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50
) solution
Potassium chromate(K
2
CrO
4
) indicator
42
4.4.2 Procedure
Take 25 ml of distilled water in a conical flask and add at least 5
drops of potassium chromate indicator. Slowly add standard
solution of AgNO
3
from the burette and the volume of the
solution is noted down as end point. When yellow colour starts
changing to red. Repeate this titration for concordant readings.
Take 25 ml of water sample in a conical flask. Add 5 drops of
freshly prepared K
2
CrO
4
solution. Titrate it against AgNO
3
solution until the light yellow colour starts changing to red and
the red colour persists. Repeate this titration till two concordant
readings are obtained.
4.5 TO DETERMINE THE TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS IN WATER
SAMPLE
The apparatus required and procedure for determination of dissolved solids in
water is discussed below.
4.5.1 Apparatus required
Silica and porcelain crucibles
Beakers
Measuring cylinders
Filter papers
Weighing balance
4.5.2 Procedure
Take 50 or 100 ml of water sample in a weighed crucible or
beaker.
Place the sample in an oven and evaporate to dryness at 98
0
C.
Then dry the evaporated sample for at least one hour at103
0
105
0
C.
43
Cool the crucible in desiccators and weight it.
4.6 TO DETERMINE THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN PRESENT IN
WATER SAMPLE
The apparatus required and procedure for the determination of dissolved oxygen
present in water is discussed below.
4.6.1 Apparatus required
Measuring cylinder
Pipette with elongated tip
Conical flask
BOD bottle
Funnel
Burette stand
4.6.2 Chemicals required
Alkaline iodide azide
Starch indicator distilled water
Manganous sulphate
Sulphuric acid
Sodium thiosulphate (0.025N)
4.6.3 Procedure
Take two 300mL stoppered BOD bottle and fill it with sample to
be tested. Avoid any kind of bubbling and trapping of air bubbles.
Take the sample collected from the field. It should be collected in
BOD bottle filled up to the rim.
Add 2mL of manganese sulphate to the BOD bottle by inserting
the calibrated pipette just below the surface of the liquid.
Add 2mL of alkali-iodide-azide reagent in the same manner.
44
Squeeze the pipette slowly so no bubbles are introduced via the
pipette.
If oxygen is present, a brownish-orange cloud of precipitate or
floc will appear.
Allow it to settle for sufficient time in order to react completely
with oxygen.
Add 2mL of concentrated Sulphuric acid via a pipette held just
above the surface of the sample.
Carefully stopper and invert several times to dissolve the floc.
At this point, the sample is fixed and can be stored for up to 8
hours if kept in a cool, dark place.
Rinse th burette with sodium thiosulphate and fill it with sodium
thiosulphate. Fix the burette to the stand.
Measure out 50mL of the solution from the bottle and transfer to
an conical flask.
Titration needs to be started immediately after the transfer of the
contents to the conical flask.
Titrate it against sodium thiosulphate using starch indicator. (Add
3-4 drops of starch indicator solution).
End point of the titration is first disappearance of the blue colour
to colourless.
Note down the volume of sodium thiosulphate solution added
which gives the dissolved oxygen in ml.
Repeat the titration for concordant values.
In these ways we performed chemical test on water sample, to check whether
water is suitable for drinking purpose or not. The discussion about the results
obtained by performing these experiments is done in next chapter.
45
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 RESULTS OF CHEMICAL TEST OF WATER SAMPLE USED
Hardness of water sample = 400 mg/l
Total dissolved solids = 700 mg/l
pH value of water sample = 6.5
Chlorides in water = 300 mg/l
Alkalinity of water sample = 105 mg/l
Dissolved oxygen in water = 21.88 mg/l
5.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The results obtained from the laboratory experiments on water sample are
discussed below.
5.2.1 pH
The pH value of a water source is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. The pH
level is a measurement of the activity of the hydrogen atom, because the
hydrogen activity is a good representation of the acidity or alkalinity of the
water. The pH scale, as shown below, ranges from 0 to 14, with 7.0 being
neutral. Water with a low pH is said to be acidic, and water with a high pH is
basic, or alkaline. Pure water would have a pH of 7.0, but water sources and
precipitation tends to be slightly acidic, due to contaminants that are in the
water. The pH scale is logarithmic, which means that each step on the pH scale
represents a ten-fold change in acidity. For example, a water body with a pH of
46
5.0 is ten times more acidic than water with a pH of 6.0. And water with a pH of
4.0 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 6.0.
5.2.2 pH ADJUSTMENT
There are several methods that can increase the pH of water, before disinfection.
The pH is commonly increased using sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide,
but a better way of dealing with low pH is to use calcium and magnesium
carbonate, which not only will increase pH levels, but will also make the water
less corrosive and both calcium and magnesium are of health benefits as
opposed to sodium.
5.3 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)
TDS stands for total dissolved solids, and represents the total concentration of
dissolved substances in water. TDS is made up of inorganic salts, as well as a
small amount of organic matter. Common inorganic salts that can be found in
water include calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, which are all
cations, and carbonates, nitrates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates, which are
all anions. Cations are positively charged ions and anions are negatively
charged ions.
5.3.1 TDS TREATMENT
Water treatment facilities can use reverse osmosis to remove the dissolved
solids in the water that are responsible for elevated TDS levels. Reverse
osmosis removes virtually all dissolved substances, including many harmful
minerals, such as salt and lead. It also removes healthy minerals, such as
calcium and magnesium, and ideally such water should be filtered through a
magnesium and calcium mineral bed to add the minerals to the water. The
mineral bed also increases the pH and decreases the corrosive potential of the
water. With TDS, the treatment process must deal with a number of different
47
mineral compounds or salts. The available treatment processes for TDS while
effective, are relatively more expensive than treatment for other water quality
problems, such as iron removal. Of the available treatment processes for TDS,
reverse osmosis (RO) and deionization (DI) units are the only ones capable of
treating the entire household supply. Because deionized water is also corrosive,
DI units are not recommended for whole-house use. Where only the taste of the
water is of concern, point of- use devices are another means for treating TDS.
These are small treatment units which use distillation, deionization, reverse
osmosis, or ultra filtration to treat only enough water for use in drinking and
cooking. They are limited to a production of from 10 to 15 gallons of water per
day.
1. Reverse Osmosis (RO): RO units remove TDS by forcing the water, under
pressure, through a synthetic membrane. The membrane contains microscopic
pores which will allow only molecules of a certain size to pass through. Since
the molecules of dissolved mineral salts are large compared to the water
molecules, the water will squeeze through the membrane leaving the mineral
salts behind.
A properly operated RO unit is capable of removing 90 percent of the dissolved
mineral salts from a water supply. A pre-filter is usually required to protect the
membrane from abrasion. The membrane cartridges require periodic
replacement.
2. Distillation: Distillation units are better known as stills. They are
manufactured from heat-resistant glass or stainless steel. Stills work by heating
small amounts (less than 2 gallons) of water to produce steam. The steam is
then collected and condensed back into water. The dissolved mineral salts will
not vaporize and are left behind in the heating chamber. Stills require frequent,
rigorous cleaning to remove the baked-on mineral salts. The flat taste from
48
boiling the water can be reduced by pouring the water back and forth between
two containers to aerate it.
3. Deionization (DI): Deionization units are available as small, wall-mounted
cartridges containing ion exchange resins. When water passes through the
cartridge, the dissolved minerals salts are retained in the resin, producing
mineral-free water. The DI cartridges have a limited life. They will usually
show a color change in the resin to indicate when they should be replaced.
4. Combination Point-of-Use Devices: These are multi step treatment systems
designed to fit under the kitchen sink. They use a pre-filter, RO membrane or DI
cartridge, and a carbon polishing filter top produce up to 15 gallons of water per
day. The treated water is stored in a small pressure tank and piped to a special
faucet on the sink. Each of the treatment steps is in a cartridge form.
5.4 CHLORIDES
Chlorides, not to be confused with chlorine, are in nearly all water supplies.
They are usually associated with the salt content and the amount of dissolved
minerals in water. The recommended limit for chlorides is 250 milligrams per
liter (mg/1). This is the concentration in water where most people will notice a
salty taste.
5.4.1 CAUSES
Chlorides are soluble mineral compounds that are dissolved by the water as it
filters through the earth. The amount of chlorides in water is determined by the
type of rock sand soils it has contacted. In coastal areas, the leaking of sea water
into a well can also because of increased chlorides. Water supplies having high
concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) may also contain elevated
chloride levels as part of the TDS. As much as 50 percent of the TDS may be
49
due to chlorides. Human and animal wastes contain a high concentration of
chlorides. If a sudden, large increase in the chloride content is noticed, or if the
well water begins to taste salty, then samples should be taken to see if the well
has been contaminated.
5.4.2 EFFECTS
The presence of chlorides in drinking water is generally not considered to be
harmful to humans or animals. The most noticeable effect of high chlorides is a
salty taste. If a water softener is being used, the taste will be even more
pronounced. In mineralized waters (high TDS), chlorides contribute to the
corrosion of household appliances and domestic plumbing by preventing the
formation of protective oxide film son exposed surfaces. The average life of
water heaters has been estimated to shorten by one year for every 100 mg/l
chloride over the first 100 mg/I.
5.4.3 TREATMENT
Chlorides cannot be easily removed from drinking water. Of the available
treatment processes, reverse osmosis (RO) and deionization (DI) are capable of
effectively treating the entire household supply. However, both are relatively
expensive. Because deionized water can also be corrosive, DI units are not
recommended for whole-house use. If the taste of the water is the only concern,
the treatment methods described below are available as point of-use devices. A
point-of-use device is a small treatment unit that will produce between 10 and
15 gallons of water per day for drinking and cooking. The device is usually
located near the kitchen sink.
1. Reverse osmosis (RO): RO units remove dissolved minerals by forcing the
water, under pressure, through a synthetic membrane. The membrane contains
microscopic pores that will allow only molecules of a certain size to pass
50
through. Since the molecules of dissolved mineral salts are large compared to
the water molecules, the water will squeeze through the membrane leaving the
mineral salts behind. A properly operated RO unit is capable of removing 90
percent of the dissolved mineral salts from a water supply. A pre-filter is usually
required to protect the membrane from abrasion. The membrane cartridges
require periodic replacement.
2. Distillation: Distillation units are better known as stills. They are
manufactured from heat-resistant glass or stainless steel. Stills work by heating
small amounts (less than 2 gallons) of water to produce steam. The steam is
then collected and condensed back into water. The dissolved minerals will not
vaporize and are left behind in the heating chamber. Stills require frequent,
rigorous cleaning to remove the baked-on mineral salts. The flat taste from
boiling the water can be reduced by pouring the water back and forth between
two containers to aerate it.
3. Deionization (DI): Deionization units are available as small, wall-mounted
cartridges containing ion exchange resins. When water passes through the
cartridge the dissolved mineral salts are retained in the resin, producing mineral-
free water.
The DI cartridges have a limited life. They will usually show a color change in
the resin to indicate when they should be replaced.
4. Combination Point-of-Use Devices: These are multistep treatment systems
designed to fit under the kitchen sink. They use a pre-filter, RO membrane or DI
cartridge, and a carbon polishing filter top and produce up to 15 gallons of
water per day. The treated water is stored in a small pressure tank and piped to a
special faucet on the sink. Each of the treatment steps is in a cartridge form.
51
5.5 HARDNESS
Hard water is one of the most common water quality problems in the United
States. In the past, hardness was measured by the amount of soap that had to be
added to water to produce lather. It is now measured as the concentration of
dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds (expressed as calcium
carbonate). There is no firm dividing line between hard and soft water.
However, for most household uses, a hardness of between 50 and 150
milligrams per liter (mg/1) is acceptable. Hardness may sometimes be expressed
as grains per gallon (gpg) instead of mg/l. 1gpg are equal to 17.1 mg/l.
5.5.1 CAUSE
The amount of naturally occurring calcium and magnesium compounds
dissolved by the water as it filters through the earth will determine its hardness.
Hardness varies with location and the types of minerals and rocks in the earth.
5.5.2 EFFECTS
Despite all of the problems it causes, hard water is not considered to be a health
hazard. Moderate amounts of hardness are desirable because of the protective
coating it produces on exposed metal surfaces. Excessively hard water,
however, will cause a hard, chalky scale (boiler scale) to form when the water is
heated. Water heaters are especially affected by hardness. The boiler scale will
accumulate on the heating elements, reducing their heating capacity, and
eventually causing them to burn-out. Hard water will form a white, powdery
residue on plumbing fixtures, and will cause spots on dishes. Because calcium
and magnesium compounds are not very soluble in coldwater, ice made from
hard water may contain white particles. Vegetables cooked in hard water may
be tough. More soap must be added to a hard water to produce lather. With very
hard water, soap will form a sticky curd, which is difficult to remove from
fabrics and containers.
52
Laundry washed in hard water will be stiff and dingy. Hair becomes dull and
limp when washed in hard water.
5.5.3 TREATMENT
The minerals that cause water hardness can be removed by a water softener.
Water softeners use an ion exchange process to replace the calcium and
magnesium that cause hardness with an equivalent amount of sodium, which
does not contribute to water hardness. With use, all of the sodium in a softener
will eventually be replaced by calcium and magnesium. When this occurs, the
softener must be regenerated to maintain its softening ability. In regeneration,
the softener is filled with a concentrated salt solution. The sodium in the salt
solution replaces the calcium and magnesium in the softener, restoring it to its
original condition. Most manufacturers offer either a manual or an automatic
regeneration cycle in their softeners. Ion exchange softeners produce water with
near zero hardness. Because a moderate amount of hardness is desirable, some
individuals choose to soften a portion of the water and blend it with unsoftened
water to produce a final hardness of 50 to 100 mg/1.
In cases where the water hardness exceeds 200 mg/1 or where elevated levels of
chlorides are present, softening may produce a salty taste in the water. In these
instances, a by-pass line can be installed from before the softener to a kitchen
faucet; or a point-of use treatment device can be used (see below).If excessive
iron and manganese are present, it may be necessary to remove these metals
prior to softening. While water softeners will remove small amounts of iron and
manganese, excessive amounts will foul the water softener. As a rule of thumb,
the total amount of iron and manganese should not exceed 1.0 mg/l for every
140 mg 1 (8 gpg) of hardness.
53
1. Point-of-Use Devices: Where the taste of the water or the increased amount
of sodium due to softening is a concern, a point-of-use device may be used to
produce a limited amount of water per day for drinking and cooking. These
devices are small, multi-step treatment system designed to fit under the kitchen
sink. They produce up to 15 gallons per day of treated water. The treated water
is stored in a small pressure tank, piped to a special faucet on the sink. Each of
the treatment steps is in a cartridge form and requires periodic replacement.
2. Laundry Water Softening: Water for laundry may be softened in the
washing machine by using a group of chemicals known as non-precipitating
water softeners. This group includes borax, washing soda, trisodium phosphate,
and ammonia. Always follow the manufacturers instructions in using these
chemicals. Under no circumstances should these chemicals be used for
softening drinking water.
54
CHAPTER 6
DESIGN OF DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PLANT
6.1 WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION
The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply
scheme has to be designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in liters per day per head)
2. Population to be served.
=
6.2 FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND
Average Daily per Capita Demand
= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 Population)
If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to
meet the fluctuations.
Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs
are generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal
variation.
Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on
Sundays and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During
active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and
four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken.
During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire
breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during
55
short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly
supply.
So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand.
To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution
pipes must be properly proportioned. The water is supplied by pumping directly
and the pumps and distribution system must be designed to meet the peak
demand. The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage
reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service
reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand
= 1.5 average hourly demand
= 1.5 Maximum daily demand/24
= 1.5 (1.8 average daily demand)/24
= 2.7 average daily demand/24
= 2.7 annual average hourly demand
6.3 DESIGN PERIODS & POPULATION FORECAST
This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated
requirements of the future. The future period for which a provision is made in
the water supply scheme is known as the design period
Design period is estimated based on the following:
Useful lives of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.
Expandability aspect.
Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial,
commercial developments & migration-immigration.
56
Available resources.
Performance of the system during initial period.
6.3.1 POPULATION FORECASTING METHODS
The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below.
The particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city
depends largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left
to the discretions and intelligence of the designer.
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
2. Geometric Increase Method
3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. Ratio Method
8. Logistic Curve Method
6.4 DESIGN DETAILS
1. Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for coagulated
sedimentation: 2 to 2.5 h.
2. Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow).
3. Tank dimensions: L: B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common)
maximum 100 m. Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater
than 60 m. generally 20 to 40 m.
4. Depth 2.5to 5.0 m (3 m).
5. Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000
L/d/m
2
tank area; for thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to 30000 L/d/m
2
tank area.
57
6. Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.
Standard design practice of Rapid Sand filter:
1. Maximum length of lateral should not less than 60 times its diameter.
2. Spacing of holes = 6 mm holes at 7.5 cm c/c or 13 at 15 c/c.
3. C.S area of lateral should not less than 2 times area of perforations.
4. C.S area of manifold is equal to2 times total area of laterals.
5. Maximum loss of head is equal to 2 to 5 m.
6. Spacing of laterals is equal to 15 to 30 cm c/c.
7. Pressure of wash water at perforations should not greater than 1.05
kg/cm
2
.
8. Velocity of flow in lateral is equal to 2 m/s.
9. Velocity of flow in manifold is equal to 2.25 m/s.
10. Velocity of flow in manifold for wash water is equal to 1.8 to 2.5 m/s.
11. Velocity of rising wash wateris equal to 0.5 to 1.0 m/min.
12. Amount of wash water is equal to 0.2 to 0.4% of total filtered water.
13. Time of backwashing is equal to10 to 15 min.
14. Head of water over the filter = 1.5 to 2.5 m.
15. Free board = 60 cm. Bottom slope = 1 to 60 towards manifold.
Note: Q = (1.71 b h
3/2
) where Q is in m
3
/s, b is in m, h is in m. L:B = 1.25 to
1.33:1
58
6.5 DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANK
6.5.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR SEDIMENTATION TANK
DESIGN
1. Quantity of water to be treated per day = 1.5 million liters
2. Detention period = 2 hours
Raw water flow per day = 1.5 million liters
Detention period = 2 hours
Volume of tank = flow detention period
= 1.5 10
3
(224)
= 125 m
3
Assume depth of tank = 3m
Surface area of tank = (1253)
= 41.66 m
2
L/B = 2 (assumed)
L = 2B
2B
2
= 41.66
B = 4.5m
L = 2B
L = 9.0 m
Hence surface overloading (flow rate) =
1.510
41.66
6
= 36005.76 l/d/m
2
59
6.6 DESIGN OF RAPID SAND FILTER
6.6.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
1. Population = 100,000
2. Average rate of demand = 120 litres per head per day
Maximum daily demand = 100,000 120 1.5 = 108000 liters
Let us assume an average filtration rate of 2500 liters per hour per m
2
of filter
area.
Therefore, area of filters =
100000
2500 24
= 1.8 m
2
Let the size of each filter unit be 3 m 2 m
No. of units required =
1.8
3 2
=0.3
Design of filters units
Let us assume that 3% of filtered water is used for washing of filter every day
Filter water requirement per day = 1.03 1.5 = 1.545 Mld
Again, let us assume that 30 minutes are lost every day in washing the filter.
The quantity of filtered water required per hour =
1.545
(240.5)
= 0.0657 Ml/hour
Again let us assume that an average filtration rate of 3000 liters/h/m
2
of filter
area
Therefore filter area A =
0.0657 100000
3000
= 2.191 m
2
Let L=
4
3
B and let there is 2 filter units, two being the minimum number to be
provided
Then 2(
4
3
) = 2.191
From which B = .289 m
Keep B = 3 m and L= 4 m for each filter unit giving total area
A = 2 3 4 = 24 m
2
60
6.7 DESIGNS FOR CHLORINATION
6.7.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
1. Population=100000
2. Average rate of demand = 120 litres per head per day
3. Chlorine consumed per day = .09 kg/day
4. Residual chlorine after 10 minutes = 0.2 mg/l.
Water treated per day = 120 100000 1.5 = 108000 litres
Chlorine consumed per day = .09 kg = .09 1000000 mg/day
Therefore, chlorine used per litre of water =
.091000000
108000
=0.83 mg/l
Also, residual chlorine = 0.2 mg/l
Therefore, chlorine demand = 0.83-0.2 = 0.63 mg/l
6.8 DESIGN OF COAGULATION CUM SEDIMENTATION TANK:
6.8.1 NECESSARY DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
1. Population = 100,000
2. Average rate of demand = 120 litres per head per day
Maximum daily demand = 100,000 120 1.5 = 108000 liters
Assume detention period = 2 hours
Therefore, quantity of water to be treated during an assumed detention period of
4 hours =
108000
24
2 = 9000 cu-m.
Hence, capacity of tank required = 9000 cu-m.
Assuming an overflow rate of 1000 litres/hr/m
2
of plan area, we get
q
b.l
=1000
Where q =
108000
2
= 54000 lires/hr.
Plan area =b.l
=
1000
= (540001000) = 54 m
2
.
61
Using the width of tank as 6 m, we get
Length of the tank =
54
6
= 9 m.
Hence, use a tank of 9 m 6 m 2 m.
62
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
From the results of chemical analysis performed with the samples of drinking
water follows that produced water can be characterized as a very soft. Hence it
could be summarized that potable water should meet physical, chemical,
bacteriological, and radionuclide parameters when supplied by an approved
source, delivered to a treatment and disinfection facility of proper design,
construction and operation and in turn delivered to the consumers through a
protected distribution system in sufficient quantity and pressure. Water
purification is the removal of contaminants from untreated water to produce
drinking water that is pure enough for the most critical of its intended uses,
usually for human consumption. Substances that are removed during the process
of drinking water treatment include solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi,
minerals such as iron, manganese and sulphur, and other chemical pollutants
such as fertilizers. Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the
treatment of the water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment as
well. It is therefore common practice to have residual disinfectants in the treated
water in order to kill any bacteriological contamination during distribution.
World Health Organisation (WHO) guidelines are generally followed
throughout the world for drinking water quality requirements. In addition to the
WHO guidelines, each country or territory or water supply body can have their
own guidelines in order for consumers to have access to safe drinking water.
63
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