JAG l Volume 1 - Issue 3/4 - 1999

Rapid estimation of photosynthetically active radiation

over the West African Sahel using the Pathfinder Land
Data Set
Jonathan W. Seaquistl & Lennart Olson1
1 Depa~ment of Physical Geography, University of Lund, Box 11 8z S-221 00, Lund, Sweden (e-mail: Jonathan.Seaquist~natgeo.lu.se)
KEYWORDS: angstrbm relation, CLouds from AVHRR,
CLAVR, global radiation, HAPEX Sahel, Niger, NOAA
AVHRR, normalised root mean square error, photosyn-
thetically active radiation, PAR, relative sunshine dura-
tion, West Africa
ABSTRACT
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is important for assessing
both the impact of changing land cover on climate, and for model-
ling productivity on a regional scale, as well as its potential in areas
that are vulnerable to food shortfalls. A relatively simple method
that generates spatially comprehensive and representative values of
PAR at time scales of 1 O-days .(dekads) or longer is described, tested
and implemented over a portion of West Africa. With simple equa-
tions to describe the geographical and temporal variation of global
radiation receipt at the top of the atmosphere, daily cloud flags
from the NOA~NASA AVHRR Pathfinder Land Data Set (PAL) are
used in conjunction with an empirical formula developed by
Angstrdm and constants tailored to West African conditions to esti-
mate surface receipt of global radiation there. Ground observations
of PAR from the HAPEX Sahel experiment (at 1366 N and 253 E
from 1992) are used to parameterise the relative sunshine duration
variable in the angstrom relation so as to m~nimise errors between
observed and modelled PAR. Results indicate that PAR may be esti-
mated to within 20 percent of observed values for 28 out of 36 IO-
day summation periods over a year. End-of-year accumulated PAR is
estimated to within 1.96 percent. Normalised root mean square
errors (NRMSEs) and normalised mean absolute errors (NMAEs) of
15.69 percent and 12.46 percent, respectively, were obtained for
IO-day sums, with values of 10.96 percent and 8.74 percent,
respectively, for monthly sums. The spatial variability of end-of-year
PAR for 1992 is in accordance with what was expected. Though
more accurate methods exist for achieving this, the technique is
merited for its ease of application, using an accessible data set,
over areas where solar irradiation measurements are lacking.
INTRODUCTION
Over the last few years, a suite of models has been devel-
oped using satellite data (mostly from the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Associations Advanced Very
High Resolution Radiometer - NOAA AVHRR) and other
auxiliary ground data that predict with varying degrees
of accuracy and generality Net Primary Production (NPP),
Above-Ground Net Primary Production (AGNPP) and
Above-Ground Gross Primary Production (AGPP) on a
regional or global basis. The models range from site spe-
cific black box approaches relating growing season
sums of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) to ground based NPP observations [Oxenstierna,
1990; Rasmussen, 1992; Lambin et a/, 1993; Field et a/,
1995; Rasmussen, 1998a,b] to bio-geochemical models
that include explicit formulations of the laws governing
photosynthetic assimilation, allocation and respiration
[Prince, 1991; Potter et al, 1993; Field et al, 1995; Prince
& Goward, 1995; Haxeltine & Prentice, 19961. The para-
metric method of Monteith [I!3721 has recently gained
wide popularity as it easily accommodates spectral infor-
mation from satellite sensors with data on meteorologi-
cal conditions and vegetation type. Moreover, it com-
bines the ease of the black box approaches with the
mechanism of bio-geochemical models [Lambin et a/,
1993; Bournan, 1995; Moulin et a/, 19981. The daily pro-
duction of above-ground GPP is given by:
AGPP=~[Ex(axND~+b)xPAR]
[II
i=I
where
AGPP = Above-ground Net Primary Production (kg m-2)
E = biological efficiency of PAR conversion to dry matter
(g MJ-)
NDVZ = Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (unitless)
PAR = Photosynthetically Active Radiation (MJ day-l)
a,b = constants
This formula has been used by a number of researchers
to estimate end-of-growing-season NPP from regional to
global scales with satellite data; the NDVI computed from
channels 1 and 2 of the AVHRR onboard the NOAA satel-
lites is used to estimate FPAR (fraction of absorbed pho-
tosynthetically radiation, where FPAR = a x NDVI + bf.
[Potter et a/, 1993; Guerif et a/, 1993; Ruimy et al, 1994;
Prince & Goward, 1995; Parueto et a/, 1997; Rasmussen,
1998a,b]. PAR is defined as the domain of incoming solar
radiation exploited by green plants to support photosyn-
thesis (0.4-0.7 pm). PAR regulates the Earths primary
productivity by determining the rate of carbon fixation in
205
Estimating PAR over the West African Sahel
aquatic and terrestrial plants [Frouin & Pinker, 19951.
Determining its spatial and temporal distribution is
important for a) assessing the impact of changing land
cover on climate, and b) modelling regional-scale pro-
ductivity potential in areas that are vulnerable to food
shortfalls (eg, the Sahel belt of Africa). PAR is usually
taken as a constant fraction of incoming short-wave solar
radiation. Though the PAR - insolation ratio varies
instantaneously from 0.45 to 0.50 as a function of
atmospheric water vapour, ozone, aerosol, cloud optical
thickness, and solar zenith angle, theoretical and experi-
mental evidence suggest that this ratio is constant
(approximately 0.48) at time scales of a day and longer
[Frouin & Pinker, 19951. The applicability of this relative-
ly simple model hinges on the retrieval of spatially com-
prehensive and frequent estimates of PAR. The most
practical approach for achieving this is to interpolate
among data values acquired at point locations from sur-
face pyranometers. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of
these data over large areas of the Earths surface, [Eck &
Dye, 19911. Eck & Dye further state that a sparse, spa-
tially biased distribution of pyranometer observations
leads to reduced confidence in those values correspond-
ing to under-represented areas. A common approach,
especially in developing countries, where there is a lack
of measurements, is to estimate incoming global irradia-
tion from the number of sunshine hours in a day [eg,
Guerif et a/, 1993; Rasmussen, 1998a,b] followed by
interpolation. This method underestimates global irradia-
tion as it does not take into account the diffuse radiation
reaching the ground on cloudy days. Ruimy et a/ [I9941
used global surface irradiance derived on a monthly basis
from the French Meteorological Offices General
Circulation Model (GCM) and interpolated the data - to
obtain weekly estimates to match the time-step of their
NPP model. They acknowledge the drawback of using
simulated irradiance values in their work. The best way
forward, if the data and expertise are at hand, is to esti-
mate solar irradiance and PAR from geostationary weath-
er satellites (3-hourly observations by the Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite, GOES, and 12:00
observations by the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer,
TOMS) in conjunction with physical models that predict
clear-sky, potential surface irradiance and that are
adjusted to actual surface irradiance due to the effect of
clouds detected by the satellite sensor [Dye & Shibasaki,
19951. However, due to oblique viewing, the methods
only function at lower latitudes. These methods are data
intensive, and have been applied using information from
different sensors at differing spatial and temporal scales.
Normalised Root Mean Square Errors (NRMSEs) of
between 8 percent and 15 percent have been achieved
for daily sums of solar irradiance, with errors dropping
down to around 3-6 percent for 5-day to monthly aver-
ages [see Justus et al, 1986; Pinker et al, 1995 for
reviews]. Less attention has been given to developing
JAG . Volume 1 - Issue 314 - 1999
satellite methods for estimating surface irradiance in the
PAR wavelength region [Eck & Dye, 19911, though some
examples include Frouin et a/ [1989], Frouin & Gautier
[1990], and Eck & Dye [1991]. Prince & Goward [I9951
for example, used the TOMS monthly incident PAR data
set produced by Dye & Shibasaki [I9951 to drive the
GLObal Production Efficiency Model (GLOPEM), interpo-
lating between monthly means to produce IO-day esti-
mates to match the time-step of their model.
This work presents an effort to develop spatially compre-
hensive and representative values of PAR for use with a
Monteith-based NPP model at time-steps of 10 days
(dekads) or longer in Sahelian West Africa from cloud
cover information provided with the NOAA/NASA PAL
(Pathfinder Land Data Set) and an empirical formulation
derived by Angstrom [I 9241 to estimate irradiance at the
Earths surface. The model was calibrated and tested
against PAR data generated by the HAPEX Sahel field
experiment that was carried out in S.W. Niger in 1992.
Though the method is not intended to replace rigorous
satellite techniques outlined above, it is deemed to be a
quick, accessible and adequate means of obtaining PAR
estimates for use in bio-productivity models and over
areas where pyranometer measurements are lacking.
DATA
The PAL data set (NOAA/NASA Pathfinder Land Data Set)
includes layers for the original 5 channels of the NOAA
AVHRR sensor, plus information on solar zenith angle,
satellite look angle and azimuth angle. The data were
compiled for the period 1981-1995 and are available as
daily images, as well as IO-day and monthly maximum-
value composites. Furthermore, they were generated in a
consistent manner and included post-flight sensor cali-
bration and atmospheric corrections for Rayleigh scatter-
ing and ozone absorption [James & Kalluri, 19941. The
data set also includes cloud flags produced by the Clouds
from AVHRR (CLAVR) algorithm. For an array of 2 x 2 pix-
els, the algorithm performs a series of 10 threshold and
uniformity tests using data from all five channels of the
AVHRR. If between 1 and 3 pixels within the window are
identified as cloudy, all four pixels are flagged as mixed
(values between 12 and 21). Otherwise, the window is
designated as clear (22-30) or cloudy (l-l 1). Figure 1
shows a CLAVR image over Africa for July 1, 1992.
METHODS
The model has been constructed from equations describ-
ing the seasonal distribution of solar radiation over the
surface of the Earth [eg, Linacre, 1968; Henderson-
Sellers & Robinson, 1986; Monteith & Unsworth, 1990;
Prentice et al, 1992; Haxeltine & Prentice, 1996; and
Guyot, 19981 and implemented in the computing lan-
guage FORTRAN. The seasonal and meridianal distribu-
tion of radiation is determined by the rotation of the
206
Estimating PAR over the West African Sahel JAG l Volume 1 - Issue 3/4 - 1999
N = daylength (seconds, from sunrise to sunset)
FI GURE I CLAVR data over Africa for June 1, 1992
Earth about its own axis and by its elliptical orbit about
the Sun [Monteith & Unsworth, 19901. The solar declina-
tion (6) refers to the angle between the Earths orbital
and equatorial planes, which varies between +23 30 in
June and -23 30 in December. Solar irradiance at the
top of the Earths atmosphere therefore depends on time
of day, time of year, and latitude, which may be
described by the angle between the direction of the Sun
and the vertical (solar zenith) for a point on the Earths
surface. The solar elevation angle is given by:
&21tt
24
PI
where
t = time of day (referring to the time when the Sun
reaches its zenith).
It may be shown by spherical trigonometry that
cosq = sin q7 sin 6 + cos tp cos 6 cos e
where
IJJ = solar zenith angle
cp = latitude
8 = solar declination
8 = solar elevation angle.
At sunrise and sunset, the solar elevation, 8, is 0,
Equation 2 may be used to calculate the daylength:
L31
so
N =%os-(tan qtan6)
L41
n
where
The solar constant refers to the amount of radiation
impinging on a horizontal plane just outside the Earths
atmosphere, and its value, Q,, is agreed to be about
1372 W m-z at mean Earth-Sun distance. As the orbit of
the Earth about the Sun traces an ellipse, the solar con-
stant varies throughout the year, and when multiplied by
the solar zenith angle and integrated over the daylight
hours, the total radiant exposure at the top of the atmos-
phere is obtained:
S,=NxQ, +
[ 1
1
where
S, = irradiance at the Earths surface (MJm-z day-l)
Q, = irradiance at the top of the Earths atmosphere (Wm-2)
do = Earth-Sun distance on a particular date
d =average Earth-Sun distance.
Figure 2 displays the variation in total daily receipt of
short-wave solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere
between latitudes IO N and 23 N.
Solar radiation passing through the atmosphere is atten-
uated by scattering and absorption by various atmos-
pheric constituents. Mie and Rayleigh scattering are
caused by aerosols, individual molecules, water droplets
and clouds. Absorption is due to ozone, water vapour,
carbon dioxide and oxygen, and depends not only on the
amount of the absorbent present but also on the atmos-
pheric path length. As a result of attenuation, solar radi-
ation reaching the ground consists of two components:
direct beam and diffuse beam irradiation, the former
rarely exceeding 75 percent of the solar constant
[Monteith & Unsworth, 1990; Guyot, 19981. The sum of
these two components is referred to as global solar radi-
ation. An empirical approach pioneered by Angstrom in
1924 is used to estimate solar irradiance at the ground.
The Angstrom relation has been widely used in hydro-
logical and agro-meteorological applications [Dunne &
%a---
0
FI GURE 2 Seasonal variation of top-of-atmosphere (TOA) total
daily global radiation between 1ON and 23N
207
Estimating PAR over the West African Sahel
Leopold, 1978; Kowal & Kassam, 1978; Shuttleworth,
1993; Guyot, 19981 and is given by:
s* = &[a* +k($)]
where
St = global radiation received at the Earths surface (MJ
m-2 day-l)
So = global radiation received at the top of the Earths
atmosphere (MJm-2 day-l)
II = number of hours of sunshine in the day
N = daylength
a, = constant
b, = constant.
The coefficients a, and b, are computed by comparing S,
on overcast days to give a,, while days with bright sun-
shine yield (a, + b,). These constants vary with local
atmospheric conditions (humidity, dust, cloud) and solar
declination (latitude and month) and thus vary both over
time and space. Cartledge [I9731 used this relation to
predict solar irradiation of the Brisbane region of
Australia, using sunshine records from a 56-year period,
yielding different coefficients for each month of the year.
Friend [I9981 computed the constants for the entire
globe using the Muller data set (166 stations). Davies
[I9661 carried out the same analysis for West Africa,
showing a, and b, values to vary seasonally due to the
migration of the ITCZ (Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone).
Table 1 summarises a, and b, parameters computed for
different areas. Since the test site was in West Africa, the
constants from Davies [I9661 were used. If S, and N
(from the equations above) and a, and b, (constants from
the literature) are known, then n must be obtained to
compute St (see Table 2).
CLAVR - PARAMETERISING THE ANGSTROM RELATION
The CLAVR flags provide an opportunity to factor in the
TABLE I . Some published Angstriim constants for Equation 6
(modified from Dunne & Leopold, 1978).
Location
World
World
World
S.E. England
Virginia,
U.S.A.
Canberra,
Australia
Brisbane,
Australia
Wageningen,
Netherlands
West Africa
as
0.23
0.29 cos
(latitude)
0.25
0.18
0.22
0.25 0.54
0.23 - 0.35 0.38 - 0.54
0.20 0.56 Spitters (1986)
-0.12 - 0.26 0.99 - 9.50 Davies (1966)
bs
0.48
0.52
0.5
0.55
0.54
Source
Black et al (1954)
Glover &
McCulloch (1958)
Friend (1998)
Penman (1948)
quoted by
Penman (1948)
quoted by
Penman (1948)
Cartledge (1973)
JAG l Volume 1 - Issue 3/4 - 1999
effect of cloud cover on estimates of incoming global
radiation by varying the relative sunshine duration (n/N)
of the Angstrgm relation (with a, and b, constants pro-
vided from Davies [ 19661) on a daily basis between three
states: clear, cloudy and mixed. Cloud cover observations
were restricted to one single afternoon acquisition per
day (roughly corresponding to 14:00 hours local time)
and were designated as either 100 percent clear (n/N =
I), 100 percent cloudy (n/N = 0) or mixed (0 < n/N < 1).
One simplifying assumption was made: that if a pixel is
flagged as clear, cloudy or mixed during the acquisition
period, it holds for all daylight hours.
The operation was carried out on all CLAVR values
extracted for a portion of Sahelian West Africa between
10N and 20N and 2W and 18E.
CALIBRATION
It was not known what proportion of the pixel is com-
posed of cloud cover for CLAVR pixels that were flagged
as mixed. In order to find the optimal n/N parameterisa-
tion for CLAVR pixels with mixed cloud, 11 trial runs
were made, stepping n/N values from 0 to 1 at incre-
ments of 0.1. Some 366 daily PAR images were generat-
ed for each increment, and subsequently integrated over
IO-, II- or 8-day periods to correspond to the composi-
tion periods of the dekadal MVC images from the PAL
data set for a total of 36 images per year. The model was
calibrated using daily observations of PAR (Photo-
synthetically Active Radiation) for the year 1992 taken
from the HAPEX Sahel Information website [http:// www.
ird.fr/hapex/data/climat92/daily/desc.htm]. The data were
collected at 13 40 N and 2 32 E. The corresponding
PAR values for each dekad and for each trial run (corre-
sponding to the images created for each n/N value) were
extracted. Three performance measures were used to
make a choice as to what value of n/N for mixed cloud
TABLE 2 Angstrdm constants for West African conditions from
Davies (1966), used in the model. Correlation coefficients are
given in the third column (r).
Month
a, b,
r
January -0.041 0.878 0.99
February -0.040 0.878 0.92
March 0.069 0.796 0.96
April 0.084 0.821 0.97
May
0.123 0.723 0.93
June 0.194 0.611 0.87
July 0.293 0.640 0.93
August 0.204 0.602 0.86
September 0.259 0.497 0.92
October 0.174 0.616 0.92
November 0.068 0.740 0.94
December -0.119 0.989 0.88
208
Estimating PAR over the West African Sahel JAG l Volume 1 - Issue 3/4 - 1999
pixels would minimize the errors between the observed
and predicted values: the Normalised Root Mean Square
Error (NRMSE), Normalised Mean Absolute Error (NMAE),
and the Index of Agreement (IOA):
i(I: -0J
i=l
NRMSE= $
i(I: -oiy
i=l
NRMsE= ;
[71
where
i=l
Pi = predicted value at dekad i
0; = observed value at dekad i
0 = mean of observed values
pi = pi -5
Oi = oi -5
N = number of observations
The NRMSE is the most widely used index. It is, however,
very sensitive to large, single outliers in the data, making
it more difficult to objectively assess data-model agree-
ment [Kirkby et a/, 19931. The NMAE is less sensitive to
outliers but does not allow for compensations of positive
and negative discrepancies. Finally, the ZOA expresses
model-data agreement more directly and may be viewed
as a standardised measure of the mean square error. A
value of 0 represents no agreement, while 1 indicates
perfect agreement [Janssen & Heuberger, 19951. Figure 3
shows the sensitivity of all three error measures to dif-
fering values of n/N for the mixed cloud pixels by plotting
relative errors//OA against n/N values ranging from 0 to
1. The NRMSE reaches a minimum of 15.69 percent for
dekad integrals of PAR at n/N = 0.5 and 10.96 percent
for n/N = 0.4 when integrated at the monthly time-scale.
The NMAE reaches a minimum of 12.46 percent at n/N =
0.5 for the dekad time scale, falling to 8.74 percent for
the monthly time scale and n/N = 0.4. IOA values
reached maxima of 0.71 (n/N = 0.5 dekad time scale) and
0.69 (n/N = 0.5 monthly time scale). All three perfor-
mance measures display minimum errors for n/Ns of
between 0.4 and 0.5.
RESULTS
Figure 4 displays time profiles of dekad PAR from the
model over which PAR observations from the HAPEX
Sahel observations that have been aggregated to corre-
sponding dekad periods are superimposed. There is a
general agreement between the observed and simulated
values, varying both in similar directions and being more
or less in step with each other. The simulated values
show higher amplitude variability, under- or overestimat-
ing PAR at certain times of the year. Figure 5 displays
observed - model comparison of accumulated PAR from
January to December 1992. Modelled accumulated PAR
is displayed for every other n/N value used for the cali-
bration procedure. All curves fan out from the onset to
produce vastly different results by the end of the run: n/N
= 0 yielded 2939.74 MJ m-2; n/N = 1.0 resulted in
4749.08 MJ m-2. It is clear that using n/N = 0.4 generates
a curve that closely mirrors the yearly accumulation of
measured PAR, with a slight underestimation between
dekads 12 and 17, giving way to a slight overestimation
between dekads 26 and 36. The observed end-of-year
accumulated PAR is 3591.29 MJ m-2 as compared to
3663.27 MJ m-2 for the run corresponding to n/N = 0.4.
This yields a slight overestimation in PAR of 1.96 percent.
Figure 6 shows the relative discrepancies and relative
cumulative discrepancies of the simulated PAR values
from the observed PAR values. For individual dekads, the
relative discrepancies exceeded * 20 percent on only 8
occasions (22 percent of the observations), with the
0 0
0 02 0.4 06 08 3
m IMned)
FIGURE 3 Impact of choice of n/N value (relative sunshine dura-
tion parameter) in modelling PAR
140
.
I
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36
Dsked
FIGURE 4 Observed vs modelled PAR (n/N = 0.4) for 1366N
and 2O53E for the year 1992, located within the HAPEX Sahel
square in southwest Niger
209
Estimating PAR over the West African Sahel
FIGURE 5 Cumulative end of year (1992) PAR at 1366N and
253E for observed and modelled values with n/N ranging
between 0 and 1 .O
FIGURE 6 Relative departures of modelled PAR from observed
PAR at 1366N and 253E
*
Mali
w
JAG l Volume 1 - Issue 314 - 1999
majority of estimates falling within 15 percent. Relative
cumulative discrepancies exceeded f 10 percent only
once. Finally, Figure 7 displays the predicted spatial dis-
tribution of accumulated PAR for 1992 (for n/N = 0.4)
over the portion of West Africa encompassing most of
the Niger. There is a general tendency for PAR to
increase toward the north-northwest, with lowest values
occurring in the southwest and southeast corners of the
image, where cloud frequencies are higher, especially
during the rainy season. Note the decreased PAR totals in
the highlands, (between 2000-3000 m) in the northwest
sector, where significant amounts of cloud reduce the
amount of PAR. Areas around Lake Chad and along the
rivers (notably the Niger River) show decreased amounts
of PAR, due to increased evaporation, which generates
lower visibility and cloud. The northeast corner of the
map shows a PAR receipt in excess of 4300 MJ m-2,
which corresponds to an area of low elevation that con-
sists mainly of salt flats.
DISCUSSION
Kowal & Kassam [I9781 state that the average gradient,
in the receipt of irradiation along the north-south axis of
the West African Sahel between latitudes of roughly
1ON and 18 N is about 88 MJ m-2 year-l, though there
are anomalies. Average gradients computed from Figure
6 are 70 and 124 MJ m-2 year-1 for the eastern part of
the image, more or less corroborating their values (which
are based on long-term averages).
CAUTIONARY NOTES
Though the calibration procedure established an accept-
PAR (Am7-2)
0 500 1000 1500 Km
FI GURE 7 Map showing end of year accumulated PAR for 1992 over a portion of West Africa including most of
Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin and Nigeria
Niger, and parts of
210
Estimating PAR over the West African Sahel
able relation between observed and simulated PAR for
one station, because validation data were not available it
is not known whether the same model parameters
(namely n/N) produce viable results over the greater
region. The AngstrZjm equation is empirical, and its para-
meters are spatio-temporally variable. The Angstrijm
constants of Davies [ 19661 were derived from a number
of stations spanning Nigeria, Ghana, Chad and Niger, all
essentially located in the southern half of the West
African Sahel. The considerably sunnier and drier cli-
mates in the northern half of the sector may yield differ-
ing angstrijm coefficients, perhaps necessitating a re-cal-
ibration of the relative sunshine duration parameter used
in the model for mixed cloud pixels. Also, the accuracy
may be poorer over the highlands where cooler, cloudier
climatic regimes dominate. Nevertheless, the expected
distribution of accumulated PAR emerges.
Furthermore, the CLAVR flags are restricted to one single
afternoon acquisition per day, corresponding to the over-
pass of the NOAA satellite (about 14:00 local time).
Three cloudiness states are produced (cloudy, clear, and
mixed), which for utilitarian purposes were maintained
throughout each day represented in the model. This is a
drastic but necessary assumption. Realistically, atmos-
pheric conditions and cloud cover vary diurnally in a non-
random manner, especially during the rainy season,
when afternoon heating of the land surface may be
expected to produce convection clouds, often accompa-
nied by precipitation. If maximum cloudiness consistently
occurs in the afternoon, then the model may be expect-
ed to overestimate diurnal cloud effects, and thus under-
estimate average n/N values for mixed cloud pixels. Dye
& Shibasaki [I9951 report similar difficulties using the
12:00 TOMS observations upon which TOMS PAR fields
are based.
Further uncertainty revolves around the current PAL
CLAVR, which was intended as an experimental cloud
layer. The CLAVR algorithm is limited in its ability to
detect cloudy pixels from clear ones. The algorithm is
sensitive to surface heterogeneities and it has not been
validated for the entire globe. Moreover, the routines
using the thermal channels do not check for missing val-
ues or data gaps, which may lead to errors. CLAVR is also
based on top-of-the-atmosphere reflectances normalised
for solar zenith angle, leaving the effects of Rayleigh
scattering, ozone absorption, aerosols and water vapdur
unaccounted for. The risk is, therefore, one of overesti-
mation of amounts of cloud in the CLAVR flags.
Another potential shortcoming is the fundamental differ-
ence in spatio-temporal scales represented by the mod-
elled estimates (constrained by the one observation per
day, 8 km x 8 km resolution of the CLAVR flags) and
ground observations used for calibration or validation.
211
JAG l Volume 1 - Issue 3/4 - 1999
The satellite estimates are spatial averages at specific
times, whereas surface measurements are temporal aver-
ages at specific sites [Frouin & Pinker, 19951.
STRENGTHS
Figure 8 displays cloud frequencies for each dekad (with
mixed cloud states classified as 100 percent cloud) over
1992 for the pixel corresponding to the HAPEX Sahel site
used for the calibration. Most dekads from April through
to September (roughly corresponding to the rainy sea-
son) reveal cloud frequencies between 7 and 10, while at
other times of the year cloud frequencies vary between 1
and 6. As we expected, cloud amounts are higher during
the rainy season, thus lending qualitative su.pport to the
use of CLAVR as a source of reliable cloud data.
*/ 1
EB
d 6
14
2
0
16
FIGURE 8 Cloud frequency at 1366N and 253E computed
from daily CLAVR images
Other advantages include the fact that ttie method is
easily implemented using equations that are well estab-
lished in the literature. Furthermore, the CLAVR fields are
widely accessible to the public, and easily incorporated
into the modelling procedure, thus providing the ability
to partition incoming solar irradiation between its direct
and diffuse components. Provided regional Angstrijm
coefficients can be established, the method has the abil-
ity to represent regional variation in PAR with accuracies
that improve over longer integration periods. Finally, the
error permitted for PAR estimations to furnish satisfacto-
ry accuracy for use in biomass models depends both on
the amount of PAR and on the biomass. Accuracies of 20
percent over land and 35 percent over water are suffi-
cient when actual daily PAR exceeds 300 W m-2 [Frouin &
Pinker, 19951. The overall discrepancies
this study indicate that PAR estimates
African Sahel fall below the 20 percent
land.
obtained from
for the West
threshold over
CONCLUSIONS
A technique for generating spatially comprehensive and
representative values of PAR has been established using
Estimating PAR over the West African Sahel
the CLAVR flags from PAL for time scales of IO days or
longer, calibrated with data from the HAPEX Sahel exper-
iment in S.W. Niger. Though more accurate methods
exist for generating total PAR values on a daily basis -
using a combination of radiation transfer models and
data from other satellite sensors - the technique has
merit in that it requires a mjnimum of data and can be
rapidly implemented using an easily accessible data set.
Regional PAR estimates may be generated for use in bio-
mass models that require PAR accuracies within 20 per-
cent over land. Data model comparisons using the
NRMSE, NMAE, and ZOA confirm that overall accuracies
are within this 20 percent threshold. Furthermore, simu-
lated end-of-year accumulated PAR may be achieved at
accuracies within 1.9 percent of observed values.
However the technique must be applied judiciously. Its
reliance on empirical formulae such as the Angstrom
relation imposes geographical constraints. Furthermore,
the method relies on one cloud observation per day,
leading to an underestimation of diurnal cloudiness
cycles. It is also known that the CLAVR algorithm is not
entirely efficient in detecting amounts of cloud.
Unfortunately, due to lack of ground observations of sur-
face solar irradiance or PAR, the model could not be ade-
quately validated over the larger region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by the Swedish International
Development Agency (SIDA) and the Swedish Space
Agency. The CLAVR files were provided by the Pathfinder
programme (NASA-EOSDIYNOAA, Goddard Space Flight
Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA) with ancillary infor-
mation found on the FEWS Information Server (EROS
Data Center, USGS, Sioux Falls, SD 57198, USA).
Calibration data were downloaded from the HAPEX
Sahel Information System [http://www.ird.fr/hapex]. Lars
Harrie and Lars Eklundh of the Department of Physical
Geography, Lund University, Sweden, provided valuable
suggestions for this manuscript.
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RESUME
La radiation active photosynthetique (PAR) est importante pour
evaluer a la fois Iimpact du changement de couverture des
terres sur le climat et pour rrfodeliser la productivite a une echel-
le regionale, aussi bien que son potentiel dans des regions
sujettes a des penuries alimentaires. Une methode relativement
simple qui produit des valeurs de PAR &endues et representa-
tives a des echelles de temps de 10 jours (decades) ou plus
longues est d&rite ; cette methode est testee et completee sur
une partie de IAfrique de IOuest. Avec des equations simples
pour decrire la variation geographique et temporelle de la radia-
tion globale recue au sommet de Iatmosphere, chaque jour des
nuages enregistres par NOAA NASA AVHRR Pathfinder Land
Data Set (PAL) sont utilises conjointement avec une formule
empirique developpee par Angstrom et adaptee aux conditions
dAfrique de IOuest pour @valuer la reception de surface de
radiation globale a cet endroit. Des observations au sol de PAR a
partir de Iexperience HAPEX du Sahel (a 13.66 N et 2.53 E
de 1992) sont utilisees pour etablir le parametre de la variable
de duree relative densoleillement dans la relation Angstrom
ainsi que pour minimiser les erreurs entre le PAR observe et
modelise. Les resultats indiquent que PAR peut @tre estime
jusque dans les 20% des valeurs observees pour 28 des 36
periodes de sommations de 10 jours sur une annee. Le PAR
accumule en fin dannee est estime a 1.96 pour cent. Des
erreurs moyennes quadratiques normalisees (NRMSEs) et des
erreurs moyennes absolues normalisees (NMAEs) de 15.69 pour
cent et 12.46 pour cent, respectivement ont ete obtenues pour
des sommes de 10 jours, avec des valeurs de 10.96 pour cent et
8.74 pour cent, respectivement pour des sommes mensuelles.
La variabilite spatiale de fin dannee PAR pour 1992 est en
concordance avec ce qui etait escompte. Bien quil existe des
methodes plus precises pour accomplir cela, la technique est
meritoire pour sa facilite dapplication, en utilisant une serie de
donnees accessibles, dans une region ou manquent les mesures
de Iirradiation solaire.
RESUMEN
La radiacidn fotosinteticamente activa (PAR) es importante para
evaluar tanto el impact0 de 10s cambios de la corteza terrestre
sobre el clima y para planear la productividad a escala regional,
coma su potential en areas que son vulnerables a deficits de ali-
mentos. Se describe un metodo relativamente sencillo que gene-
ra valores de PAR de conjunto y representativos a nivel espacial
a escalas de tiempo de 10 dias o m6s y que ha sido estudiado y
puesto en prdctica en una region del Africa occidental. Con
ecuaciones sencillas que describen la variaci6n geogrdfica y tem-
poral de la radiaci6n global recibida en la parte alta de la atmos-
fera, se utilizan las rachas de nubes diarias de NOAA/NASA
AVHRR Pathfinder Land Data Set (PAL) conjuntamente con una
formula empirica desarrollada por Angstrom y unas constantes
adaptadas a las condiciones del oeste de Africa para calcular la
recepci6n en la superficie de la radiation global en aquel punto.
Se utilizan las observaciones de PAR en el suelo del experiment0
de HAPEX Sahel (a 13,660 N y 2,530 E desde 1992) para obte-
ner 10s pardmetros de la duracidn relativa de la Iuz solar variable
en la relation de Angstrom, de forma que se reduzcan al mini-
mo 10s errores entre el valor de PAR observado y el modelado.
Los resultados indican que se puede calcular la PAR con un error
inferior al 20% para 10s valores observados en 28 de 10s 36 peri-
odos de adicion de 10 dias a lo largo de un aiio. La PAR acumu-
lada a final de afio se calcula con un error del 1.96%. Se obtu-
vieron errores de la media cuadratica normalizada (NRMSE) y
errores de la media absoluta normalizada (NMAE) de 15,69% y
12,46% respectivamente, para el acumulado de 10 dias, con
valores de 10,96% y 8,74% respectivamente, para resultados
mensuales. La variabilidad espacial de PAR al final del ario para
1992 concuerda con lo esperado. Aunque existen metodos mas
precisos para conseguir esto, la tecnica merece la pena por su
fdcil aplicacion, utilizando un conjunto de datos accesibles, en
zonas donde se carece de medidas de la radiaci6n solar.
213