of a pri mi ti ve i ron-secreti ng organi sm.
Classification of Plants
The classification of pl ants in the scheme of thi ngs, like the nature of
these earliest organi sms, is not preci sel y agreed on. Some authori ti es are
content to di vi de all organi sms into the ani mal and the pl ant ki ngdoms.
Ot hers di vi de them into as many as five ki ngdoms : 1. bacteri a and bl ue-
Lepidodendron tree bark, found in shales or sandstone overlying coal seams of Penn-
sylvanian age. Pella, Iowa.
green al gae; 2. proti sts, whi ch are other al gae, prot ozoans, and slime
mol ds; 3. f ungi ; 4. true pl ant s; and 5. ani mal s.
Pal eontol ogi sts have difficult classification probl ems wi t h pl ants. Parts
of pl ants such as l eaves, roots, and bark are usual l y f ound separatel y, and
since their rel ati onshi p i s not apparent, recei ve names whi ch later must be
changed when di scovery of a more compl ete pl ant t hrows l i ght on the
si tuati on. Lepidodendron, for exampl e was the name gi ven to the trunk of
the l ycopsi ds; roots of the same genus were called Stigmaria; l eaves were
assi gned to Lepidophyllum, and cones to Lepidostrobus. Yet all bel onged
together, j ust like a tooth, a bone, and a scale f rom a fish. There are still
many similar puzzl es; there are still many di vi si ons of opi ni on about them
among pal eobot ani st s, and many names that may be changed.
Thallophytes
It is a si mpl e sol uti on to group all organi sms that are not ani mal s into one
ki ngdom of several di vi si ons. The first of these, the t hal l ophyt es, includes
plants that have no ci rcul atory syst em and no woody tissue. For this rea-
son they must live i n wat er or damp pl aces. Thi s di vi si on i ncl udes the
microscopic bact eri asi ngl e- cel l ed t hal l ophyt es whi ch not onl y cause
disease but also are nature' s pri nci pal agents for breaki ng down wast e
organi c matter. The y are nature' s scavengers.
Algae
Next above them in compl exi t y are the al gae. Great reefs of Cryptozoon,
cabbage-l i ke col oni es of al gae, gr ew near Sarat oga Spri ngs, Ne w Yor k, i n
late Cambri an ti mes, and resembl e sti l l -l i vi ng f orms i n We s t Aust ral i a.
Li vi ng algae range f rom pond scums to the gi ant kel ps of the mi ght y
ocean. Bl ue-green and red al gal weeds shel tered trilobites i n the Pal eozoi c.
Green al gae, whi ch live i n bot h fresh and salt wat er, make f ood by phot o-
Few Pre-Cambrian fossils are distinctive enough to attract attention. This one, of
calcareous algae, formed layered cauliflowerlike masses common in the northern
Rockies and in Michigan. Collenia undosa; shore of Lake Superior, Michigan. (Photo
Michigan Conservation Department)
synthesi s and i n the process they l i berate oxygen. Pal eoecol ogi sts suspect
that they were the agents responsi bl e for creati ng an atmosphere containing
enough oxygen for the first pri mi ti ve l and ani mal s to breathe. In this way,
they may have had a f undament al influence on the nature and direction
of evol uti on.
Yeast s, mushrooms, and mol ds, col l ecti vel y known as f ungi , are also
t hal l ophyt es, but of so f ugi ti ve a structure that the fossil record contains
little record of them. Fungi do not synthesi ze f ood; they live as parasites
on other organi sms or feed on organi c materi al s. Li chens are an associa-
tion of f ungi and al gae, a mut ual benefit associ ati on known as symbi osi s.
Fungi reproduce by f ormi ng spores, whi ch are single cells (seeds have
t housands of cells) that have the power to gr ow into a new plant. Some
al gae also reproduce by spores; others al ternate generati ons of spore or
asexual reproducti on wi t h sexual reproducti on, l i ke the mosses and ferns.
Bryophytes
The next di vi si on i n the scale of pl ant evol uti on i s the br yophyt es, whi ch
i ncl ude the l i verwort s, and the mosses. Whi l e these l ack vascul ar tissue
(the syst em of ducts t hrough whi ch liquids ci rcul ate), they were the first
pl ants to devel op stems and leaflike structures. Possi bl y they were the first
pl ants to abandon the comf ort abl e ocean envi ronment and creep up moist
val l eys near the shores where there was a bit of sand and weat hered rock
in a rocky worl d.
Freshwater l akes may have provi ded a marshy shorel ine where the an-
cestor of l and pl ants, combi ni ng characteri sti cs of al gae and mosses, could
devel op roots to reach down for moi sture, woody stem tissue to hol d the
pl ant upri ght , and a thi cker ski n to protect it f rom desi ccati on in the air.
In this envi ronment , sexual generat i on was aided by wet seasons, and
asexual spores were produced whi ch were capabl e of survi vi ng times of
drought . The at mosphere by this time must have been composed of a
proper combi nat i on of gases to shield life on l and f rom the lethal ul tra-
vi ol et radi ati on of outer space.
Pri mi ti ve l and pl ants are first f ound as fossi l s in Si l uri an rocks. Exam-
pl es f rom Aust ral i a, Scot l and, and Nor t h Ameri ca are rootl ess, pri ckl y
stems ti pped by spore-beari ng capsul es. In the tal us bel ow Beartooth Butte
near the Si l ver Gat e entrance to Yel l owst one Nat i onal Park, col l ectors hunt
for fossi l s of a shrubl i ke pl ant wi t h a stem covered wi t h fine needl es that
were perhaps rudi ment ary l eaves. In Aust ral i a, fossi l s of a pl ant wi t h
needl el i ke l eaves may represent ancestors of the present-day cl ub mosses.
FOSSILS AND THEIR FAMILIES 2 3 7
True Ferns
Wi t h dry land a new worl d to conquer, the al ready di versi f yi ng Si l uri an
pl ants devel oped vi gorousl y duri ng the Devoni an peri od. From the l owl y
pioneers devel oped several major groups that woul d domi nat e the l ush
j ungl es of the next peri ods, the coal -f ormi ng Mi ssi ssi ppi an and Pennsyl -
vani an peri ods. Af t er 100 mi l l i on years of evol ut i on, pl ants covered the
worl d duri ng the Devoni an peri od. These i ncl uded the filicales, or true
ferns, whi ch were the first pl ants to have branchi ng stems and l arge com-
plex fronds or l eaves. They coul d do so because by this time pl ants had
evol ved vascul ar syst ems to conduct liquids f rom the roots to the l eaves,
and stems strengthened wi t h l i gni n.
True ferns are l arge pl ants that reproduce by spores f ormed on the
undersi de of the f ronds. From the spores gr ow small pl ants whi ch bri ng
together male and f emal e cells to f orm a zygot e, whi ch takes root and
gr ows into a fern. Ot her members of the group known as the pteri do-
phyt es t he sphenophyl l ums, the horsetai l s, or cal ami tes, and the cl ub
mosses, or l ycopods r epr oduce i n similar f ashi on.
At Gi l boa, Ne w Yor k, a standi ng forest of rich Devoni an veget at i on was
unearthed many years ago and was reconstructed i n the Ne w Yor k State
Mus eum at Al bany. It incl udes Aneurophyton, a pal ml i ke fern thi rty feet
tall, sl ender l ycopods (Lepidosigillaria) whi ch woul d become the rul i ng
class of Pennsyl vani an forests, and pri mi ti ve cal ami tes.
T wo members of the l ycopods, the Lepidodendrons or scale trees, and
Asterotheca miltoni, a typical fern of the Pennsylvanian period. Braidwood, Illinois.
Annularia radiata, whorled foliage of the Calamites tree. Stub of stem shows in center
of whorl. Pennsylvanian; Terre Haute, Indiana.
an allied form, Sigillaria, dominated the Coal Age forests of the Mississip-
pian and Pennsylvanian periods. Scale trees were tall woody cylinders with
centers of pith and corky bark marked with rows of scars where the long
straplike leaves had dropped off. In Lepidodendron the scars form a spiral
pat t ern; in Sigillaria they march up the trunk in vertical rows. The former
branched like an elm tree, and the upper limbs were festooned with long
droopy leaves growing out the branches. Sigillaria reached a height of 100
feet but did not branch. It resembled a huge bottle brush.
Calamites, which was smaller than these companion trees, grew in
thickets like bamboo. Like its descendants, the modern horsetails, it had a
jointed trunk decorated at the joints with radiating limbs. Sphenophyllum
was an ubiquitous vinelike shrub easily identifiable as a fossil by the
wedge-shaped leaves. Growing with these giants of the forest were tree
ferns topped by immense fronds of lacy leaves, quite similar to modern-
day tree ferns of the southern hemisphere.
Bark of the Sigillaria tree. Sigillaria was similar to Lepidodendron and is often found
with it. The leaf scars occur in definite furrows. Pennsylvanian; Michigan. (Photo
Michigan Conservation Department)
These ambi ti ous new resi dents of dry l and, encouraged by the mild and
uni f orm cl i mate, spread nearl y everywhere over the worl d. Though t hey
appear exoti c to us t oday, they l acked the vari et y of modern f orest s be-
cause they had no flowers or col or to relieve the unbr oken l andscape of
Silicified palm wood, easily recognizable by the " eyes " in the wood. Texas.
green. Even the uplands, though less lush, must have been monot onous
without flowering plants or a carpet of grass. There were no bird voices
to break the stillnessonly the lapping of waves, the rustling of leaves in
the wind, and the occasional fall of a superannuated tree.
These fast-growing, shallow-rooted trees flourished in the even climate,
which was not hot and steamy as supposed by many, but continuously cool
as suggested by the lack of growt h rings in the trees and the excellent
preservation of plant fossils. Trees fell and were buried in the mud de-
posited in river deltas and by invading seas. The mud preserved them
from decay, and they left their record as the thick coal seams of Pennsyl-
vanian times.
Seed Ferns
Growing beside these plants were others that were preparing for the fu-
ture. Some ferns had by this time developed the habit of producing true
seeds. A seed differs from a spore. It is an embryonic new plant enclosed
in a protective case that also encloses enough food to nourish it until it is
Neuropteris scheuchzeri, the thick, fleshy leaf of a seed fern. Mazon Creek, near Mor-
ris, Illinois.
established as a new plant. Wi t h seeds, plants could now live anywhere
that conditions were otherwise favorable. Alongside true ferns grew these
seed ferns, which in appearance were so much like the true ferns that
differentiation of fossils is often impossible. Wi t h them grew another
rising class, the Cordaites trees, which had slender softwood trunks and
long straplike leaves.
The seed ferns appear to have been the ancestors of the cycads and
cycadeoides, and Cordaites is probably the ancestor of the ginkgo and the
conifers. Cordaites bore male and female catkins that appear to be a de-
velopment mi dway between the fronds of the seed ferns and the cones
of the pines and firs. Coal-ball peels from mines in Lawrence County,
Illinois, disclose that cycadlike structures existed in the Pennsylvanian
period, and this has been confirmed by other late Pennsylvanian and
Permian evidence. Plant fossils of the Coal Age are exceedingly common
at almost every Pennsylvanian-age coal mine in the world, from Iowa to
Pennsylvania, England to South Africa, and even in Arctic regions.
Spermatophytes
The plant kingdom became increasingly complex with the development of
the spermat ophyt es. This division comprises the gymnosperms ("naked
seed pl ant s") such as the conifers, and the angiosperms ("covered seed
pl ant s" ) , a class that includes most trees, shrubs, and other plants. The
angiosperms have true flowers and depend on the color and scent of their
blooms to attract the insects and birds that unwittingly carry pollen from
one plant to the pistil of another for cross-fertilization. Seeds develop from
the pistil. The pines and palms are the major gymnosperms that flourish
today.
G Y M N O S P E R M S
In the final period of the Paleozoic era, the Permian, the forests began to
be taken over by the cycads and other cycadlike trees, with short,
barrel-shaped trunks and palmlike l eavesand by conifers and ginkgos.
The Pennsylvanian swamps dried up as the climate changed, and the
wat er- dependent amphibians adapted to the change by evolving into rep-
tiles. The most spectacular reptiles, the dinosaurs, would feed and fight
in the next era, the Mesozoic. Like the Paleozoic forests, the dinosaurs,
too, would disappear.
Early in the Mesozoic Era, in the Triassic period, logs washed into
shallow lakes where they were buried by volcanic ash, and became petri-
fied and agatized to form the wonders of the Petrified Forest National Park
Few fossil sites are so widely known as the Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona.
Thousands of acres are strewn with logs of coniferous trees, now preserved as color-
ful red, brown, yellow, and purple agate and jasper. No collecting is allowed in the
Park, but several ranches nearby are open to collecting for a fee.
in Arizona. These colorful logs are mostly gymnosperms known as
Araucarioxylon, distantly related to the modern pines. Their nearest rela-
tive today, however, is the grotesque monkey puzzle tree. The cycad
fossils eagerly collected in western South Dakot a once grew in Mesozoic
forests where treeless plains exist today. Such forests spread far across
the globe in the Jurassic period, when the evidence from plant life indi-
cates that the world enjoyed more uniformly even temperatures and rain-
fall than at any other period in its history. This hal cyon time has left its
organic mark with extensive coal beds in such widely separated places as
Alaska, Australia, China, Siberia, and Greenland.
A N G I O S P E R M S
In the Cretaceous period, last of the Mesozoic era, new types of plants
better fitted to cope with changing environments were ready to take over
from the conifers and cycads. These were the angiosperms, to which group
most modern plants belong. As the climate grew cooler and the swamps
disappeared, the cycads and conifers were succeeded by trees, shrubs, and
Sequoia langsdorfi, a conifer very similar to the modern sequoia. Cretaceous; Alaska.
flowers familiar today. In the Upper Cretaceous rocks of Kansas are found
fossil leaves from magnolia, beech, elm, sycamore, myrtle, oak, and fig
t rees; and similar leaf fossils are found in Tennessee clays. These trees
had vascular and reproductive systems, with well-protected seeds, more
readily adaptable to changing conditions and better equipped to specialize
than the cycads and conifers. This was the time when the redwood and its
relative, the metasequoia, grew over much of the present United States.
Perhaps the development of the angiosperms had something to do with
the dramatic increase in the number of insects in the Cretaceous. They
set up a working part nershi pt he flowers supplying the insects with food
and the insects supplying the means of fertilizing t hema partnership of
common advantage that persists to this day.
Few fossils of annual plants have survived from the Cretaceous, be-
cause conditions were unfavorable for preservation: the plants lived short
lives, and their soft tissues decayed rapidly, leaving little record in the
rocks.
Cret aceous vegetation established itself more firmly in the Cenozoic era.
New times tested its adaptability. The nature of the growing plants, how
large they grew, and the texture of their leaves are sensitive thermometers
of climatic change. In the Eocene epoch of the early Cenozoic era, a tropi-
cal forest grew in Oregon. The size of the trees, the poorly developed
growth rings, and the thick fleshy leaves all indicate that this was a time
of year-round warmt h and abundant rain. By mid-Cenozoic, in the Mi o-
cene epoch, the leaves were thinner and the forest was smaller. Growing
conditions had deteriorated.
In the Eocene era, maples, walnuts, and the metasequoia flourished as
far north as Alaska and Greenland, but by Mi ocene times such forests
were retreating all over the world. Plants abandoned the far northern and
southern latitudes and moved to warmer regions.
Thirty million years ago volcanoes sprayed millions of tons of fine
volcanic ash over certain lakes near Col orado Springs, especially near what
is now the town of Florissant, Colorado. This ash, a perfect mold material,
preserved delicately etched fossils of 250 varieties of leavesincluding
redwood, cedar, beech, willow, maple, elm, oak, and pine. Scores of species
of insects and shells are found in this Oligocene deposit, as well as feathers
from many species of birds. Similar fossils are found in the John Day
basin of Oregon and in the Mi ocene deposits near Spokane, Washi ngt on.
The John Day deposits are famous for the profusion of fossil seedssuch
as wal nut spreserved in tough volcanic rock. Hundreds of species of
seeds and nuts, completely replaced by pyrite, have been recovered from
Eocene clay beds on the isle of Sheppey in England.
Generally speaking, plant fossils are best preserved in the lowlands,
where sediments and volcanic ash formed suitable media for fossilization,
and where there was less erosion to erase the fossil record than in the
Flowers and fruit are rarely fossilized. This catkin was found along with fish in Eocene
shales near Kemmerer, Wyoming.
uplands. Most of our knowledge of the plants of the past, for this reason,
is derived from fossils of common lowland trees with firmly textured
leaves and woody trunks, branches, and roots. This is the material most
commonl y available to the collector, too.
A few fossil woods, notably the wood of the sequoia, contain so much
tannin that they have resisted decay, remaining as the original wood for
millions of years.
ANI MALS
Like plants, animals are classified on the basis of anatomical characteris-
tics that developed from the earliest forms. At their most primitive, these
consisted of nothing more than a nucleus and a flowing tissue known as
cytoplasm. Animals turned this into increasingly complex nutritional, ex-
cretory, sensory, perceptive, and locomotor structures which eventually
enabled them to leave the oceans and live on land.
The most primitive animals are so undifferentiated that it is sometimes
impossible to tell whether a one-celled organism is plant or animal, of
maybe both. Some flagellates, organisms visible only through the micro-
scope, create their food by photosynthesis, like plants, when they are near
the surface of the ocean and in the sunlight. But when they are in the
darkness of night or of the abyss they feed on organic mat t er like animals.
Protists
One-celled plants and animals are known collectively as protists. In
their various guises they outnumber all other forms of life: the oceans
teem with them, and their fossils fingerprint nearly all sedimentary rocks.
Some protists build shells or cases of silica, or of magnesium or calcium
salts. Some do not. Ot her marine animals subsist on their stored-up fats, oils,
and starches. These nutrients from the countless billions of fossil protists,
stored in the rocks, probably constitute the raw material of the petroleum
that drives our cars and heats our homes.
The shell-less protists include such plants as bacteria, algae (both green
and blue-green), and some of the flagellates. Diatoms, which form sili-
ceous skeletons, are plants. Abundant in cool seas, lakes, and streams,
their shells form much of the bot t om sediment.
Coccoliths, the extinct starlike discoasters, and some protozoa build
calcareous houses for themselves, while the radiolarians and silicoflagel-
lates, like the diatoms, prefer siliceous walls. Foraminifera, most abundant
and significant of the one-celled organisms, generally build limy walls.
Like the others, they are animals.
These tiny creatures have been discussed extensively in a previous
chapter. Most of them have been of interest only to geologists and biolo-
gists until recent years when amateur collectors learned of the fascina-
tions of the microscopic world. But these tiny organisms occasionally be-
come evident en masse. The dinoflagellates, for example, sometimes create
phosphorescent areas or the poisonous " r ed t i de" in ocean wat ers. Cocco-
liths, so tiny that powerful microscopes are needed to study them, cause a
strange milkiness in the Norwegi an fjords on summer days.
The foraminiferan buliminids built the famous white cliffs of Dover with
trillions of their fossil skeletons, and the nummulites of the same group
of protozoa gave millions of their lens-shaped bodies to form the rocks
from which the Egyptians built the Pyramids.
Paleontologists estimate that l\ percent of all known animal species
belong to the order of the Foraminifera, and that 88 percent of these spe-
cies are known only as fossils.
Like the ferns, foraminifera have an irregularly alternating system of
reproduction. Individual bud off cells that develop into the larger form
which, in turn produces a sexual cycle of cells that conjugate with cells from
other individuals to produce the small form again.
Sponges are never showy fossils, and with a few exceptions, are never common.
Astylospongia praemorsa; Silurian; Pegram, Tennessee.
Porifera
Sponges, classified in the phylum Porifera ("pore bear er s" ) , take a long
step beyond the one-celled protozoa. Some species of this phylum grow as
individuals; some grow in colonies. All live in water, and most of them in
shallow seas. Sponges are multicellular creatures, but they lack definite
tissue or internal organs except for a digestive cavity. They have no means
of locomotion and live attached to a rock or other support. Sponges can
be thought of as a fraternity of slightly specialized single-celled animals
clustered together into a hollow ball pierced by many holes. Some outer
cells have appendages which wave back and forth to force a current of
water into the central cavity. Cells lining the cavity absorb food and pass
it to the other cells by osmosis. If a sponge were cut up into thousands of
Solitary corals, which are commonly called horn corals, contained a single living
animal. They range in size from a flattened button (lower left) to elongated forms.
The shape and the prominent radiating septae make recognition easy, but individuals
require sectioning for complete identification.
tiny pieces and tossed back into the sea, each part would grow into a new
sponge.
Most sponges are supported by a spiny internal skeleton of calcareous,
siliceous, or horny material. Soft sponges, such as the familiar bath sponge,
occur in tropical seas. Sponges do not attract the hungry marine predat or:
the spines of the skeleton are unpalatable, and many sponges secrete a
repellent odor. Despite this, sponges have been found in the stomachs of
large cephalopods in Mississippian rocks in Arkansas. Wor ms , shrimp,
and little fish, however, are not fussy; they shelter themselves in folds
and cavities of the sponge.
Sponges have left their record in the rocks since Pre- Cambri an days.
Spicules, the sharp spines of the skeleton, often are the only hard parts
capable of making a fossil record; the softer sponges are poorly repre-
sented.
Classification is based on the form of the skeleton, usually from clues
given by spicules. Some fossil sponges are dish-shaped; some are octagonal
like Prismodictya, some like the stacked chips of Titusvillia, or the mush-
room of Coeloptychium. Delicate glass sponges, so named because of their
This horn coral grew upright until increasing weight or energetic currents toppled it
on its side. Its new growth curved to give the animal an upright position once again.
This happened several times before the coral could straighten itself out. The ridges
probably reflect periods of active growth under favorable conditions.
250 FOS5ILS FOR AMATEURS
fragile, glass-clear skeleton of quartz spicules, swarmed in late Devonian
seas. Beautifully preserved sponges occur among the notable examples of
marine life fossilized in the Cambri an Burgess shale at Field, British
Columbia.
The "sunflower cor al s, " or Receptaculitids, found in the Ordovician
rocks of the upper Mississippi River valley once were believed to be
related to the sponges, but the best opinion now is that they are algae.
Coelenterates
For the collector the phylum Coelenterata ("hollow gut " ) , which is placed
next above the sponges in the scheme of life, affords more rewarding
trophies than those previously discussed. Sponges are rarely preserved
well enough to hold a place of honor in the cabinet. But the corals, which
with jellyfish and sea anemones are classified as coelenterates, occur in
Commonly called organ-pipe coral, Syringopora is a widespread Silurian fossil.
(Photo Michigan Conservation Department)
Typical horn corals that a collector might find weathering from Paleozoic shales.
Several species are represented, mostly Zaphrentis and Heterophrentis. Devonian;
Michigan. (Photo Michigan Conservation Department)
abundance and great variety. Some, such as the Petoskey stone, are so
well preserved that they can be used for ornament s and jewelry.
Coelenterates have the distinction of being the first animals to possess
well-developed tissues; they have a body wall formed of t wo layers of
specialized cells. In most species the body cavity is divided by radial
partitions, as in the horn corals. Corals evolved from an animal like the
simple, still-existing hydra. This is little more than a tube fringed at one
end with tentacles that bring food into the gut and a foot at the other end
to anchor the hydra to a stone. In the rugose or horn corals, folds of tissue
built radial septa (partitions) inside the body cavity while the other end
grew a limy horn to hold the organism upright on the muddy bot t om.
Fossils consist of the horn and septa that supported the soft body. Rugose
corals are found in rocks as old as the Ordovician period; later they
evolved flat forms that could rest on the mud or grew in masses or as
Typical of the colonial corals is Hexagonaria, a Devonian species from Michigan. Each
cell held a living animal. This is the familiar Petoskey stone.
individuals packed together for common support. Such forms reached
their peak in the Devonian period.
Colonial corals resulted from asexual budding, which created a mass of
descendants of one individual. These include the hexacorals, so named
because the septa are organized on a basic unit of six, although the in-
dividuals, called corallites, may be hexagonal or round. Such fossils have
a pockmarked surface. The familiar brain coral belongs in this group.
Among hexacorals, which have been known since Triassic times, are the
Mi ocene corals of Tampa Bay, Florida.
Paleozoic tabulate corals include a number of familiar species. These
colonial forms are represented by Halysites and Catenipora, which are
identified by their chainlike pat t erns; the Devonian Hexagonaria, which is
the familiar Petoskey st one; and Favosites, which resembles a honeycomb.
One living coral that has no superficial resemblance to other corals is the
sea fan. This horny-tissued favorite of beachcombers is related to the
precious Mediterranean red coral.
Mor e primitive coelenterates occasionally appear as fossils. Examples
Halysites, the chain coral, is another colonial coral. The polyps lived inside the links
of the chain. Silurian; Wisconsin.
are the mi l l epores, whi ch were i mport ant reef builders wi t h their massi ve
colonies pierced by t ubes, and the st romat opori ds of Pal eozoi c age, whi ch
built small reefs of shapel ess l umps or sheetl i ke l ayers. Jel l yfi sh l ack the
maki ngs for f ossi l s; their tissues are too sof t , but i mpressi ons of their
tentacl ed bodi es occasi onal l y appear i n rocks as old as the Cambr i an
period.
Top view of a stromatoporid coral, Parallelopora. These corals have extremely fine
pores compared with other corals and in small specimens may be mistaken for bry-
ozoans. Devonian; Michigan. (Photo Michigan Conservation Department)
Bryozoans
The bryozoans, or moss animals, which occupy the next niche upward
among the phyla, masquerade as stunted relations of the corals; but they
did add something to the complexities of life. Unlike the corals, they
developed a body cavity differentiated from the gut, specialized organs
to clean themselves of foreign particles and for reproduction, and a nerv-
ous system capable of making the muscles contract.
Byrozoans, of which 3 0 0 0 species live today compared with 4, 600
species known only as fossils, grow by budding into colonies as much as
a foot across, though most are mere twigs. Most lived near shore in
shallow seas. Many modern species make up a good part of the " sea-
weed" that grows on wooden pilings. The various species are identified by
the shapes of the tubes in which they live and by characteristics of the
colonies.
One of the most striking fossils is Fenestrellina, the lacy bryozoan that
Some typical bryozoans. Upper left and bottom center are irregular massive types.
Far right and lower left are the branching, sticklike types. Upper center is a common
type that encrusts other fossils. Lower right is a thin, fanlike type that resembles
coarse cheesecloth. Bryozoans resemble corals, but their individual chambers are much
smaller.
Archimedes is named after the Greek who invented the screw. The " scr ew" is the
axis of a much larger animal; attached to the screw are wide, lacy fronds. This
bryozoan is a common Pennsylvanian and Mississippian fossil in the United States.
A typical screw is shown below the rarer frond shown above it. The hole in the
center of the frond is where the screw fits. Mississippian; Attica, Indiana.
looks like a fan and is to be found in Devoni an to Permian rocks. Anot her
favorite among collectors is Archimedes, the screwlike central axis from
which fronds like those of Fenestrellina projected. Usually the delicate
fronds are missing from the robust central support. This fossil is con-
fined to Mississippian-age rocks.
Ordovician rocks contain rounded colonies of such major stony forms
as Dekayella and Prasopora; the Cincinnati area is particularly rich in
bryozoans. Bryozoans became slender and lacy in the late Paleozoic; then
a great outburst of evolutionary energy in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
developed a host of complex and striking forms. Bryozoans are easily mis-
taken for corals, but there are major differences visible in the laboratory.
Bryozoan individuals are commonl y smaller and more delicate than corals.
Individual pores in a bryozoan colony are smaller than a pinhead; the
Modern and fossil brachiopods. Upper left is Tropidoleptus carinatus; Devonian;
Griegsville, New York. Lower left is a modern Terebratula, similar in shape to
Tropidoleptus but not closely related. Upper right is Lingula; Ordovician; Elgin,
Iowa. Lower right is modern Lingula. The genus Lingula has flourished for 400
million years.
pores of corals are larger. Bryozoans from Paleozoic rocks are often found
as a thick film or crust on other fossils, but corals are not. Proper identi-
fication requires sectioning to disclose the fine internal structure of the
colony.
Brachiopods
Animals classified as the Brachiopoda ( "arm f oot " ) , although a superficial
acquaintance would not indicate it, have much the same plan of life as the
bryozoans. Larval bryozoans start with a shell covering but discard it as
they develop. Brachiopods keep the shell, grow larger than bryozoans,
and discard the colonial way of life. Like the latter, they have existed
since the Cambri an period and have diversified into thousands of species,
of which only 200 are living forms. One of these, the small, smooth-
shelled Lingula, lives today in muddy sea bottoms just as it did 400
million years ago. Presumably, ancient brachiopods, like those today, in-
habited shallow seas, anchored to the bot t om by a stemlike pedicle
Representative brachiopods of the major types. Upper left is Meristella haskinsi;
Devonian; New York. Upper middle is Rhipidomella leucosia; Devonian; New York.
Upper right is Leptaena; Silurian; Tennessee. Lower right is Stropheodonta demissa;
Devonian; Ohio. Lower left is Brachyspirifer angustus; Devonian; New York.
cemented to a rock or buried in the sediment. For a passive animal such
as this, the shell is protection against predators and st ormy waters.
Brachiopods, which are also called lamp shells, are bivalves, but the
two shells are not alike in size or shape. One shell usually overhangs the
other at the hinge, so that when viewed from the side the difference in
shape is apparent. From the front, brachiopod shells have bilateral sym-
metry, that is, a line down the center of the shell will divide it into t wo
halves that are mirror images of each other, like a human face.
One shell may be flat, the other concave or convex, or both may be
convex in different degrees. The shells may be shaped like wings, as in
the spirifers, or they may be smooth, or grooved across or up and down;
or they may even be ornately spiny. One group of brachiopods, the in-
articulates, holds the shells together by ligaments and muscl es; but the
articulate types are additionally joined by a tooth or teeth that fit into a
socket in the other shell. This forms the hinge on which the shells open
and shut. Brachiopods are small, usually an inch long or less; a three-inch
specimen is a giant. Cl ams, which at first glance resemble brachiopods, are
generally much larger and generally grow two equal shells.
Collectors not only have pseudofossils to contend with but also some fossils that
masquerade as others. At first glance these broken fossils appear to be hickory nuts,
but closer study shows that they are Atrypa, a common brachiopod of the Devonian
period. (Photo Michigan Conservation Department)
Brachiopod fossils are exceedingly abundant in Paleozoic rocks, scarce
in the Mesozoic. To the amat eur collector they are both a joy and a
problem. They are common and easily collected; they exist in great variety,
and many of them are beautiful. But identification is often difficult or
even impossible without tedious study of such minute distinctions as
texture of the shells and muscle scars. Some species from unrelated stocks
developed outwardly similar shapes, and for this reason they cause great
confusion.
The brachiopods, particularly the more specialized articulates, reached
their zenith in Ordovician seas. The Devoni an oval terebratulids are well
represented in the rocks of New Yor k and the Mi dwest , along with the
large plump shells of the pentamerids. Mississippian shales are the place
to look for the strongly striated, sharply beaked rhynchonellids. The
nearly flat Ordovician strophomenids, with their wide hinge line and fan
shape modeled by the familiar Rafinesquina, cont rast markedly with the
spectacular spirifers of Ordovician to Permian times. Wal dr on, in Decat ur
Count y, Indiana, and Pegram, Tennessee, have yielded excellent speci-
mens of Silurian spirifers. Erie Count y, New Yor k, is famous for Devoni an
spirifers, and northern New Mexi co for giant Pennsylvanian ones. The
Medusa quarry near Toledo, Ohi o, is notable for large, pyritized Devoni an
brachiopods found associated with trilobites. Brachiopods today are repre-
sented by the terebratulids and rhynchonellids as well as a few more
primitive, long-lived forms.
Mollusks
Far better equipped for the long pull were the members of the next
phylum, the Mollusca ("soft bodi ed") , an even vaster group of shelled
organisms. The mollusks, second largest living phylum in number of
species after the arthropods, include marine, freshwater, and land organ-
isms. Familiar members are the snails, clams, and cephalopods. Like the
brachiopods, some burrow in the bot t om or anchor themselves to a rock,
but others walk or swim, despite the handicap of dragging around a
primitive skeleton poorly engineered for locomotion of any kind.
Five basic classes are recognized among the mollusks. The least advanced
are the chitons, which live in armor formed of eight transverse articulated
segments. The scaphopods, or tusk shells, are long and slender like an
elephant' s tusk. The gastropods, or snails, form the largest single group,
followed by the pelecypods, or clams, which hide themselves between t wo
shells. The last order, the cephalopods, includes the largest and most
intelligent as well as the most evolutionarily versatile of the invertebrates.
Modern cephalopodsparticularly the octopus and giant squi dare re-
pulsive and even dangerous to man.
C H I T O N S
Chitons occur in the fossil record since Paleozoic times. Even though their
shells are hard enough to leave a mark in the rocks, chiton fossils are not
plentiful. Living examples, which are numerous on the Pacific coast, cling
to a rock with their lower surface, which is an unprotected fleshy foot,
and feed by scraping algae from the rocks with a rasplike tongue.
S C A P H O P O D S
Tusk shells sit partly buried at an angle in the mud of the sea bottom.
The class has never included many species, although it goes back as far
as the Silurian period. Their little shells, rarely more than an inch or two
long, are easily identified, although they may be confused with worm
tubes.
G A S T R O P O D S
The Gast ropoda ( "st omach f oot " ) , or snails, have recognized few limita-
tions. They are the only invertebrates except the arthropods (insects,
arachnids, etc. ) that have learned to live on dry land. They did this by
turning the mantle used by marine invertebrates to absorb oxygen from
the water into a " l ung. " They also learned to do without salt water and
live in fresh water. As a result, they can be found almost everywhere on
the surface of the earth. They far outnumber the other mollusks, with
some 80, 000 living species and thousands of fossil species dating back to
early Cambri an rocks. The abalone, which has a pretty shell and delicious
meat, is a snail. So is the ugly garden slug, which has a tiny vestigial shell
buried in its back.
The common snail moves on a muscular foot while carrying its protec-
tive shell piggyback. Most snails also have a hard, horny trapdoor (called
an operculum) on the foot. This neatly closes the aperture, like a manhole
cover, when the animal retreats into its shell. The snail is guided by pro-
jecting tentacles. In some species these tentacles are equipped with eyes.
Many snails are scavengers or vegetarians, but others rasp holes with
their tongues through the shells of mollusks and draw out the succulent
contents.
Gast ropod shells are as varied as their habits and environments. Some
are cones, some tubes. Most forms have coiled shells, either a flat coil or
a spiral cone. Early Paleozoic forms were caplike or flat-coiled shells living
in shallow water or on mud flats.
The class moved like a conquering army into the Ordovician period.
Shells became more complex, such as the spiral cone of Trochonema,
which is like the modern trochus, or top shell. By the Silurian period high-
spired forms had appeared, and by the late Paleozoic such shells as
Shansiella and Pleurotomaria rivaled the cephalopods for beauty and com-
plexity.
Land and freshwater forms date from Pennsylvanian times. Land snails
Gastropods, which are snails, always show some kind of coiling, a basic shape they
have retained for 500 million years. Upper left is an internal cast of Turritella mortoni;
Eocene; Virginia. Upper right is Straparolus; Pennsylvanian; Nebraska. Lower left is
Trepospira depressa; Pennsylvanian; Oklahoma. Lower left center is Euphemites, in
which the coils are covered by the last part of the shell; Pennsylvanian; Oklahoma.
Lower right center is an internal cast; Silurian; Illinois. Such a cast bears little re-
semblance to the outer shell and is difficult to identify. Lower right is Platyceras
bucculentum, often found in the calyx of crinoids; Devonian; Ohio.
are thin-shelled and relatively small and are rarely found as fossils, for
they died without being entombed in protective sediments.
Snails have left not only their bodies but also their trails in the fossil
record. They have also left their grim calling c ar da neatly drilled hol e
in the fossil shells of ancient clams, brachiopods, and other snails. Oc -
casionally one is found neatly coiled on the calyx of a crinoid, where it
fed on the excreta of the host. Such specimens, which usually are the
gastropods Platyceras or Cyclomena, are rare and desirable additions to
a collection.
P E L E C Y P O D S
The Pelecypoda ( "hat chet f oot " ) differ from all other mollusks in one
particular: they have two valves or shells, usually composed of a calcar-
eous material, joined by a toothed hinge. In Europe they are termed
l amel l i branchs by pal eont ol ogi st s; the common names for them are cl ams,
oyst ers and mussel s. In the pel ecypods, one shell does not overhang the
ot her as i n the brachi opods; f rom the side they are mi rror images of each
ot her and meet at an evenl y shared hi nge line, even though one valve may
differ f rom the ot her i n convexi t y or shape.
Some pel ecypods move sl owl y but wi t hout great effort by protrudi ng
a spade- shaped f oot , pl anti ng it, and pulling t hemsel ves f orward. A few,
such as the acrobat i c pect ens, swi m backward by suddenl y flapping their
val ves t oget her so as to expel wat er, a crude j et propul si on. Mos t clams
can and do burrow i n beach sand or the mari ne bot t om, of t en wi th in-
credi bl e speed. A f ew, such as the razor cl ams, can leap as f ar as a f oot
Rudistids look more like horn corals than clams. One valve is reduced to the radiating
"cap" and the other valve has developed into a cone, attached by its narrow base. Its
large size serves to separate it from horn corals. Cretaceous period.
Major types of clams are differentiated by the hinge lines, tooth sockets, and types
of teeth. This one is Tivela stultorum; Pleistocene; California.
Exogyra cancellata, an oyster. Coiled oysters such as Exogyra and Cryphea resemble
snails, but they differ in that they are bivalves, are larger than most snails, and show
growth ridges on their shells. Cretaceous; New Egypt, New Jersey.
Chlamys, a scallop. Though more symmetrical bilaterally than many clams, so that
it resembles a brachiopod, its much larger size and the nonsymmetrical hinge line
identify it as a clam. Miocene; Maryland.
by a sort of pole-vaulting maneuver. Some even bore holes in wood or
rock and become voluntary prisoners there as they grow too large to
emerge.
Shipworms, which riddle wood piling and hulls, are a form of pelecypod,
not a true worm. The fossil teredo " wo r m" is such a pelecypod. Oysters
moor themselves to a rock; and horse mussels and some others resist the
force of the waves by attaching themselves by a hairlike mass of cords,
known as a byssus, to solid objects near the tide line. One clam, Tridacna,
is the largest pelecypod, a giant whose bathtub-size shell often weighs as
much as 500 pounds. The stories of venturesome men trapped and
drowned by this clam appear to be strictly adventure fiction.
Pelecypods have participated in the evolutionary adventure since early
Paleozoic times, but they have persisted in their Paleozoic ways with little
change because they have been able to find comfortable environments
instead of adapting to changing ones. For this reason, many fossil species
closely resemble living marine and freshwater forms. This is a great help
in identifying them.
Clams are fairly common in the rocks, often as casts, and some speci-
mens of Trigonia, a Cretaceous pelecypod, have been found with the
pearly shell still gleaming after 100 million years. Inoceramus, a giant,
thick-shelled Cretaceous form found in the chalk beds of Kansas, had a
shell an inch thick and three feet long.
Fossil species are identified primarily by the teeth on the hinge. For
example, the prominent teeth and sockets of the schizodonts lock tightly;
the unios (freshwater mussels) which developed in the Triassic period are
classified with them. The dysodonts gather together a variety of almost
toothless clams, including the important pectens (such as the modern
Ammonites flourished in the Mesozoic era, then became extinct. Species differed in the
intricate suture lines, and these are the major means of identification. Ammonites
ranged in size from a fraction of an inch to four feet in diameter. Harpoceras; Juras-
sic; Somerset, England.
scallop); Mytilus, the saltwater mussel; and the oysters Exogyra and
Gryphea, which emulate the gastropods by making an effort to coil. A
fourth group, the heterodonts, includes shells related to the modern
Lucina, Astarte, and the tellins. These have an unequal number of lateral
teeth on the valves. Boring and burrowing clams, such as ark and razor
clams, are classified in the group known as desmodonts.
One form of Cret aceous clam is likely to confuse the collector. This
is the group of pelecypods known as the rudistids, in which the lower
valve mat ures into a ribbed cone resembling a horn coral, while the upper
one is reduced to a flat toothed lid.
C E P H A L O P O D S
The Cephalopoda ("head f oot " ) have left their stuck-in-the-mud relatives
far behind. They are not only smarter and much more highly developed,
but they are also willing to live dangerously. Some had the good sense to
discard the shell and depend on speed, excellent sight, and sheer mean-
ness for protection. Exclusively marine, they are free-swimming and eat
other marine animals.
The cephalopod' s highly developed head contains eyes and a horny
beak with jaws. The head is surrounded by muscular arms called tentacles.
Small ammonites resemble snails, but ammonites will always show tracery of sutures
on the surface of the shell and matching divisions on the inside. Snails have only one
chamber to the shell and usually are not ornamented. Left is an internal cast of a
snail from the Silurian of Bohemia. Right is Dimorphoplites, a small ammonite from
the Cretaceous; Folkestone, England.
Beneath the head is a tube formed of a fold of skin through which the
animal can squirt a jet of water to propel it either forward or backward.
Some fossil cephalopods were as much as fifteen feet long, and the living
deep-sea squid is more than twice as large, large enough to attack even
whales. It is the largest living invertebrate.
Nautilus is the only living representative of the hundreds of species of
nautiloid cephalopods of ancient seas. It builds its spiral shell as it grows,
periodically adding a new living chamber at the end and sealing off gas-
filled chambers behind it to give it buoyancy for fast and effortless
swimming. It floats with the coil up and the head and tentacle parts
horizontal. This device, which it developed in the Paleozoic era, marked it
off from some primitive straight forms, such as Volborthella, and loosely
coiled species that probably crawled on the bot t om.
By late in the Paleozoic, the nautiloids became as ornamented as
dowagers, and, like the dowagers, began to disappear as the next era wore
on.
Their place was taken by a type bursting with evolutionary energy and
a taste for variation. These were the ammonoi dscoi l ed forms that would
seem to have set elaboration as their goal. The goniatites, a simple type,
Detail of shell of Baculites, an ammonite that did not coil. The sutures are usually
visible only if the pearly outer shell is removed. Cretaceous; South Dakota.
Uranoceras, a nautiloid, displays the simple straight sutures characteristic of the
cephalopods before the ammonites appeared. McCook, Illinois. (Photo Field Museum
of Natural History)
are common Mississippian fossils. Their straight sutures (the "j oi nt s"
between chambers) evolved in later forms into folded and crinkled sutures
that left their intricate tracery on the surface of the fossils of the Meso-
zoic ammonites and ceratites. Paleontologists looking for a function for
this elaboration have theorized that the fanciful sutures gave the shell
strength to resist the pressure of deep water. But this is pure speculation.
At the same time some straight uncoiled cephalopods such as Baculites
were leaving their pearly remains in the rocks of Cretaceous sea bottoms.
By Cretaceous times, the ammonites had grown huge, up to ten feet in
diameter, and were conspicuous for the knobs and suture patterns that
marked them as the dandies of the sea. Hundreds of species of these
ornate fossils have been found in Europe, where they are an important
index fossil. As if worn out from their evolutionary zeal, they became
extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period.
Ammoni t e fossils were the ones that led William Smith to develop his
law of correlation, and study of these fossils caused other Europeans in
Ammonites and other cephalopods with external shells grew by adding a new living
chamber periodically. They then moved out of the old, sealed it off, and moved into
the new chamber. These old chambers are visible if the ammonite shell is cut in two,
as this one was.
the ni net eent h cent ury to expand this l aw i nto correl at i on by zones and
stages. Fossils of ammoni t es and ot her cephal opods are wi del y di stri buted
and abundant ; they make cl earl y recogni zabl e fossi l s and show rapid
evol uti on. For these reasons they have been regarded as ideal i ndex fossi l s.
They have also exemplified the t heory that acti ve ani mal s evol ve more
rapidly than those that are cont ent wi th a passi ve life on the bot t om.
In the exti nct bel emnoi ds the external shell had been discarded and
replaced by an i nternal , ci gar-shaped skel et on that is not uncommon as a
fossil i n Mesozoi c rocks. Rel at ed f or ms i ncl ude the cuttl efi sh, or sepi a,
whi ch is a living species today as well as a fossi l . The cuttlefish " b o n e "
used i n bird cages i s the i nternal skel et on of this cephal opod. Ot her shel l -
less f orms, such as the oct opus, are uncommon fossi l s i n Mesozoi c rocks.
Modern representati ves of the Col eoi da, the cl ass to whi ch these bel ong,
are the coiled Spirula, whi ch l ooks like a ti ny hunt er' s horn, and the
paper nauti l us.
Belemnites were like modern squid, but had strange, cigar-shaped internal shells
such as the one shown here. The shells are common in Cretaceous formations.
Worms
The lowly worm claims a high place in the hierarchy of evolution. Wor ms,
which are animals with a head, sense organs, and a posterior, and which
crawl on their bellies, have so thoroughly worked their way into the
pattern of life that they have been subdivided into a number of phyla.
But only one cuts much of a figure as fossils, because worms lack hard
parts. Instead, they left behind trails where they crawled or burrowed in
soft mud, although the nature and origin of these fossil evidences are
debatable. Furthermore, most worms have left little evidence of their long
evolutionary history. An exception exists in Cambri an rocks, however,
where fossils of annelid worms, formed of ringed segments like the
modern eart hworm, are known from such favored spots as the British
Columbian Burgess shales.
Wor ms move by rhyt hmi c contractions of their segments. Some seg-
ments developed into such specialized organs as a head, tentacles, etc.
They also have efficient digestive, excret ory, circulatory, and nervous
systems. Some have eyes.
Many annelid worms are known only from Cambrian and more recent
fossils of horny or hard jaws called scolecodonts, which have been dis-
cussed in a preceding chapter. These bear toothlike grinding surfaces. A
few species of annelid worms are represented by fossils of the limy tubes
in which they hid their soft bodies. These tubes are usually found at-
tached to fossil shells.
Grouped with the annelid worms are several fossils that cannot be
neatly placed on a step of the evolutionary ladder. These include the
conularids, whi ch first appeared i n the earl y Pal eozoi c and became ext i nct
early in the next era. A typi cal conul ari d, such as Conularia, has a thin
phosphati c shell that takes the shape of an el ongat ed Egypt i an pyrami d
perched on its poi nt and resti ng on a disc that hol ds it upri ght.
Arthropods
The course of desti ny turned a deci si ve corner bet ween the worms and the
next phyl umt he Art hropoda. Thi s gi ganti c assembl age of nearl y t hree-
quarters of all known ani mal species i ncl udes the i nsect s, the spi ders,
centi pedes, shri mp, l obst ers, crabs, barnacl es, and tri l obi tes. Art hropods
are segmented like annel i d wor ms, but t hey wear hor ny, j oi nt ed armor
that allows the body to move yet support s it like a skel et on. It also
protects the tissues f rom dehydrat i on i n the air. Thi s armor i s st rengt hened
i n certai n spots by deposi ts of carbonat es and phosphat es. Art hropods
mol t this exoskel et on peri odi cal l y as they grow.
Complete trilobites are rare; their bodies were easily broken apart by scavengers or
ocean currents. This specimen has started to separate. Calymene slocomi, Ordovician,
Minooka, Illinois.
Art hropods take their na me " j oi nt l e gs " f r om the paired j oi nted legs
or specialized appendages such as j aws, l i mbs, cl aws, or ant ennae at-
tached to the body. I nsect s have wi ngs i n addition to legs. The typical
art hropod has a head f ormed of several fused segment s, a mi dsecti on or
t horax, and one or more post eri or secti ons. Thei r evol uti onary progress i s
reflected in the possessi on of a mout h, di gesti ve, and excret ory systems,
a heart , brai n, and ei ther si mpl e or compound eyes. Some even possess
sound- det ect i ng organs. A hi ghl y successful syst em of tubes that take
oxygen di rectl y to the tissues has made it possi bl e f or i nsects to inhabit
nearl y every regi on of the earth.
T R I L O B I T E S
The sudden appearance of the tri l obi tes, most anci ent of the arthropods,
i n the Cambri an rocks demonst rat es dramati cal l y how much evol uti onary
hi st ory must have been lost. Such hi ghl y devel oped organi sms must have
evol ved over mi l l i ons of years f rom si mpl er f orms that left little record of
their ancest ry. Wel l - advanced brachi opods and mol l usks are f ound with the
The cephalon is usually sufficient to identify a trilobite. The shape, type of eyes,
shape of the nose, or glabella, and the ornamentation will identify the species. This
is Dalmanites, a highly ornamented species. Silurian; Pegram, Tennessee.
Almost every piece of this slate has a trilobite or part of one in it. The locality, Mt.
Stephen in British Columbia, is famous for its large Cambrian trilobites.
trilobites, so it is probable that their ancestors, too, had not developed
parts durable enough to become fossils.
One small living group of caterpillar-like creatures is believed to be the
cross link between the annelid worms and the trilobites, making this
group, Onychophora, perhaps the oldest surviving form in the phylum
from the environment of 600 million years ago.
Trilobites, distinctive and immensely varied in structure, stand near the
top among fossils that collectors prefer. They were the kings of Paleozoic
seas, then gradually disappeared with the era. Their name calls attention
to the body structure, which consists of three parts or lobes running the
length of the body. Transversely, the body is divided into the head or
cephalon, the middle or thoracic area made up of articulated segments
supported on pairs of legs, and the tail, or pygidium. The cephalon is like
a pudgy face, with cheeks and a raised central area known as the
glabella. If the trilobite is not a blind variety there also are antennae
and eyes. The mouth was on the lower surface of the cephalon so that the
animal could feed as it crawled or swam near the bottom.
As the animal grew it molted its chitinous exoskeleton repeatedly and
Complete trilobites are uncommon, especially of a species such as Phacops, which
molted as it grew. But pieces of the molted armor are common. This is a typical
collection of such pieces. Devonian; Sylvania, Ohio. (Photo Michigan Conservation
Department)
hid away, l i ke a sof t - shel l ed crab, unti l the new coveri ng hardened.
Fossi l s of t en consi st of this di scarded skel et on, or pieces of it. Even when
the whol e ani mal was fossi l i zed, usual l y as a cast , the appendages rarely
were preserved.
The most pri mi ti ve tri l obi tes, such as Olenellus, have a spi ky, rudi-
ment ary pygi di um. The next step up i s represented by the bul bous-faced
f orms of whi ch Dalmanites and Phacops are typi cal . Dalmanites has a
spi ke trailing f rom the rear of its pygi di um. All these species are wide-
spread i n Si l uri an and Devoni an rocks.
The mechani sm by whi ch the tri l obi te shed its ski n evol ved, giving
anot her cri teri on f or cl assi fi cati on. Thi s i s determi ned by the location of
Bumastus, a large trilobite with little ornamentation. These poorly detailed internal
casts are typical of preservation in Midwestern dolomites. The tail, or pygidium, is
at left, the head, or cephalon, at right. Silurian; Chicago.
Barnacles appear to be related to clams, but they are related instead to trilobites,
crabs, and insects. This is Balanus concavus; Miocene; Maryland.
Crinoid stems (columnals) are commonly found as segments or in sections (pictures
at top). Most are round, some are hexagonal or elliptical. Less commonly found are
the basal plates, five- or six-sided, smooth or bumpy, such as the individual ones
(center) or ones joined together (bottom row). A few species have spines (lower right).
A complete crown with stem, calyx, and feathery arms is in center row left.
the creased lines i n the cephal on where the hard coveri ng split. In early
t ypes, the split came al ong one of the lines in such a way that the skin,
as it peeled away, i nt erf ered wi t h the ani mal ' s sight. In later f orms a
bet t er pat t ern was devel oped that did away wi th this i nconveni ence.
Anot her group, the opi st hopari ans, l argest of the tri l obi tes, persisted
t hroughout the Pal eozoi c era. Thes e gi ant s have l eft fossi l s thi rty inches
l ong. At the ot her ext reme were the bl i nd agnost i ds, so tiny that twenty
adul ts woul d find pl ent y of room on a di me. Some tri l obi tes, such as
Paradoxides, di spl ayed a huge head shi el d, Isotelus smoot hed out its
gl abel l a and tail, and its surf ace l ost all vi si bl e trace of its ancestral
segment ed st ruct ure. Bumastus f ol l owed suit.
The tri l obi tes are gone, mi l eposts on the road of evol uti on but as dead
as the Pharaohs. Mor e f ami l i ar as living art hropods are such restaurant
f are as l obst ers, shri mp, and crayfi sh, and their compani on scavengers
of the seas, the wat er fl eas.
Al l i ed to t hem are the ost r acodsmi nut e living and fossil clamlike
Crinoid attachments are uncommon as fossils except for Eucalyptocrinus, which has
left many fossils of its "roots," especially in the Silurian of the Midwest. Silurian;
Waldron, Indiana.
forms mentioned in the chapter on microfossils. Ost racods are abundant
in both fresh and salt water and have left their shells in rocks of all
periods since the Ordovician. Several other groups are akin to the ost ra-
cods, but only the fairy and brine shrimps and water fleas among them
are known as fossils.
Strange as it may seem, barnacles (Cirripeda), the curse of the ships of
olden days, are true arthropods. Anatomically they are crustaceans, but
this is evident only in the free-swimming larvae. The relationship is con-
cealed because barnacles cover themselves with limy plates after settling
down on some suitable permanent support where they grow with un-
paralleled rapidity. Their conelike fossils have been present in rocks since
the Silurian period.
Crabs, lobsters, and shrimp of the sea, the crayfish of fresh wat ers,
and the pill bugs of damp spots on land constitute the class of mal acost ra-
cans. Hard shells from this group, especially the shrimp of the sea, appear
as fossils as far back as the Devonian. Crabs and lobsters are a much more
recent development.
Horseshoe crabs have changed little in the last 300 million years. This specimen of
Euproops resembles the much larger horseshoe crab common today on the Eastern
shore of the United States. Pennsylvanian; from a concretion found in Mazon Creek,
Illinois.
S C O R P I O N S A N D S P I D E R S
The most fascinating fossil arthropods, except for the trilobites, fall into
the divisions dominated by the scorpions and insects. Granddaddy here
is Limulus, the horseshoe crab, which can call fossils from Devonian time
its forebears. Like Limulus, these have a broad oval body terminated by
a spiky tail. They recall the ancient scorpionlike animals known as
eurypterids, which had their proudest moment s in the Silurian period.
Monst ers several feet long with front claws shaped like paddles, they
have been called the terror of ancient seas. Before becoming extinct they
moved into rivers and brackish swamps.
Living reminders of these monstrous ancestors are the spiders and
scorpions of today. These have eight legs, which is one easy way to
distinguish them from the insects, which have six. Scorpions and spiders,
like insects, have tracheae (air passages) to carry oxygen to the tissues.
Many build webs.
Scorpions and wingless insects may have been the first air-breathing
Canal construction in New York State in the early nineteenth century exposed
splendid fossils of eurypterids, some a foot long. This is Eurypterus lacustris; Silurian;
New York. (Photo Field Museum of Natural History)
animals and the first to undertake conquest of the land. Later, perhaps,
snails and worms followed their lead.
The first fossil record of the scorpions has been found in Silurian rocks,
a period in which spiders were also making their debut. Centipedes occur
in Pennsylvanian rocks and in the Oligocene amber from the Baltic sea.
I NSECTS
But all these other arthropods are exceeded in numbers and in ubiquity
by the insects, which are the only invertebrates as well adapted to this
earth as man himself, perhaps even better. If man should eventually go
the way of the dinosaurs, possibly by being overly clever with nuclear
weapons, the insects would appear to be the heirs to his earthly domain.
Flying on wings, with an efficient system of getting air to the tissues, light
in body weight, and so variable and adaptable that there are perhaps a
million species, they have made themselves at home everywhere that man
has gone. Their rapid evolution has helped many species to become im-
mune to insecticides and vast doses of radiation in the past thirty years.
Wi nged insects were preceded by some wingless forms, of which the
silverfish is a cont emporary example. The winged species made their bow
in Pennsylvanian times, although paleontologists expect to find traces of
them in Mississipian and even Devonian strata. Coal Age forests heard
the hum of giant dragonflies with wingspreads of more than two feet.
Cont emporary with them were cockroaches that would be ashamed of their
puny present-day descendants, and grasshoppers and crickets. The Penn-
sylvanian period has often been called the age of cockroaches, with some
800 species differing little from their descendants today. As one paleontol-
ogist remarked: "Imagi ne a boarding house in the Pennsylvanian period. "
The first winged insects were limited by inability to fold their wings;
grasshopper-like insects appear to have been among the first to solve this
problem.
The next period, the Permian, brought forth the beetles, followed by
flies, bees, and wasps in the Jurassic, and moths and butterflies in the early
Cenozoic-
Early insects are not common fossils because of the fragility of their
bodies, but exceptionally favorable circumstances for preservation existed
in some places. Highly prized fossils have been found in Pennsylvanian
rocks in coal mines of Illinois and Indiana, in amber from the Cretaceous
of New Jersey, in Permian lake beds of central Kansas, in the Oligocene
lake deposits of Colorado, and in Miocene nodules of California.
Echinoderms
Animals grouped in the next phylum, the echinoderms, unlike the insects,
stayed in the sea. Some are still t here: the sea urchins, feather and brittle
stars, starfish, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and crinoids. Some, such as the
eagerly sought edrioasteroids, cystoids, and blastoids, no longer exist ex-
cept as fossils.
These animals, whose phylum name means "spi ny ski nned, " almost live
by man' s decimal system. They build on a plan of five; most of them have
fivefold body symmet ry. Their skeletons of calcite, like the skeletons of
vertebrates, grow to keep up with the growt h of the organism. A well-
developed and complex wat er- vascul ar system provides pressure to the
tube feet and aids in respiration. Digestive, nervous, and reproductive sys-
tems are efficiently organized. In arrangement of the body cavity and in
some other ways, the echinoderms appear to be related to the most primi-
tive chordates, which are predecessors of the vertebrates and, eventually,
man.
Some echinoderms, such as the crinoids, attached themselves to the sea
bottom by a fairly stiff stemlike support as much as fifty feet long. Ot hers,
including most modern crinoids, are free-swimming. Most of the fixed
forms of crinoids, eocrinoids, blastoids, and cystoids are known only as
fossils as far back as Cambri an times. Like many other organisms in
Echinoids are not common fossils before the Mesozoic. Urchins and sand dollars,
such as those from the Texas Cretaceous shown in the upper row, are like modern
examples. The spines and isolated plates are more difficult to identify. The plates
resemble crinoid plates with a tubercle in the center where the spines were attached,
and the spines have swollen bases and often tiny spines or ridges. The jaw, called
Aristotle's lantern, is shown below the large urchin. When found alone it is not easy
to associate with echinoids.
Cambri an rocks, they obviously developed from ancestors that have not
been preserved, or at least have never been found. Of the fixed forms,
only crinoids survived the Paleozoic era; other echinoderms reached their
peak after the older forms were gone.
Thousands of fossil crinoids, blastoids, and cystoids are known. They
are classified primarily by the structure of the plates that enclose the body,
particularly the basal plates. One group, the carpoids that existed in
Cambri an to Devonian times, had stems that resemble tails. Another from
the early Cambri an, the edrioasteroids, resemble starfish perched on disc-
like bodies. They persisted until Pennsylvanian times.
Cystoids and blastoids have some common features. They evolved from
primitive cystoids with irregularly placed body plates and indistinct sym-
Blastoids were unsuccessful relatives of crinoids and disappeared before the end of
the Paleozoic. They are easy to identify by their five grooves and their small, rounded
shape. Most common is Pentremites, upper row. Orbitremites, at lower left, and
Schizoblastus, at lower right, are less common. Mississippian; Illinois.
metry into the highly organized blastoids, such as the common Pentre-
mites, with its distinctive five grooves from the mout h opening down the
side of the body. Wi t h such a shape, it is not surprising that they are
often mistaken for fossil hickory nuts. Like crinoids, they formed marine
associations with corals, bryozoans, and brachiopods. Blastoids disappeared
before the end of the Paleozoic era along with the never very successful
cystoids and nearly all crinoid species.
Fossil crinoids are distinguished from blastoids and cystoids by the
more substantial nature of crinoid stems and by possession of elaborately
feathered arms. The body of a typical Paleozoic crinoid is covered by a
symmetrical arrangement of limy plates. This body, the calyx, is topped
by a mouth and a fringe of branched feathery arms. They resemble a
stemmed flower complete with petals; hence they came to be called sea
lilies. The feathery arms waved rhythmically in the wat er, supporting the
animal and helping it to move. Crinoids, although they were sensitive to
touch, lacked eyes. During the hundreds of millions of years that they
flourished, they developed a great variety of size and shape of arm st ruc-
Stem segments of Pennsylvanian crinoids cover the surface of this hillside near
Holdenville, Oklahoma.
hire and of the cross section of the stem, but by the end of the Paleozoic
era they were almost extinct.
Classification of the more than 700 genera of fossil crinoids raises dif-
ficult problems about their evolutionary relationships. Classification is
based on the structure of the plates of the calyx where they join the stem,
on the branching of the arms, and the cross section and shape of the stem.
The names of most genera are easily recognized because they end in the
syllablescrinus or crinites.
The holothuroids (sea cucumbers) are echinoderms, but they do not
play an important role as fossils because they have no readily preserved
hard parts, other than microscopic spines embedded in their skin. They
may be thought of as crinoids that have fallen on their sides. Starfish,
which first appeared in the Ordovician rocks, break up easily, like crin-
oids, and for this reason well-preserved specimens are moderately rare.
They have been likened to crinoids that abandoned the stalked way of life,
turned over on their faces, and developed feet.
Primitive starfish had broad arms covered with feathery structures like
the arms of crinoids. In later types the arms became more slender and the
animal developed tube feet. The ophiuroids, or brittle stars, changed the
pattern further with a body disc from which the five slender whiplike arms
writhed. Wi t h these arms the starfish pulls itself along and grasps its prey.
One of the many fine fossils of Devonian starfish in slate from Bundenbach, Germany.
Echinoids (sea urchins) and their flattened kin, the sand dollars, build
hollow, boxlike skeletons of limy plates to which rods or spines are at-
tached with articulated joints. Five food grooves radiate from the center
of the upper side toward the mout h on the lower side. The spines protect
the animal, gather food, and are the organs for stilted walking. The points
of attachment are marked with small knobs on the surface of the skeleton.
For grinding food, the urchins evolved a curiously complicated toothed
mechanism known as "Ari st ot l e' s l ant ern, " which works somewhat like a
garbage-disposal unit.
In the Jurassic period, echinoids displayed rebellious evolutionary traits
that produced such irregular forms as the furry sand dollars and the bur-
rowing heart urchins of today. Like some other fossil echinoderms, early
sea urchins are not well preserved, but later forms had tougher frame-
works that survived, becoming common fossils in Cretaceous rocks.
Graptolites
The graptolites, constituting a mysterious and extinct phylum of sea ani-
mals, occupy the apex of the invertebrate world. Their fossils are little
more than a carbon film in black slates and shales of the early Paleozoic
era. They got their name, which means "wri t i ng on st one, " because they
resemble pencil marks. Detailed investigation revealed that these tracings
had been complex colonies of small cuplike animals with a hollow nerve
cord like a rudimentary spinal column. The graptolite colonies, at least in
some species, drifted just below the surface of the sea buoyed up by a
bladderlike float.
Their visceral resemblance to living marine wormlike animals known as
pterobranchs, and to sea squirts and acorn worms, which may be in the
line of ancestry of the vertebrates, gives them a much greater significance
than their insignificance as fossils had suggested. The graptolites are now
classified as fossils akin to these living forms, even though there remains
much to learn about them.
One graptolite genus known in Nort h America is Dictyonema, from the
Ordovician period, which was the zenith of graptolite development. It
grew as a lacy structure of branches connected with crossbars into a bell-
like shape. The bell probably hung by a thread from a disc. The branches
were made up of short tubes covered with a chitinous material. Some other
graptolites apparently had a disclike foot that held them to the sea bot t om.
Graptolites, which disappeared in the Mississippian period, are found
more commonly in black shale laid down where oxygen was lacking than
in other rocks. They are the only common fossil of many hard black shales.
Not a fossil hacksaw blade, but the serrated fossil graptolite Tetrograptus. Most
grapolite fossils are scarcely wider than a pencil line and are usually preserved
as a black carbon film. This unusual specimen is white on black Silurian shale and
is from Norway.
These are the major divisions of invertebrates, from the algae to the
threshold of the vertebrate phylum that includes man. Aft er untold and
unknown millions of years of almost unrecorded development, nearly all
the phyla suddenly made their marks in the rocks of the Cambrian period,
filled the oceans with teeming life, and brought forth hardy species that
ventured onto land and prepared the way for life as we know it today.
The diversity of animal life increased steadily from the Cambrian into
the Silurian period, fluctuated into the Permian that ended the Paleozoic
era, declined in the Triassic of the Mesozoic era, then expanded from the
Jurassic period into the Cenozoic era. Today it is much greater than at any
time before the end of the Mesozoic era. The great procession has been
marching a long way and a long time, but it is still going strong.
APPENDIX
STATE MAPS SHOWING FOSSIL AREAS
Maps on the following pages were drawn for this book by Betty Craw-
ford of Mansfield, Ohi o. Included are maps of all states in the continental
United States which have extensive areas of fossil-bearing rocks. Most
states in the Nort heast have few or no fossiliferous rocks, hence are not
included in the maps.
These maps locate areas where the rocks exposed or near the surface are
of such a nature that they may contain fossils of interest to the collector.
Not only will these maps serve as a guide to such areas, but they are use-
ful to approximate the geologic age of any fossil found in place. This can
be determined by finding on the maps the locality where the fossil was
collected, and then using the key below. The maps are necessarily general
in their descriptions and should be supplemented with large-scale geologic
maps for precise identification, particularly in mountainous regions where
outcrops are often small. Once the approximate age of a fossil is deter-
mined in this way, identification is much easier.
The maps appear in the alphabetical order of the names of the states.
Some maps, however, include more than one state. Use the list below to
find the maps you wish to consult.
Al abama 289 Nebraska 305
Arizona 290 Nevada 306
Arkansas 291 New Jersey 297
California 292 New Mexi co 307
Col orado 293 New Yor k 308
Del aware 317 Nort h Carolina 309
Florida 294 Nort h Dakot a 310
Georgia 289 Ohio 311
Idaho 295 Okl ahoma 312
Illinois 296 Oregon 313
Indiana 296 Pennsylvania 314
Iowa 297 South Carolina 309
Kansas 298 South Dakot a 310
Kent ucky 299 Tennessee 299
Louisiana 300 Texas 315
Maryl and 317 Ut ah 316
Michigan 301 Virginia 317
Mi nnesot a 302 Washi ngt on 318
Mississippi 300 Wisconsin 319
Missouri 303 West Virginia 317
Mont ana 304 Wyomi ng 320
2 8 8
290 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS ARIZONA
ARKANSAS APPENDIX
291
292 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS CALIFORNIA
COLORADO APPENDIX 293
294 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS FLORIDA
IDAHO APPENDIX 295
296 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS ILLINOIS, INDIANA
IOWA, NEW JERSEY APPENDIX
297
2
9
8

F
O
S
S
I
L
S

F
O
R

A
M
A
T
E
U
R
S

K
A
N
S
A
S

KENTUCKY, TENNESSEE APPENDIX 299
300 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS LOUISIANA, MISSISSIPPI
MICHIGAN APPENDIX 301
302 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS MINNESOTA
MISSOURI APPENDIX 303
3
0
4

F
O
S
S
I
L
S

F
O
R

A
M
A
T
E
U
R
S

M
O
N
T
A
N
A

NEBRASKA A P P E N D I X 3 0 5
306 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS NEVADA
NEW MEXICO APPENDIX 307
308 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS NEW YORK
N
O
R
T
H

C
A
R
O
L
I
N
A
,

S
O
U
T
H

C
A
R
O
L
I
N
A

A
P
P
E
N
D
I
X

3
0
9

310 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS NORTH DAKOTA, SOUTH DAKOTA
OHIO APPENDIX 3 1 1
3
1
2

F
O
S
S
I
L
S

F
O
R

A
M
A
T
E
U
R
S

O
K
L
A
H
O
M
A

OREGON APPENDIX 313
3
1
4

F
O
S
S
I
L
S

F
O
R

A
M
A
T
E
U
R
S

P
E
N
N
S
Y
L
V
A
N
I
A

TEXAS APPENDIX 315
316 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS UTAH
D
E
L
A
W
A
R
E
,

M
A
R
Y
L
A
N
D
,

V
I
R
G
I
N
I
A
,

W
E
S
T

V
I
R
G
I
N
I
A

A
P
P
E
N
D
I
X

3
1
7

318 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS WASHINGTON
WISCONSIN APPENDIX 319
3
2
0

F
O
S
S
I
L
S

F
O
R

A
M
A
T
E
U
R
S

W
Y
O
M
I
N
G

PUBLIC SOURCES OF FURTHER I NFORMATI ON
BY STATE
(See also "Specific Location Gui des" under Recommended Books)
Al abama: Geological Survey, P. O. Drawer O, University 35486.
Al aska: Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Mines and Geology, P. O.
Box 5-300, College 99701.
Arizona: Bureau of Mines, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721.
Arkansas: Geological Commission, State Capitol, Little Rock 72119.
California: Division of Mines and Geology, Resources Building, Room
1341, 1416 Ninth Street, Sacrament o 95814.
Col orado: Bureau of Mines, 316 State Services Building, Denver 80202.
Connecticut: Geological and Nat ural History Survey, Box 128, Wesl eyan
Station, Middletown 06457.
Del aware: Geological Commission, University of Delaware, Newark 19711.
Florida: Geological Survey, Box 631, Tallahassee 32304.
Georgia: Depart ment of Mines, Mining and Geology, Agricultural Labora-
tory Building, 19 Hunt er St. , S. W. , At l ant a 30334.
Hawaii: claims to have no fossils.
321
322 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION
Idaho: Depart ment of Public Lands, Boise 83707.
Illinois: Geological Survey, Nat ural Resources Building, Urbana 61801.
Indiana: Geological Survey, 611 N. Wal nut Street, Bloomington 47401.
Iowa: Geological Survey, Geological Survey Building, Iowa City 52240.
Kansas: Geological Survey, University of Kansas, Lawrence 66044.
Kent ucky: Depart ment of Nat ural Resources, 209 St. Clair Street, Frank-
fort 40601.
Louisiana: Geological Survey, Box 8847, University Station, Baton Rouge
70803.
Mai ne: Depart ment of Economic Development, State House, Augusta
04330.
Mar yl and: Geological Survey, Latrobe Hall, Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore 21218.
Massachuset t s: no geological agency.
Mi chi gan: Depart ment of Nat ural Resources, Stevens T. Mason building,
Lansing 48926.
Mi nnesot a: Geological Survey, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
55414.
Mississippi: Geological Survey, 2525 Nort h Wes t Street, Jackson 39205.
Mi ssouri : Division of Geological Survey and Wat er Resources, Box 250,
Rolla 65401.
Mont ana: Bureau of Mines and Geology, College of Mineral Science and
Technol ogy, Butte 59701.
Nebr aska: Conservation and Survey Division, University of Nebraska,
113 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln 68508.
Nevada: Bureau of Mines, University of Nevada, Reno 89507.
New Hampshi re: Depart ment of Resources and Economic Development,
Division of Economic Development, James Hall, University of New
Hampshi re, Durham 03824.
New Jersey: Depart ment of Conservation and Economic Development,
Bureau of Geology and Topography, Box 1889, Trent on 08625.
New Mexi co: Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, Campus Station,
Socorro 87801.
New Yor k: University of the State of New York, State Museum and
Science Service, Al bany 12224.
Nort h Carol i na: Mineral Resources Division, Depart ment of Conservation
and Development, Raleigh 22607.
Nor t h Dakot a: State Geologist, University of Nort h Dakota, Grand Forks
58202.
Ohi o: Geological Survey, 155 South Oval Drive, Ohio State University,
Columbus 43210.
Okl ahoma: Geological Survey, University of Okl ahoma, Norman 73069.
DEALERS IN FOSSILS APPENDIX 323
Oregon: Depart ment of Geology and Mineral Industries, 1 0 6 9 State Office
Building, Portland 9 7 2 0 1 .
Pennsylvania: Bureau of Topographi c and Geologic Survey, Mai n Capitol
Annex, Harrisburg 17120.
Rhode Island: Depart ment of Nat ural Resources, Vet erans' Memori al
Building, Providence 0 2 9 0 3 .
South Carolina: State Development Board, Division of Geology, Box 927,
Columbia 29202.
South Dakot a: Geological Survey, Science Center, University of South
Dakota, Vermillion 5 7 0 6 9 or Depart ment of Hi ghways, Pierre 5 7 5 0 1 .
Tennessee: Depart ment of Conservation, Division of Geology, G-5 State
Office Building, Nashville 3 7 2 1 9 .
Texas: Hi ghway Depart ment , 11t h and Brazos Street, Austin 7 8 7 1 1 .
Ut ah: Geological and Mineralogical Survey, 200 Mines Building, Univer-
sity of Ut ah, Salt Lake City 84102.
Vermont : Geological Survey, East Hall, University of Vermont , Burlington
05401.
Virginia: State Geologist, Division of Mineral Resources, Box 3667,
Charlottesville 22903.
Washi ngt on: Depart ment of Nat ural Resources, Box 168, Olympia 9 8 5 0 1 .
W
r
est Virginia: Geological and Economic Survey, Box 879, Mor gant own
26505.
Wi sconsi n: Geological and Natural Survey, 1815 University Avenue,
Madison 53706.
Wyomi ng: Geological Survey, University of Wyomi ng, Box 3008, Univer-
sity Station, Laramie 82070.
DEALERS IN FOSSILS
Geological Enterprises, Box 996, Ardmore, Oklahoma 73401
Specialist in rare and unusual fossils from many localities. Has very wide
variety of very fine specimens. Catalog $2.00; museum specimen cata-
log $1.00.
Fossils Unlimited; 9925 Highway 80 west, Fort Worth, Texas 76116
Good selection of fossils, primarily Texas Cretaceous. Free catalog.
Malicks Fossils, 5514 Plymouth Road, Baltimore, Maryland 21214
Very large variety of fossils. Supplier to many schools. Has over 6000
species described in catalog, $2.00.
Mid-America Rock Shop, 4503 N. Milwaukee Ave. Chicago, Illinois 60630
Good variety of all types of fossils.
324 FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS RECOMMENDED BOOKS
Gl en' s Gems , 139 Nor t h Lassen St reet , Wi l l ows, Cal i f orni a 95988
Fossils of all t ypes.
Ray' s Fossi l s, Box 1364, Ocal a, Florida 32670
Wi de vari et y of Florida fossi l s. Mai l - order onl y.
Russel's Fossils, P.O. Box 593, Mechanic St., Barre, Me. 01005
Good variety of fossils from many localities.
War d' s Nat ural Sci ence Est abl i shment , P. O. Box 1712, Rochest er, New
Yor k 14603
Pri mari l y a suppl i er of speci mens and sets to school s. Has hundreds of
speci es sold i ndi vi dual l y, as well as col l ecti ons. Ver y l arge cat al og; write
f or pri ce.
In addi ti on, many rock shops carry limited numbers of fossi l speci mens,
of t en l ocal l y col l ected. A compl et e list of all Nor t h Ameri can rock shops
is carri ed in each Apri l i ssue of the Lapidary Journal.
Beaver Hood Co., P. O. Box 1481, Portland, Oregon 97207.
Specialist in plant fossils and named petrified woods.
Rocky Mountain Fossil Shop, 769V2 N. Hodgeman, Laramie, Wyoming 82070
Primarily Mesozoic and Cenozic fossils.
Roger Bowin, 24 Park Ave., Middleport, New York 14105
Catalog 25tf.
Southern Fossils, P. O. Box 5086, Huntsville, Alabama 35805
Specializing in invertebrates from the Southeast. Free catalog.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
For General Reading
Adams , Al exander B. Eternal Quests. New Yor k: Put nam, 1968
The st ory of the great nat ural i st s. Wel l - wri t t en bi ographi es, including
many of the gi ant s of pal eont ol ogy.
Dar wi n, Charl es. On the Origin of the Species. Vari ous edi ti ons, 1859.
A cl assi c on evol ut i on.
Ei sel ey. Loren C. The Immense Journey. New Yor k: Random House, 1946.
A work of l i terature on the emergence and progress of l i fe.
Gei ki e, Si r Archi bal d. The Founders of Geology. New Yor k: Dover paper-
back, 1962 (first pub. 1897).
A mast er of sci ence and l i terary st yl e tells of the men who discovered
secrets of the eart h.
Hapgood, Charl es H. Earth's Shifting Crust. New Yor k: Pant heon, 1958.
A f asci nat i ng t heory, caref ul l y document ed, about how the crust of the
eart h is abl e to slip great di st ances, causi ng ice ages and great exti ncti ons
of l i fe.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS APPENDIX 325
Krut ch, J oseph Wood. Grand Canyon. New Yor k: Sl oane, 1958.
A noted wri ter descri bes the Gr and Canyon and its geol ogi cal si g-
nificance.
Lanham, Url. The Bone Hunters. Columbia University Press, 1973
Interesting stories about all the early fossil-bone hunters.
Ley, Wi l l y. Dragons in Amber. New Yor k: Vi ki ng, 1951.
Interesti ng and compl et e st ory of amber.
Matthews, William H. III. A Guide to the National Parks: Their Landscape and
Geology. Doubleday Natural History Press, 1973. A very good buy. Dis-
cusses the climate, scenery, wildlife and history as well as the geology.
Mi l l er, Hugh. The Old Red Sandstone. Vari ous edi t i ons; first pub. 1841.
Superb wri ti ng, mast erpi ece of the man who was perhaps geol ogy' s
greatest wri ter.
Os bor n, Henry F. Men of the Old Stone Age. New Yor k: Scri bner, 3d ed.
1919.
Superb wri ti ng about anci ent man and his ani mal nei ghbors.
Time-Life Books. Life Before Man. Little, Brown, 1972.
Photos of fossils and fossil-hunters.
Wendt , Herbert . Before the Deluge. New Yor k: Doubl eday, 1968.
Popul ar account of geol ogy and its f ounders, wri t t en i n an anecdot al
styl e.
General Geology and Paleontology
August a, J osef and Buri an. Prehistoric Animals. London: 1956.
Handsomel y illustrated and i magi nat i vel y wri t t en f or the young.
Bayl y, Bri an. Introduction to Petrology. Engl ewood Cl i f f s, N. J . : Prent i ce-
Hal l , 1968.
Excel l ent chapt ers on sedi ment ary rocks.
Beerbower, J ames R. Search for the Past. Engl ewood Cl i f f s, N. J . : Prent i ce-
Hal l , 1960.
One of the most readabl e, wi t t y nont echni cal books , well i l l ustrated wi t h
drawi ngs of bot h vert ebrat e and i nvert ebrat e f ossi l s, posi ng many un-
solved probl ems of pal eont ol ogy.
Brouwer, A. General Paleontology. U. of Chi cago Press, 1959.
Excel l ent on pal eontol ogi cal t heory, by a Dut ch schol ar.
Buchsbaum, Ral ph. Animals Without Backbones. U. of Chi cago Press, 2d
ed. 1948.
Hi ghl y readabl e text about living i nvert ebrat es, val uabl e i n underst and-
ing rel ati onshi ps among fossi l i nvert ebrat es.
Cargo-Mallory. Man and his Geologic Environment. Massachusetts: Addi son
Wesley, 1973.
The best book showing how geology affects man and his cities.
Casanova, Richard. An Illustrated Guide to Fossil Collecting. Healdsburg,
Calif. : Nat uregraph, new ed. 1970.
A good place to start, with much practical advice and a short list of
locations.
Case, Gerard R. Handbook of Fossil Collecting. New Jersey: 2 2 5 St. Pauls Ave.,
Jersey City 07306:1972.
A pictorial guide for amateurs.
Clark, T. H. , and C. W. Stern. Geological Evolution of North America.
New Yor k: Ronald, 2d ed. 1960
Good general textbook with much about fossils.
Colbert, Edwin H. Dinosaurs. New Yor k: Dut t on, 1961.
Tops in its field.
. Men and Dinosaurs. New Yor k: Dutton, 1968.
The great dinosaur hunters and their prey.
Croneis, Carey, and W. C. Krumbein. Down to Earth. U. of Chicago Press,
1936.
An introductory textbook that is informal and yet covers the subject.
Dunbar, Carl O. Historical Geology. New Yor k: Wi l ey, 2d ed. 1960.
College-level textbook with emphasis on fossils. Strong on definition and
the physical geology of paleontology.
Fenton, Carroll and Mildred. The Fossil Book. New Yor k: Doubleday,
1958.
Superbly illustrated, an excellent nontechnical general discussion of
fossi l swhat they are and how they occur. It has general value as an
identification text.
Flint, Richard P. Glacial and Pleistocene Geology. New Yor k: Wiley, 1957.
Good chapter on Pleistocene fossils and good general background.
Hurley, Patrick M. How Old Is the Earth. New Yor k: Anchor paperback,
1959.
Readable, nontechnical discourse on geologic time and how it is
determined.
King, Philip B. The Evolution of North America. Princeton U. Press, 1959.
Scholarly study of the geological history of the continent.
Kummel , Bernhard. History of the Earth. San Franci sco: Freeman, 2d ed.
1970.
College-level textbook.
Mat t hews, W. H. III. Wonders of Fossils. New Yor k: Dodd, 1968.
A good book for the beginning young collector.
. Fossils: An Introduction to Prehistoric Life. New Yor k: Barnes &
Noble, paperback 1962.
Recommended introductory book on paleontology, acceptably illustrated
and well rounded in material and presentation.
Moore, Raymond C. Introduction to Historical Geology. New Yor k: Mc-
Graw-Hill, 2d ed. 1958.
One of the best college-level textbooks by an outstanding authority on
fossils, well illustrated.
Moore, Ruth. Time, Man and Fossils. New Yor k: Knopf, 1953.
Good on evolutionary theory and geological time dating.
Oakley, Kenneth P. Frameworks for Dating Fossil Man. Chi cago: Aldine,
2d ed. 1966.
Comprehensive study of the dating of sedimentary rock deposits.
Rahm, David A. Reading the Rocks: a Guide to the Geologic Secrets of Canyons,
Mesas and Buttes of the American Southwest.
California: Sierra Club, 1974.
A guide to the geologist's paradise the Colorado Plateau.
Richards, Horace. Record of the Rocks. New Yor k: Ronald, 1953.
Excellent on the geology of the eastern United St at es; well illustrated.
Scheele, William E. Prehistoric Animals. New Yor k: Worl d, 1954.
Handsomely illustrated account of all ancient animals except mammal s.
For young people.
Simpson, George Gaylord. Life of the Past. Yale U. Press, paperback, 1953.
Perhaps the most enjoyable introduction to paleontology. An outstand-
ing scientist explains his subject for the general reader and student.
Stirton, R. A. Time, Life and Man. New Yor k: Wiley, 1959.
Readable college text also of interest to adult readers.
Stokes, William Lee. Essentials of Earth History. Prentice-Hall, 3rd ed. 1973.
One of the better-written historical geology college textbooks.
Thenius, Erich. Fossils and Life of the Past. Springer-Verlag, 1973.
Translated from German. Explores the importance, methods, and limitations
of paleontological research.
Fossil Identification and Specialized Resource Books
Andrews, H. N. Jr. Studies in Paleobotany. New Yor k: Wiley, 1961.
Reference work on fossil plants.
Arnold, C. A. Introduction to Paleobotany. New Yor k: McGraw- Hi l l , 1947.
Nontechnical guide to a difficult field; well illustrated.
Camp, C. L., and G. D. Hanna. Methods in Paleontology. U. of Calif.
Press, 1937
Helpful for collecting and preparing fossils.
Case, Gerard. Fossil Shark and Fish Remains of North America. Self-
published, 1969.
Well-illustrated identification guide to fossil fish likely to be found by
the amateur collector.
Cushman, Joseph. Foraminifera. Harvard U. Press, 4th ed. 1948.
Reference work of value in understanding these microfossils.
Darrah, W. C. Principles of Paleobotany. New Yor k: Ronald, 2d ed. 1960.
College text.
Glaessner, M. F. Principles of Micropaleontology. New Yor k: Wiley, 1947.
Advanced guide to techniques.
Jones, Darnell J. Introduction to Microfossils. New Yor k: Harper, 1956.
Useful for techniques of collection and identification of the minifossils.
Knowl t on, Frank H. Plants of the Past. Princeton U. Press, 1957.
Nontechnical account of fossil plants.
Kummel , Bernhard, and David Raup. Handbook of Paleontological Tech-
niques. San Franci sco: Freeman, 1955.
Advanced text of some general use, primarily designed for museums
and universities with extensive equipment.
Langford, George. Wilmington Coal Flora. ESCONI Associates, Chicago,
1958.
The most extensive, well-illustrated identification book for Pennsylvan-
ian plant fossils found in the Midwest.
Moor e, Raymond C, C. G. Lalicker, and A. G. Fisher. Invertebrate Fossils.
New Yor k: McGraw- Hi l l , 1953.
College text, many useful illustrations of common fossils
Moor e, Raymond C. Treatise of Invertebrate Paleontology. U. of Kansas
and Geol. Society of Ameri ca, various dates.
A lengthy series of books, highly technical, each treating a major group
of invertebrate fossils. They are designed to illustrate and discuss every
genus of invertebrate fossils known in the world. The series is almost
complete, and is the ultimate general series for fossil determination to
generic level.
Romer, Alfred. Man and the Vertebrates. Bal t i more: Penguin paperback, 2
vols. , 1954 (1st pub. 1933).
Excellent account of man' s place in the scheme of things.
Vertebrate Paleontology. U. of Chicago Press, 3rd ed. 1966.
The classic college text on fossils with backbones, useful also for identi-
fication of some vertebrate fossils with its excellent illustrations.
Shimer, H. W. , and R. R. Shrock. Index Fossils of North America. New
Yor k: Wi l ey, 1944.
The maj or single-book source for identification of fossils to specific level.
Probably 90 percent of the invertebrate fossils found by the average
collector can be identified using this book, which has over 700 pages of
illustrated fossils.
Shrock, R. R., and W. H. Twenhofel . Principles of Invertebrate Paleontol-
ogy. New Yor k: McGraw- Hi l l , 1953.
Advanced textbook, well illustrated, of value in identification.
Thomas, R. C. Let's Find Fossils on the Beach. Pub. by aut hor, Veni ce,
Florida, 1961.
A very hel pful i l l ustrated guide f or i denti fi cati on of the t eet h, bones, and
ot her vert ebrat e remai ns f ound on the beaches of the East Coast f rom
New J ersey t o Florida.
Wood, Henry. Invertebrate Paleontology. Cambr i dge U. Press, 1961
(first pub. 1897).
Inexpensi ve paperback ref erence book, by an Engl i sh aut hori t y.
General Location Guides
Douglas, Dale. Midwest Fossils. Colorado: Earth Science Publishing Co. , P. O.
Box 1815, Colorado Springs 80901.1971.
Treats all groups of fossils found in the Midwest, giving much information
and identification of common fossils as well as numerous collecting sites.
Mur r ay, Mari an. Hunting for Fossils. New Yor k: Macmi l l an, 1967.
A st at e- by- st at e account of specific fossi l si tes, wi t h a good bi bl i ography
of state publ i cat i ons.
Rans om, J. E. Fossils in America. New Yor k: Harper, 1964.
A st at e- by- st at e compi l at i on of t housands of l ocati ons gl eaned f r om
ot her publ i cat i ons, some good, some bad.
Specific Location Guides
Al abama: Curious Creatures in Alabama Rocks, a gui debook by C. H.
Copel and J r. Geol . Surv. Al a. Ci rc. 19, 1963.
Ari zona: Paleontological Literature of Arizona, by H. W. Mi l l er J r. U. of
Ari z. Press, 1960.
Ar kans as : Fossils of Arkansas. Bul l eti n 22, Ar kansas St at e Geol ogi cal
Commi ssi on.
Cal i f orni a: Fossils, What they Mean and How to Collect Them. Vol . 13,
No. 7, Mi neral I nf ormat i on Servi ce, Di vi si on of Mi nes , San Franci sco.
" A Pl ea f or Fossil Ver t ebr at es , " by J . R. MacDonal d. Vol . 17, No. 12,
Mi neral I nf ormat i on Servi ce.
Rancho La Brea, by Chest er St ock. Los Angel es Count y Mus eum, 4th
ed. 1949.
Geologic Guidebook of San Francisco Bay Counties, by O. P. J enki ns.
Di vi si on of Mi nes. Ma ny fossi l l ocal i ti es.
Sabertooth Cats and Imperial Mammoths: a Guidebook to Fossil Hunting in
Southern California by J. and L. Macdonald.
Ritchie Press, 474 S. Arroyo Parkway, Pasadena, Cal. 91105,1974.
A Student Guide to Orange Co. Fossils by Carol J. Stadum. From author, 9161
Loma, Villa Park, California 92667,1973.
Col orado: In My Back Yard, by Al Look. U. of Denver Press, 1951.
The dinosaur monument area by an amateur collector.
Fossils, by H. C. Mar kham. Denver Museum of Natural History popular
series no. 3.
Connect i cut : Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley, by R. S. Lull. Geo-
logical and Nat ural Hi st ory Survey Bulletin 81, 1953.
Florida: Vertebrate Fossil Localities in Florida, by S. J. Olson. Florida
Geol. Survey Spec. Pub. No. 12, 1965.
Pliocene Fossils. Geol. Bulletin 40.
Illinois: Field Book, Pennsylvanian Plant Fossils of Illinois, Illinois State
Geol. Survey Educ. Series No. 6.
Guide for Beginning Fossil Hunters. 111. State Geol. Survey Educ. Series
No. 4.
The Past Speaks to You, by Ann Livesay. State Museum, Story of Illi-
nois No. 1, 1951.
Indiana: Adventures with Fossils, by Robert H. Shaver. Indiana Geol.
Survey Circular No. 6, 1959.
Fossil Plants of Indiana, by J. E. Canright. Indiana Geol. Survey Reports
of Progress No. 14, 1959.
Fossils: Prehistoric Animals in Hoosier Rocks, by T. G. Perry. Indiana
Geol. Survey No. 7, 1959.
Iowa: Fossils and Rocks of Eastern Iowa, by J. N. Rose. Iowa Geol. Survey
Educ. Series 1, 1967.
Kansas: Ancient Life found in Kansas Rocks: An Introduction to Common
Kansas Fossils by Kansas Geological Survey, Lawrence, 1975.
Mar yl and: Miocene Fossils of Maryland, by H. E. Vokes. Dept. of Geology
Bulletin 20, 1957.
Mi chi gan: Guide to Michigan Fossils, by R. W. Kelley. Dept. of Conser-
vation.
Mi nnesot a: Minnesota's Rocks and Waters, by G. Schwart z and G. Thiel.
Minn. Geol. Soc. Bulletin No. 37, 1954.
Guide to Fossil Collecting in Minnesota. Geol. Survey Educ. Series No. 1.
Missouri: Common Fossils of Missouri, by A. G. Unklesbay. U. of Mis-
souri Handbook No. 4, 1955.
Mont ana: Rocks and Fossils of Glacier National Park. U. S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 294-K, 1959.
Nebr aska: Record in Rock, a handbook of the invertebrate fossils of Ne-
braska, by Roger Pabian. Educ. Circular No. 1, U. of Nebr. , 1970.
New Jersey: Cretaceous Fossils of New Jersey, by Horace G. Richards.
Bureau of Geol. and Topography Bulletin 61, 1962.
New Yor k: Handbook of Paleontology for Beginners and Amateurs, by
Wi ni fred Goldring. State Museum Handbook No. 9, 1929. Reprinted by
Paleontological Research Labs, 109 Dearborn PI., Ithaca, N. Y.
Popular Guide to the Nature and Environment of the Fossil Vertebrates
of New York, by R. L. Moodie. State Museum Handbook No. 12, 1933.
Ohi o: Ohio Fossils, by A. LaRocque and M. F. Marpl e. Ohio Geol. Bulle-
tin 54, 1955.
Handbook for Teachers of Earth Science, Info. Circular No. 15.
Elementary Guide to the Fossils and Strata of the Ordovician in the
Vicinity of Cincinnati, by Kenneth Caster. Cine. Museum of Nat . Hist. ,
1955.
Pennsylvania: Foss/7 Collecting in Pennsylvania, by D. M. Hoskins. Topo-
graphic and Geol. Survey, General Report G. 40, 1964
South Dakot a: Midwest Gem Trails, by June Zeitner. Ment one, Calif.,
Gem Books.
Texas: Texas Fossils, by William Mat t hews III. Bureau of Economic Geol. ,
U. of Tex. , 1960.
Washi ngt on: Fossils in Washington, by V. E. Livingston Jr. Dept. of Con-
serv. Information Circular No. 33, 1959.
Wi sconsi n: Foss/7 Collecting in Wisconsin, by M. E. Ost row. Geol. Surv.
1961.
Silurian Trilobites of S.E. Wisconsin, by J. E. Emielity. Milwaukee Pub.
Museum, 1963.
NOTE: The preceding list deals with general guides to fossil sites. Many
more specific sites can be obtained from guidebooks for specific field trips,
roadside geology booklets, and descriptions of specific formations and
groups published by the U. S. and state geological surveys or the equivalent
state agency. A listing of their current publications can be obtained by
writing the agencies listed elsewhere in the Appendix.
Magazine Sources
Earth Science. Bimonthly, carrying many excellent articles on fossils. Box
1815 Colorado Springs, Colo. 80901. In addition, excellent booklets have
been made from reprinted fossil articles, all illustrated and many con-
taining fossil locations: Fossils from Our Earth, and Fossils of the Mid-
Continent, each $ 1. 00.
Journal of Paleontology. Published bimonthly by the Society of Economic
Paleontologists, P. O. Box 4756, Tulsa, . Okla. 7 4 1 0 1 . Very technical, pri-
marily describing new fossil species or describing fossils from a specific
locality. Contains much good information on fossil sites and fossil
identification.
Lapidary Journal. P. O. Box 80937, San Diego, Calif. 92138. April issue
carries a complete listing of all rock shops (including fossils and equip-
ment) in the USA, plus listing of all rock clubs in the world.
Miscellaneous
Bibliography of Earth Science Materials, Midwest Fed. of Mineralogical
and Geological Societies, 1969. Comprehensive, detailed list of publica-
tions and maps dealing with fossils and minerals of the Midwest. Peri-
odically revised.
Bibliography of North American Geology, available at most large libraries
or universities. Contains listings of all articles dealing with geology, by
author, state, and title. Published yearly. Very handy for finding
localities.
Geological Society of America, Works in Print, booklet issued describing
available material published by the GSA. P. O. Box 1719, Boulder, Colo.
80302.
Geology and Earth Sciences Sourcebook, Ameri can Geological Institute.
New Yor k: Holt, 1962. A resource book for teachers in secondary
schools of earth science.
Mineral, Fossil and Rock Exhibits and Where to See Them, pamphlet pub-
lished in 1960 by the Ameri can Geological Institute, 2101 Constitution
Ave. N. W. , Washi ngt on, D. C. Annot at ed listing of 12 Canadian and
167 Ameri can museums.
INDEX
absolute time, 7 4 - 7 8 ; compared to rela-
tive time, 69
acetic acid, glacial, 1 7 0 - 3 , 190, 2 2 6
acetone: for mixture to harden shales,
1 4 6 ; in cleaning fossils, 176, 226, 2 2 7 ;
in making peels, 184, 1 8 5 ; as solvent
for liquid resins, 191
acids: cleaning fossils with, 150, 1 6 9 - 7 8 ,
184, 190, 225, 2 2 6 - 7 ; rule for mixing,
173, 178, 1 8 4 ; in making peels, 180,
181, 184
agatized fossils, 106, 1 1 2
age determination by nuclear methods,
see atomic clock
Agricola, Georgius, 13
Alabama: state laws governing collecting,
1 2 9 ; geological map, 2 8 9 ; sources of
further information, 321
Alaska: state laws governing collecting,
1 2 9 ; sources of further information, 321
alcohol, cleaning fossils with, 150, 176,
226, 227
algae agate, 2 3 3
algae fossils, 54, 72, 233, 2 3 5 - 6 , 246, 2 5 0
amateur fossil collectors, value of, to
science, 2, 3, 5 - 9
amber, 8, 31, 44, 2 7 9 - 8 0
American Association of Petroleum Ge-
ologists, Bulletin of, 83
American Museum of Natural History
(New York City), 17
ammonites, 85, 105, 108, 112, 1 1 3 , 1 4 8 ;
in giant shale concretions, 6 5 ; in ordin-
ary concretions, 1 0 6 ; making casts of,
1 9 5 ; giant Cretaceous, 2 6 8
ammonoids, 267
ammonium chloride for whitening fas-
sils, 2 1 3
amphibians, 1 1 4 - 1 5
angiosperms, 242, 2 4 3 - 6
anhydrite fossils, 174
animal burrows, finding fossils in, 1 1 4
animals, classifications of, 2 4 6 - 8 6 passim
Anthracomedusa turnbulli ("Coal Age
jellyfish of Turnbull"), 5
Antiquities Act of 1906, 127
ants, primitive, 8
Archaeopteryx, 32
Archeozoic ("beginning life") era, 71,
78
Archimedes screws, 102, 2 5 5
Aristotle, 12
3 3 3
3 3 4 INDEX
Arizona: state laws governing collecting,
Arkansas: state laws governing collecting,
arthropods, 148, 1 9 3 , 2 7 1 - 8 6
atomic clock, 74, 7 5 - 7 7
automobile, preparing, for collecting trips,
1 1 7 - 1 8
backgrounds for displaying fossils, 2 0 6 - 7
bacteria, fossils of, 233, 2 4 6
ballast (ship), finding fossils in, 1 1 3
barnacles, 72, 2 7 7
beaches, ocean and lake, finding fossils
at, 1 0 6 - 8
Beane, Burnice H., 6 - 7
bees, 2 8 0
beetles, 2 8 0
belemnites in concretions, 65
belemnoids, 2 6 9
bench marks, 136
blastoids, 7, 54, 86, 108, 157, 170, 280,
281, 2 8 2 - 3
boiling with chemicals, cleaning fossils
by, 1 6 7 - 8 , 2 2 5
bones, fossil vertebrate, 47, 95, 99, 106,
112, 113, 148, 2 0 9
books, recommended, for fossil collectors,
198, 3 2 9 - 3 1
borings in fossils, 3 4 - 3 7 ; by snails, 2 6 1 ;
by clams, 266
brachiopods, 7, 22, 27, 84, 85, 86, 89, 92,
95, 99, 192, 105, 108, 143, 148, 157, 169,
170, 172, 174, 218, 220, 2 3 1 , 2 5 6 - 9 , 2 7 2 ;
pyritized, 4 4 ; in sandstone, 4 8 ; in shale,
5 0 ; in limestone, 5 4 ; in steinkerns, 59,
8 1 ; in geodes, 6 8 ; making casts of, 1 9 5
breccia, 47
Brown, Professor W. L., Jr., 8
brushes for cleaning fossils, 142, 1 4 8 - 9 ,
1 5 7 - 8 , 1 6 3 - 4
bryophytes, 236
bryozoans, 7, 37, 146, 157, 170, 180, 188,
2 5 4 ; in limestone, 5 4 ; in chert, 59
Buffon, Count George Louis Leclerc, 13
butterflies, 2 8 0 ; fluorescent, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0
buying fossil specimens, 204, 2 1 6 ; see also
dealers
cabinets for display and storage of fos-
sils, 205
cable trench excavations, finding fossils
at, 1 1 2
calcified fossils, cleaning, 157, 159
California: state laws governing collect-
ing, 1 2 9 ; geological map, 2 9 2 ; sources
of further information, 321
Cambrian period, fossils of, 41, 71, 110,
1 1 1 , 233, 249, 250, 252, 256, 260, 281- 2,
2 8 6 ; fossils of soft animals of, 5 0 ; see
also pre-Cambrian era
canal excavations, finding fossils at, 112
carbon-14 dating method, 7 7 - 7 8
carbonic acid, 169
carbonization, fossils preserved by, 15,
25, 5 0 - 5 2 , 1 8 9
Carpenter, Professor F. M., 8
Caster, Professor K. E., 41
casting models of fossils, 1 9 2 - 7
casts, natural, 15, 2 7 - 3 2 , 80, 265, 2 7 4 ; in
dolomite, 5 9 ; geode centers as, 6 8 ; in
sandstone, 93
casts, plaster, for protection of fragile
fossils, 1 4 3
cataloging and numbering fossils, 2 0 2 - 4
caves, fossil preservation in, 1 1 4
cellulose acetate: for mixture to harden
shales, 1 4 6 ; in making peels, 184, 185
cements: for repairing broken fossils,
1 4 5 ; for mounting fossils, 216, 2 3 0
Cenozoic ("recent life") era, 25, 48, 71,
85, 244, 255, 280, 2 8 6
centipedes, 279
cephalopods, 54, 86, 89, 92, 99, 112, 115,
147, 2 5 9 , 2 6 6 - 9 ; microfossils of, 2 2 4
ceratites, 2 6 8
chalks, 57, 111, 220, 265
chert, 59, 222, 223, 2 3 3
chisel and hammer, removing fossils from
block with, 151, 1 5 5 , 1 8 9
chitons, 2 5 9 - 6 0
clams, 22, 86, 95, 98, 105, 106, 108, 191,
220, 2 3 1 , 2 5 9 ; teredo (boring), 37, 115,
2 6 4 ; rudistid, 43, 2 6 6 ; in shale, 5 0 ; in
limestone, 5 4 ; compared to brachio-
pods, 2 5 7 ; identifying, 265
classifying types of fossilized creatures,
3 9 - 4 4
clastic sediments, 54
clay pits, see shale quarries
cleaning: fossils, 1 4 8 - 7 8 ; microfossils,
2 2 5 - 7
clothing for field trips, 104, 1 1 9
Coal Age, 3, 20, 4 9 - 5 0 , 89, 183, 238, 242,
2 8 0
coal balls, 20, 89, 179, 180, 1 8 3 ; formation
of, 6 6 - 6 7 ; peels from, 1 8 3 - 1 8 8 , 2 4 2
coal deposits in U. S., 8 6 - 8 7
coal mines, finding fossils in, 8 6 - 9 4
INDEX 3 3 5
coccoliths, 246, 247
cockroaches, 2 8 0
coelenterates, 43, 2 5 0 - 3
coin test for silicification, 174
collecting techniques, 1, 6 - 7 , 8, 10
color: in fossils, 7, 17, 22, 25, 44, 2 0 5 ,
2 1 2 ; of fossiliferous rock, 83, 85, 86,
9 2 ; in prehistoric forests, 2 3 9 - 4 0
color slides of fossils, 2 0 9 - 1 1
Colorado: state laws governing collect-
of further information, 321
coloring fossils for photography, 2 1 2 - 1 4
concretions, 1, 3, 50, 85, 92, 105, 148, 1 7 3 ;
formation of, 6 1 - 6 6
conglomerate, composition of, 15, 47, 54
Connecticut: state laws governing collect-
ing, 1 2 9 ; sources of further informa-
tion, 3 2 1 ; see also 2 8 8
conodonts, 168, 172, 217, 2 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 2 5 ,
226, 227, 2 2 8
Conservation Departments, 1 1 7
contour lines on maps, reading, 1 3 5 - 6 ,
141
contrast, improving, for fossil photog-
raphy, 2 1 2 - 1 4
conularids, 2 7 0 - 1
convergence, confusion caused by, 43
coprolites, 3 7 - 3 8 , 1 1 5
coquina rock, 56
corals, 7, 22, 2 3 - 2 4 , 43, 84, 95, 1 0 4 - 5 ,
107, 108, 112, 157, 180, 218, 2 5 0 - 2 ;
boring, 3 7 ; in conglomerate, 4 7 ; reefs
in Silurian limestone, 5 4 - 5 5 , 7 3 ; in
Devonian limestone, 5 7 ; in steinkerns,
5 9 ; in geodes, 68
correlation of rock formations, 72
correlation, Smith's law of, 2 6 8 - 9
crabs, 72, 1 4 8 ; horseshoe, 33, 57, 64, 2 7 8 ;
in concretions, 65, 66
Cretaceous period, fossils of, 25, 57, 85,
98, 105, 106, 2 2 1 , 243, 265, 266, 268,
280, 2 8 5 ; in concretions, 63, 65
crickets 2 8 0
crinoids, 6 - 7 , 27, 31, 41, 85, 86, 104, 108,
148, 158, 164, 169, 218, 231, 280, 281,
282, 2 8 3 - 4 ; in shales, 5 0 ; in limestones,
54, 5 5 - 5 6 ; in steinkerns, 5 9 ; cups in
geodes, 6 8 ; crowns, 81, 1 0 3 , 150, 157,
calyxes, 8 1 ; stems, 84, 95, 1 1 4 ; giant,
9 9 ; nest of, 1 0 3 ; cups, 1 5 7 ; micro-,
1 6 8 ; juvenile forms of, 2 2 8
Crustacea, 81, 220
Cuvier, Baron Georges Chretien Leopold
Dagobert, 13
cystoids, 59, 280, 281, 2 8 2 - 3
dam construction sites, finding fossils at,
1 1 3
dangerous areas, collecting in, 1 2 0 - 1
Darwin, Charles, 9, 14
da Vinci, Leonardo, 13
dealers in fossils, 3 2 3 - 4
Delaware: state laws governing collect-
of further information, 3 2 1
depauperate fauna, 224, 2 2 8
Devonian period, fossils of, 57, 101, 104,
105, 107, 108, 114, 222, 237, 252, 2 7 4 ,
2 7 7
dextrin, yellow, coating fossils with, 2 0 8
diatoms, 2 2 2 - 3 , 2 4 6
dinoflagellates, 2 4 7
dinosaurs, 31, 4 8 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 5 , 118, 217, 218,
2 4 2 ; footprints of, 48
dip and strike, 1 4 0 - 1
display cases, flat, building, 205
displaying fossil collections, 2 0 1 , 2 0 4 - 9
distilled water, washing microfossils with,
2 2 6
dolomite, 80, 114, 1 9 4 ; composition of,
5 8 - 5 9 ; powdered, for sandblasting, 166
dragonflies, giant, 2 8 0
drawers, types of, for display and stor-
age, 205
dredging sites, finding fossils at, 1 1 2 - 1 3
drills, power, for cleaning fossils, 1 6 3
drying, fossils preserved by, 15, 17
Duco cement for hardening fossils, 1 4 6
dumps, city, finding fossils at, 1 1 3
Durham, Professor J. W., 42
echinoderms, 41, 2 3 1 , 2 8 0 - 5 ; see also
crinoids, sand dollars, starfish
echinoids, 54, 1 0 5 , 108, 1 1 3 , 2 8 5
edrioasteroids, 2 8 0 - 8 2
embedment of fossils, see plastic
Eocene epoch, fossils of, 17, 5 1 - 5 2 , 84,
1 0 5 , 107, 147, 148, 2 4 5
eras of geologic time, 71
etiquette of collecting, 1 2 4 - 6 , 2 1 6
eurypterids, 56, 278
evolution, theory of, 9 - 1 0 , 13, 14
excavations, building, finding fossils in,
112, 1 1 3
exposures, natural, finding fossils in,
1 0 4 - 1 2
facies, 7 2 - 7 3
feathers, birds', fossilized, 56, 245
Federal Antiquities Act, 8, 1 2 7 - 8
Fell, Dr. H. B., 43
3 3 6 INDEX
ferns: true, fossils of, 3, 148, 173, 2 3 7 - 4 1 ;
in concretions, 64, 6 7 ; seed, 2 4 1 - 2
Field Museum of Natural History (Chi-
cago), 1, 2, 3, 74, 7 5 , 85, 1 9 5 , 198, 2 1 9
first-aid kit, for field trips, 1 1 9
fish, fossilized, 3 1 , 5 6 - 5 7 , 8 5 , 89, 90, 99,
101, 147, 168, 1 8 9 ; i n concretions, 65,
6 6 ; giant, 1 1 1 ; examined by X-ray, 1 9 8 ;
scales, 2 1 4
fissures, finding fossils in, 1 1 4
flagellates, 2 4 6
flaking, removing matrix by, 1 6 0
flat lap, grinding thin sections on a,
1 8 1 - 2 , 1 8 4
flexible shaft tools, 1 6 3 - 4
flies, 2 8 0
Florida, state laws governing collecting,
Florissant, Colorado, volcanic fossil beds
at, 112, 2 4 5
flowers, fossil, 1 1 5
fluorescence in fossils, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 ; photo-
graphing, 2 1 4
food for collecting trips, 1 1 8 ; emergency,
1 2 1
food poisoning, on collecting trips, 1 2 3 - 4
footprints, dinosaur and bird, 27 19, 48
foraminifera, 48, 170, 2 2 0 - 2 , 2 4 6 - 7
forests, prehistoric trees and, 73, 93,
2 3 7 - 4 6
formations of rocks: geologic identifica-
tion by, 72, 7 3 - 7 4 ; on geologic maps,
140, 141
formic acid, 1 7 0 - 1
fossil casts (models), making, 81
fossils: defined, 1 2 ; formation of, 1 4 - 1 6 ;
protecting fragile, in the field, 1 4 3 - 5
freezing, fossils preserved by, 15, 1 6 - 1 7 ,
1 1 5
Frey, Mr. and Mrs. Edmund, 8 - 9
fungi, fossil, 236
fusilinids, 2 2 2
gastroliths (gizzard stones), 1 1 5
gasoline, removing oil and asphalt from
fossils with, 1 4 9
gastropods, 86, 89, 2 6 0 - 1 ; see also snails
genus, defined, 3 9 - 4 0
geodes, 20, 6 7 - 6 8
geologic laws, basic, as used on maps,
1 4 0
geologic maps, 1 3 9 - 4 1
geologic time, see relative geologic time
Geological Survey of Canada, 1 3 4
Geological Survey, United States, 1 3 4
Geological Surveys, state: as sources of
information, 80, 83, 84, 97, 101, 1 1 7 ;
bulletins of, 2 2 8
Georgia: state laws governing collecting,
getting lost on collecting trips, 121
glaciers, 3, 8 5 ; fossils in boulders moved
by, 9 2 ; see also peat bogs
goniatites, 2 6 7 ; in concretions, 64
Grand Canyon of the Colorado, 1 0 6 ;
relative time illustrated by, 7 1 - 7 2
graptolites, 57, 146, 157, 188, 191, 214,
2 8 5 - 6
grasshoppers, 2 8 0
gravel pits, finding fossils in, 9 4 - 9 7
Green River formation (Wyoming), 51
grinding wheels for cleaning fossils, 156,
1 8 2
grit, silicon carbide, for grinding thin
sections, 1 8 1 - 2
grouping fossils for display, 2 0 7 - 8
growth rings, lack of, in prehistoric trees,
8 9
guidebooks, 1 1 7
gymnosperms, 2 4 2 - 3
Hall, James, fossil collection of, 1 9 5
Handbook of Paleontological Techniques
(Kummer and Raup), 198
hardening matrix, see matrix
Hawaii: few or no fossils exist; see 129,
3 2 1
Herodotus, 12
histometabasis, see replacement
historic time, see absolute time
hog pens, finding fossils in, 114
holotypes, 4 0 - 4 2
horseshoe crabs, 33, 57, 2 7 8 ; in concre-
tions, 64
Hutton, James, 13
hydraulic press for removing matrix, 156
hydrochloric acid: for testing dolomite
and limestone, 5 9 ; for cleaning fossils,
1 7 3 - 7 , 184, 190, 2 1 3
hydrofluoric acid, 1 8 4 ; cautions in use of,
1 6 9
hydrographic maps, 1 3 9
Ice Age animals, fossils of, 95, 106, 114
ichthyosaurs, 32, 43
Idaho: state laws governing collecting,
further information, 3 2 2
igneous rocks, 45, 76
INDEX 3 3 7
Illinois: state laws governing collecting,
index fossils, 72, 218, 268, 2 6 9
India ink, coloring fossils to photograph
with, 2 1 4
Indiana: state laws governing collecting,
information sources for fossil beds, 101,
117, 3 2 1 - 3 ; see also Geological Surveys
and maps
infrared photography of fossils, 2 1 4 - 1 5
insects, fossils of, 31, 57, 64, 112, 172, 2 8 0
insects, on collecting trips, 1 2 1 - 2
Iowa: state laws governing collecting,
Iowa State museum, 7
ivory, fossil, 96
jellyfish, 3 - 5 , 57, 250, 2 5 3
Journal of Paleontology, 116, 215, 2 2 8
Jurassic period, fossils of, 33, 37, 56, 199,
222, 243, 280, 285, 2 8 6 ; i n concretions,
6 5
juvenile forms of invertebrates, 218, 2 2 8
Kansas: state laws governing collecting,
Kentucky: state laws governing collect-
ing, 1 2 9 - 3 0 ; geological map, 2 9 9 ;
sources of further information, 3 2 2
King, Ralph H. (quoted), 8
Krylon, for spraying fossils, 147
labeling fossils, 2 0 1 - 2 ; in the field, 1 4 5 ,
2 0 2 ; color slides of fossils, 1 8 3
Lamarck, J.B.P.A. de Monet, Chevalier de,
13
lamprey, 5
latex, liquid, for fossil mold-making,
1 9 5 - 6
laws, state, controlling fossil collecting,
1 2 6 - 3 2
leaf fossils, 84, 112, 1 1 5 ; in sandstone,
4 8 ; in concretions, 65
Leakey, Dr. L.S.B., 77
level of activity in atomic clock, 76
lighting for fossil photography, 2 1 1 - 1 2
lighting for microscopes, 2 2 9
limestone quarries, finding fossils in,
7 9 - 8 3
limestones, 6, 7, 15, 32, 45, 83, 102, 1 1 5 ,
148, 151, 157, 174, 188, 220, 2 2 5 ; com-
position and extent of, 5 3 - 5 8 ; in strip-
mine dumps, 9 2 ; in metal mines, 9 7 ;
see also chalk
Linnaean system, 3 9 - 4 0
Linnaeus, Carolus, see von Linne
Louisiana: state laws governing collect-
Lyell, Sir Charles, 9, 14
Macdonald, Dr. J.R. (quoted), 1 0 - 1 1
magazines, 3 3 0 - 1
magnesium oxide, whitening fossils to
photograph with, 2 1 2
Mai ne: state laws governing collecting,
1 3 0 ; source of further information, 3 2 2 ;
see also 2 8 8
mammoths, 1 6 - 1 7 , 9 5 , 1 1 3 ; teeth of, 96,
9 9 ; frozen, 1 1 5
man, fossils of precursors of, 77
manatee, 99
maps, 1 1 7 ; topographic, 104, 109, 1 3 4 - 9 ;
road, 1 3 3 - 4 ; sources of, 133, 1 3 4 ; quad-
rangle, 1 3 7 - 9 ; hydrographic, 1 3 9 ; geo-
logic, 1 3 9 - 4 1 ; how t o read, 1 3 5 - 6 ,
1 4 0 - 1 ; importance of, to fossil col-
lector, 1 4 1 ; state, showing fossil areas,
2 8 8 - 3 2 0
marking techniques in cataloging, 2 0 4
Maryland: state laws governing collect-
Massachusetts: state laws governing col-
lecting, 1 3 0 ; see also 288, 3 2 2
mastodons, 95, 9 6 - 7 , 1 1 3 ; frozen, 1 1 5
mat ri x: treating to harden, 1 4 3 ; mixtures
for hardening, 1 4 6 - 7 , 1 5 0 ; techniques
of removing hard, 1 4 8 - 7 8 passim, 189,
1 9 0 ; sawing away of, 1 5 1 - 4 , 1 8 9 ; trim-
ming, 1 5 5 - 6
Mecca, Indiana, shale deposits with 4-
year record at, 7 3 - 7 4
Melton, Professor William G., 2 1 9
Mesozoic era, fossils of, 8, 7 1 , 85, 146,
242, 2 4 3 , 2 5 5 , 258, 268, 269, 286
metal mines, finding fossils in, 9 7 - 9 9
metamorphic rocks, 45
Michigan: state laws governing collecting,
microcrinoids, 1 6 8
microfossils, 48, 168, 170, 2 0 8 ; defined,
2 1 7 - 1 8 ; types of : conodonts, 2 1 8 - 1 9 ,
226, 227, 2 2 8 ; scolecodonts, 2 1 9 , 2 2 6 ;
ostracods, 220, 2 2 8 ; foraminifera,
2 2 0 - 2 ; radiolarians, 2 2 2 ; diatoms.
3 3 8 INDEX
2 2 2 - 3 ; miscellaneous, 2 2 4 ; collecting
and preparing, 2 2 4 ff.; sorting, 2 2 7 - 8 ;
identifying, 2 2 8
microscopes for viewing microfossils,
2 2 8 - 9
Minnesota: state laws governing collect-
Miocene epoch, fossils of, 17, 99, 1 0 5 ,
106, 107, 148, 172, 2 4 5 , 252, 2 8 0
Mississippi: state laws governing collect-
Mississippian period, fossils of, 7, 81, 98,
104, 224, 238, 268, 280, 285
Missouri: state laws governing collecting,
mold release for plastic embedment, 1 8 9
molds, commercial, for fossil jewelry, 192
molds, natural, 15, 2 7 - 3 2 , 80, 2 4 5 ; in
dolomite, 5 9 ; casting from, 1 9 4
mollusks, 31, 43, 112, 2 5 9 - 6 9 , 2 7 2 ; in
limestone, 56
Montana: state laws governing collecting,
moths, 2 8 0
motorcycles, use of, on collecting trips,
118
mounting microfossils, 2 2 9 - 3 0
mud, for emergency protection of fragile
fossils, 1 4 4
muriatic acid (hydrochloric), 1 7 3 , 1 7 8
mussels, 262, 265, 2 6 6
Mylar plastic sheets: for collecting water
in emergencies on field trips, 1 1 8 - 1 9 ;
for use in plastic embedment, 1 8 9
nautiloids, 2 6 7
Nebraska: state laws governing collect-
Nevada: state laws governing collecting,
New Hampshire: state laws governing
collecting, 1 3 0 ; sources of further in-
formation, 3 2 2 ; see also 2 8 8
New Jersey: state laws governing collect-
ing, 1 3 0 - 1 ; geological map, 2 9 7 ; sources
New Mexico: state laws governing col-
lecting, 1 3 1 ; geological map, 3 0 7 ;
New York: state laws governing collect-
New York State Museum (Albany), 237
nitric acid, 173
nodules, Miocene, of California, 58, 172,
2 8 0
North Carolina: state laws governing col-
North Dakota: state laws governing col-
nuts and fruits, fossil, 106, 245
Octomedusa pieckorum ("8-sided jellyfish
of the Pieckos"), 5
Ohio: state laws governing collecting,
Oklahoma: state laws governing collect-
Oligocene epoch, fossils of, 112, 245, 279,
2 8 0
Olson, Dr. Edward J., 75
Ordovician period, fossils of, 99, 103, 105,
108, 114, 174, 2 1 9 , 220, 221, 224, 251,
260, 277, 285
Oregon: state laws governing collecting,
organic structures, fossil, 38
original preservation of fossils, 15, 17
ostracods, 168, 170, 220, 228, 2 7 6 - 7 ; in
sandstone, 48
owner-release laws, 1 2 6 - 7 , 132
oysters, 72, 262, 2 6 3 , 264, 2 6 6 ; in lime-
stone, 5 4 ; in concretions, 65
Paleozoic era, fossils of, 27, 71, 85, 99,
104, 2 1 9 , 221, 242, 252, 255, 258, 259,
260, 2 8 5 , 2 8 6 ; dolomites, 5 9 ; concre-
tions in, 63
peat bogs, finding fossils in, 1 1 3
pectens, 265
peels, technique of making, 21, 179, 180,
1 8 3 - 8 , 2 4 2
pelecypods, 2 6 1 - 6 ; see also clams
Pennsylvania: state laws governing fos-
sils, 1 3 1 ; geological map, 3 1 4 ; sources
Pennsylvanian period, fossils of, 3, 59,
85, 105, 115, 198, 221, 222, 238, 2 4 1 - 2 ,
INDEX 3 3 9
279, 2 8 0 ; concretions in, 6 3 ; snails of,
2 6 0 - 1
Permian period, fossils of, 114, 174, 221,
222, 242, 280, 2 8 6 ; concretions in, 63
permineralization, 18, 2022, 25
permission to collect, requirements for, in
restricted areas, 1 2 4 - 3 2
Petoskey stones, 2 2 - 2 3 , 108, 251, 2 5 2
petrifaction: fossils preserved by, 16, 1 8 ;
process of, 24
Petrified Forest National Park, 23, 2 4 2 - 3
petrified wood, 1 8 - 2 2 , 23, 25, 27, 47, 89,
95, 1 0 5 - 6 , 1 1 5 ; teredo-bored, 3 7
photographing fossils, 2 0 9 - 1 5 ; for pub-
lication, 2 1 5
phyllocarids, 85
pipeline excavations, finding fossils at,
112 ^
pits, strip mine, finding fossils' in, 8 9 - 9 0
plant fossils, 63, 8 5 , 89, 9 1 , 9 3 , 1 4 7 ;
common in shales, 5 0 ; in concretions,
1 0 5 ; carbonized, 1 8 9 ; diatoms, 2 2 3 ;
classification of, 2 3 3 - 4
plastic, liquid (polyester resin): for em-
bedment of fossils, 179, 1 8 8 - 9 2 ; in
making peels, 180, 184, 1 9 6 ; qualities
of, 188, 191
Pleistocene epoch, fossils of, 17, 85, 96,
106, 112, 1 1 4
poisonous animals, avoiding, on collect-
ing trips, 1 2 2
poisonous plants, avoiding, on collecting
trips, 121
pollen, fossil, 2 2 4
polyvinyl acetate to protect and harden
shale, 146
polyvinyl chloride for making molds, 1 9 7
pools, quarry, fossil collecting at, 83
porifera, 2 4 8 - 5 0
Pre-Cambrian, fossils of, 3 3 , 38, 71, 222,
2 4 9 ; in Grand Canyon, 72
Proterozoic ("primitive life") era, 7 1 , 78
protists, 2 4 6 - 7
protozoa: in limestone, 5 4 ; fossilized in
chert, 59
pseudomorphs, 1 9 - 2 0 , 2 3 - 2 4 , 25, 27, 1 7 0 ;
of coral, 2 3 - 2 4
Public Land Law Review Commission and
fossil collecting, 128
public lands, rules for collecting fossils
on, 1 2 7 - 8
pudding stone, 47
pyritized fossils, 22, 44, 85, 92, 1 1 5 ;
coal balls, 6 7 ; wood fossils, 8 9 ; clean-
ing of, 157, 158, 169, 1 7 6 - 7 , 189, 2 4 5 ;
microfossils, 226
quadrangle maps, 1 3 7 - 9
quarries, 103, 1 0 4 ; sandstone, 4 8 - 5 0 ;
limestone, 7 9 - 8 3 ; shale, 8 3 - 8 6
Quaternary-O for cleaning fossils by
boiling, 168, 2 2 5
radiography, neutron, for photographing
fossils, 1 9 8 - 9
radiolarians, 222, 246
recording specimens, 201
red tide, poisonous, cause of, 2 4 7
relative geologic time, 7 1 - 7 2 ; and abso-
lute time compared, 69
repairing broken fossils, 2 0 8 - 9
replacement, 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 2 - 2 3
reptiles, 1 1 5
restrictions on collecting, 1 2 4 - 3 2 passim
retouching fossils for maximum visibility,
2 0 8
Rhode Island: state laws governing col-
lecting, 1 3 1 ; sources of further in-
formation, 3 2 3 ; see also 2 8 8
"rice agate," 59
Richardson, Dr. Eugene S., Jr., 2, 3, 5, 6,
1 9 8
Riker mounts for displaying small fos-
sils, 205
rivers and creeks, finding fossils in, 1 0 4 -
6 ; see also pools, quarry
road cuts, finding fossils in, 9 9 - 1 0 2
road maps, see maps
roadside collecting, 9 9 - 1 0 3 , 1 3 2
rudistid clams, 2 6 6
safety precautions on collecting trips, 82,
110, 1 1 9 - 2 4 , 1 2 5 - 6
sandblaster, for cleaning fossils, 1 6 4 - 6
sand dollars, 231, 280, 285
sandstones, 15, 99, 102, 146, 1 4 9 , 1 5 1 ,
170, 1 9 1 , 1 9 4 ; composition and forma-
tion of, 4 8 - 5 0 ; concretions in, 61, 6 5
sawdust, protecting fragile fossils with,
1 4 4
sawing fossil matrices, 1 5 1 - 4 ; for thin
sections, 1 8 0 - 1 ; for peels, 1 8 4
scale trees, species of, 2 3 8
scales, fish, fossilized, 56
scallops, 89, 2 6 5 - 6
scaphopods, 2 6 0
Schuchert, Professor Charles, 7
scolecodonts, 219, 225, 2 2 6
scorpions, 2 7 8 - 9
scrapers, metal, for cleaning fossils, 1 5 9
scuba diving, fossil collecting by, 1 0 6
sea anemones, 72, 2 5 0
3 4 0 INDEX
sea cucumbers, 41, 280, 2 8 4
sea urchins, 2 8 5
sedimentary rocks, 45, 72, 76, 1 0 4 ; types
of, 4 6 - 6 8 passim; geologic laws of, 1 4 0
seeds, fossil, 2 4 5
Seilacher, Adolf, 34
septarian nodules (concretions), 64
serial section, 1 8 0
series of rocks of a period, 73
sewer line excavations, finding fossils at,
1 1 2
shaft mines, see coal mines
shale quarries, finding fossils in, 8 3 - 8 6
shales, 3, 15, 25, 41, 45, 5 6 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 ,
1 0 3 , 105, 146, 148, 1 5 1 , 157, 174, 188,
1 9 1 , 194, 220, 2 2 5 ; composition of, 5 0 ,
5 4 ; black, 5 0 , 8 9 - 9 0 , 92, 2 8 5 ; concre-
tions in, 6 1 , 6 5 ; gray, 83, 85, 9 1 - 9 2 ,
2 2 5 ; tools for splitting, 1 4 2
shark teeth, 99, 106, 107, 1 1 1 , 112, 1 4 8
shells: borings in, 3 4 - 3 7 ; modern appear-
ance of some fossils, 1 0 5
shipworms, 37, 264, and see teredos
shrimp, 57, 2 7 7
silicified fossils, 58, 188, 2 4 6 ; cleaning,
157, 172, 174, 188, 1 8 9 ; coin test for,
1 7 4 ; microfossils, 2 2 6
silicoflagellates, 2 4 6
silicone rubber for molds, 1 9 7
Silurian period, fossils of, 25, 27, 55, 59,
8 3 , 107, 112, 114, 236, 237, 274, 277,
2 7 9 , 2 8 6
Simpson, Professor George Gaylord, 11,
43, 4 4
size of fossil specimens, 2 0 5 , 2 2 0 - 1 , 257,
278
slates, 1 5 1 , 194, 2 8 5
Smith, William, 13, 2 6 8
Smith's law of correlation, 2 6 8 - 9
snails, 22, 27, 44, 98, 1 9 1 , 2 3 1 , 2 5 9 ; i n
limestone, 5 4 ; in concretions, 6 4 ; in
geodes, 6 8 ; pyritized, 1 7 7 ; making casts
of, 1 9 5 ; microfossils of, 2 2 2 ; evolution-
ary development of, 2 6 0 - 1
snakebite treatment, 1 2 3
snakes, avoiding, on field trips, 1 2 2 - 3
Snyder, Dr. Clifford C, 1 2 3
sodium bicarbonate, neutralizing acid on
cleaned fossils with, 1 9 1 , 2 2 7
sodium hydroxide, for boiling, 225
sodium hypochlorite solution, removing
stains on fossils with, 1 4 9
Solnhofen, Germany, fossil beds at, 5 6 ;
fluorescent fossils from, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 2 1 4
sources of locales for fossil beds, 101,
117, 3 2 1 - 3 ; for microfossils, 2 2 8
South Carolina: state laws governing col-
sources of further information, 323
South Dakota: state laws governing col-
sources of further information, 323
species, defined, 3941
spermatophytes, 2 4 2
Sphecomyrma freyi ("wasp-ant of Frey"),
9
spiders, 2 7 8 - 9
sponges, 37, 54, 2 4 8 - 5 0
spores, fossil, 2 2 4
stains, removing from fossils, 149
starfish, 7, 41, 43, 44, 54, 104, 231, 280,
2 8 4
state Geological Survey bulletins, 228
state laws controlling fossil collecting,
1 2 8 - 3 2
steinkerns, 31, 8 1 ; dolomite, 59
"stone flowers," see crinoids
storing fossils, 2 0 5 ; microfossils, 2 2 9
strip-mine dumps, see waste piles
strip mines, see coal mines
subway diggings, finding fossils at, 112
sulfuric acid, 173
sunburn, 119, 121
supports for displaying fossils, 207
swapping, see trading
system of rocks of a period, 73
tar pits, fossils in, 1 1 4 ; see also peat
bogs
teeth: mammal, 96, 9 9 , 106, 1 1 3 ; shark,
99, 106, 107, 1 1 1 , 112, 1 4 8 ; f i s h, 1 1 4
Tennessee: state laws governing collect-
teredo wood, 37
teredos, 1 1 5 , 2 6 4
Tertiary period, fossils of, 106
tests (foraminifera skeletons), 221
Texas: state laws governing collecting,
thallophytes, 2 3 4 - 5 , 236
thin sections, 1 7 9 - 8 3 ; of chert fossils, 5 9 ;
grinding, 1 8 0 - 3 ; see also sawing
Thomas, Dr. A.L., 7
toluene, for mixture to harden shales, 146
tools: for fossil collecting, 1 4 2 ; for fossil
cleaning, hand, 151, 157, 1 5 9 - 6 0 ; power,
1 6 1 - 7 ; see also flexible shaft, sand
blaster, and ultrasonic cleaner
topographic maps, see maps
townships, 1 3 9
I NDEX 341
trace fossils, 3 3 - 3 4
tracing fossils up slopes, 1 1 0 - 1 1
tracks, fossil, see footprints
trading fossil specimens, 2 1 5 - 1 6
trails and burrows, fossilized, 4 8 ; worm,
2 7 0 ; see also footprints and trace fossils
treating fossil animal bones for preserva-
tion, 95, 96
trespassing on collecting trips, 1 2 6
Triassic period, fossils of, 219, 220, 242,
252, 265, 2 8 6 ; i n concretions, 6 3 , 65
trilobites, 27, 31, 41, 44, 85, 99, 105, 108,
111, 112, 113, 115, 146, 147, 148, 150,
157, 158, 218, 2 2 0 ; in shales, 5 0 ; in
steinkerns, 5 9 ; making casts of, 193,
1 9 5 ; juvenile forms of, 2 2 8 ; described
and analyzed, 2 7 2 - 7
trimming matrix with pliers, 155, 1 8 9
trisodium phosphate for boiling shale,
167, 2 2 5
trivial name, defined, 3 9 - 4 0
Tullimonstrum gregarium ("common Tully
monster"), 1 - 2 , 3, 50
Tully, Francis, 1 - 3 , 5, 6, 9
tunnel excavations, finding fossils at, 1 1 2
Turnbull, Jim, 3 - 5 , 6
turtle shell plates, 99, 1 1 2
ultrasonic cleaners, cleaning fossils with,
1 6 6 - 7
ultraviolet light, use of, in locating fluor-
escent fossils, 2 0 0
United States Geological Survey, ordering
maps from, 134
Utah: state laws governing collecting,
1 3 1 - 2 ; geological map, 3 1 6 ; sources of
varsol for boiling shale, 167
Vermont: state laws governing collecting,
1 3 2 ; sources of further information,
3 2 3 ; see also 288
vertebrate frssils, 1 6 - 1 7 , 23, 9 5 - 9 7 , 106,
111, 113, 1 4 3 ; difficulties of collecting,
1 0 - 1 1 ; of precursors of man, 77
vertebrate paleontology, history of, 13
Vibro-Tool, 1 6 1 - 2
vinegar, white (acetic acid), 1 7 0 - 1 , 1 7 8
Virginia: state laws governing collecting,
volcanic residues, fossils in, 77, 78, 1 1 2
volcanoes, activity of, in creating fossils,
2 4 5 - 6
von Linne, Carl, 39
Walcott, C. D., 50, 110, 111
washing plants, coal mine, finding fossils
at, 9 0 - 9 1
Washington: state laws governing collect-
wasps, 8 - 9 , 2 8 0
waste piles at strip mines, finding fossils
at, 9 1 - 9 4 , 99
water, emergency, on collecting trips,
1 1 8 - 1 9
water-laid, sediments, geologic laws of,
1 4 0
weather conditions affecting field trips,
1 1 6
weathering, effect of, in revealing fossils,
8 1 - 8 2 , 9 1 - 9 2 , 99, 110, 1 5 1 , 1 7 3 ; dangers
of, to delicate fossils, 84
West Virginia: state laws governing col-
Wilson, Professor Edward O., 8
windburn, 1 1 9
Wisconsin: state laws governing collect-
wood, fossil (not petrified), 17, 2 4 6
worms, 25, 48, 81, 85, 110, 2 7 0 - 1 ; unique
carbonized, 112, 1 8 9 ; jaw of (scoleco-
donts), 2 1 9 , 2 7 0
Wyoming: state laws governing collect-
X-ray examination of fossils, 1 9 7 - 9
Zangerl, Dr. Rainer, 74, 1 9 8

Fossils For

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Fossils For

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS

FOSSILS FOR AMATEURS

S-ar putea să vă placă și