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Kepler problem
G.F. Torres del Castillo
Departamento de Fsica Matem
atica, Instituto de Ciencias
Universidad Aut
onoma de Puebla, 72570 Puebla, Pue., Mexico
cal
J.L. Calvario Aco
Instituto de Fsica
Universidad Aut
onoma de Puebla, Apartado postal J48,
72570 Puebla, Pue., Mexico
Abstract. Using the fact that the Schrodinger equation for the two-dimensional
Kepler problem with negative energy is equivalent to an integral equation on the
unit sphere in the three-dimensional space, the eigenfunctions and the generators of
a dynamical symmetry group for this problem are obtained from the usual spherical
harmonics and the angular momentum operators on the sphere. It is shown that if
the spherical harmonics are eigenfunctions of Ly , instead of Lz , the corresponding
1. Introduction
It is a well known fact that in the Kepler problem (in classical or quantum mechanics),
besides the angular momentum, there exists another conserved vector, known as the
HermannBernoulliLaplaceRungeLenz (HBLRL) vector; whereas the conservation
of the angular momentum follows from the invariance of the potential under rotations,
the conservation of the HBLRL vector is associated with a hidden symmetry, that
is, with transformations that mix the position and momentum variables, leaving the
2
dimensional Kepler problem with negative energy can be transformed into an equation on the unit sphere in three-dimensional space to find the energy levels and the
eigenfunctions explicitly, obtaining a relationship between the generating functions
of the associated Legendre functions and of the associated Laguerre polynomials. We
show that the HBLRL vector (in two dimensions) can be derived from the expressions for the usual angular momentum operators and that the eigenfunctions of one of
the components of the HBLRL vector are the separable solutions of the Schrodinger
equation for the 1/r potential in parabolic coordinates. The analogue of this result
in classical mechanics is given in the Appendix. We also consider the Schrodinger
equation for the Kepler problem in two and three dimensions with zero energy, showing that this equation can be transformed into one on the two- or three-dimensional
Euclidean space, respectively, whose solutions can be easily obtained.
h
2 2
k
= E,
2M
r
(1)
as a Fourier transform,
(r) =
using the fact that
equation
1 Z
(p)eipr/h d2 p,
2
h
(2)
(1/r)ei(pp )r/h d2 r = 2
h/|p p0 |, one obtains the integral
M k Z (p0 ) 2 0
d p,
(p 2M E)(p) =
h
|p p0 |
2
(3)
where p |p|. Throughout this section, we shall consider bound states only, for
which E < 0. Then, by means of the stereographic projection, the vector p can be
replaced by a unit vector n = (nx , ny , nz ) according to [1,3]
p = (px , py ) = p0
where
p0
(nx , ny )
,
1 nz
2M E,
(4)
(5)
or, equivalently,
n = (nx , ny , nz ) =
(6)
Under the correspondence between p and n given by Eqs. (4) and (6), the plane is
mapped onto the unit sphere and making use of the spherical coordinates , , of n,
from Eq. (4) we find that
p=
p0
(sin cos , sin sin ) = p0 cot(/2)(cos , sin ),
1 cos
5
(7)
therefore,
p = p0 cot(/2),
(8)
p0 |n n0 |
= 12 p0 csc(/2) csc(0 /2)|n n0 |,
(1 nz )1/2 (1 n0z )1/2
(9)
hence, by defining
"
p2 + p20
(n)
23/2 p0 csc3 (/2)(n) = p0
2p20
#3/2
(p),
(10)
(n)
=
d0 .
2
hp0 |n n0 |
(11)
The constant factors included in the definition (10) are chosen in such a way that
is normalized over the sphere if and only if is normalized
is dimensionless and
over the plane [3]. Since the distance between points on the sphere and the solid
angle element d are invariant under rotations of the sphere, Eq. (11) is explicitly
invariant under these transformations, thus showing that the rotation group SO(3) is
a symmetry group of the original equation (1), for E < 0. Substituting Eqs. (7), (8)
and (10) into Eq. (2) one obtains the wave function (r) in terms of the solution of
the integral equation (11)
p0 Z
(, ) csc(/2)eip0 cot(/2)(x cos +y sin )/h d.
(r) =
2 2h
6
(12)
The integral equation (11) can be easily solved using the fact that the spherical
harmonics form a complete set for the functions defined on the sphere, therefore the
can be expanded in the form
function
) =
(,
l
X
X
alm Ylm (, ).
(13)
l=0 m=l
Substituting Eq. (13) into Eq. (11), making use of the expansion
X
l
X
1
4
=
Y (0 , 0 )Ylm (, ),
0
|n n | l=0 m=l 2l + 1 lm
"
l=0 m=l
2M k
1
alm Ylm (, ) = 0,
h
p0 (2l + 1)
2M k 2
,
h
2 (2l + 1)2
(14)
(15)
m0 =
m=
2l + 1 (l m)!
p0 Z
lm (r, ) =
(1)m
4 (l + m)!
2h
p0 2l + 1 (l m)!
=
h
2 (l + m)!
Z
0
m0 =
"
#1/2
#1/2
(i)m
(p0 r/
h) cot(/2) cos(/2)d eim ,
(17)
which shows that the separable eigenfunctions of L2 in spherical coordinates correspond to separable eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian in polar coordinates. Denoting
by Ilm the integral between braces in Eq. (17), and introducing an auxiliary parameter
t we have
(2l + 1)Ilm tl =
l=0
Z X
l=0
m+1
(cos )
therefore, making use of the recurrence relation (2l+1) sin Plm (cos ) = Pl+1
m+1
Pl1
(cos ) and of the generating function of the associated Legendre functions,
X
(2m)!(1 x2 )m/2
=
P m (x)tk
2m m!(1 2tx + t2 )m+1/2 k=0 m+k
Z
(1 t2 )tm
(2l + 1)Ilm t =
l=0
sin
m+1
Z
2 m
J
(p
r/
h
)
m
0
(1 t )t (2m + 2)!
(2l + 1)Ilm tl =
d.
2m+3
2 m+3/2
(1 t)
(m + 1)!
0
X
l=0
2 +
1+t
1t
The last integral can be evaluated by first differentiating with respect to s the equation
Z
0
exs xm Jm (x)dx =
(2m)!
2m m!(s2 + 1)m+1/2
(2m + 1)!s
.
+ 1)m+3/2
(18)
2m m!(s2
Z
0
g(x)Jn (xy)xdx =
f (y) (see, e.g., Ref. 11, Sec. 13), from Eq. (18) one gets
Z
(2m + 1)! sxm+1 Jm (xy)
0
thus
2m m!
(x2 + s2 )m+3/2
dx = y m eys
l=0
e(2p0 r/h)t/(1t)
(1 t)2m+1
X
exz/(1z)
=
Lkn (x)z n ,
k+1
(1 z)
n=0
where Lkn denote the associated Laguerre polynomials (see, e.g., Ref. 13), it follows
that
l=0
k=0
h)tk
L2m
k (2p0 r/
therefore
2m+1 p0 r/h
e
(p0 r/
h)m L2m
h)
lm (2p0 r/
2l + 1
and the normalized eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian, for m 0, are given by
Ilm =
"
p0 2l + 1 (l m)!
lm (r, ) =
h
2 (l + m)!
#1/2
(i)m
2m+1 p0 r/h
h). (19)
e
(p0 r/h)m L2m
lm (2p0 r/
2l + 1
(l m)! m
P and Jm = (1)m Jm , from Eq. (17) it
(l + m)! l
follows that
.
l,m = lm
(20)
x = i
,
L
h sin + cot cos
y = i
L
h cos + cot sin
,
z = ih ,
L
(21)
where the indicates that these operators act on functions defined on the sphere.
Then, by means of the correspondence (12) we can find the operators on the wave
functions that correspond to the generators of rotations (21).
on the sphere correFrom Eqs. (2), (7) and (10) it follows that the function
sponding to a given wave function is
Z
p0
1
(n)
=
(r)eip0 cot(/2)(x cos +y sin )/h d2 r.
3
sin
(/2)
4 2h
10
(22)
Z
ip0
ip0
1
Lx =
(r) 3 cot(/2) sin +
cot2 (/2)(2x sin cos
3
h
8 2
h sin (/2)
ip0
+ y sin2 y cos2 ) +
y eip0 cot(/2)(x cos +y sin )/h d2 r,
h
Z
2
p20
h
(r)
3
+
2x
+
y
y eipr/h d2 r
y
x y
y 2 x2
h
2
8 2 sin3 (/2)
"
!
#
Z
h
2
2
p20
ipr/
h
2 2 y (r)d2 r,
=
e
+x
+y
3
2
y
x y
y
x
h
8 2 sin (/2)
where we have integrated by parts. Now, assuming that satisfies Eq. (1), the last
term can be replaced according to p20 = h
2 2 + (2M k/r), hence,
"
Z
h
2
p0
ipr/
h 1
e
Lx =
p0 2
4 2h sin3 (/2)
2
+ 2x
2y 2
y
x y
x
2
h
2
x y
y x
2
h
2 x
x y
y x
1
p0
2
h
2
M ky
r
M ky
(r)d2 r,
r
2
+ 2x x
2y x
2
y
M ky
r
x
given by Eq. (22), restricted to the solutions of Eq. (1) for a fixed value of E, L
corresponds to the operator
1
p0
2
h
2
x y
y x
2
h
2 x
x y
y x
M ky
r
, which,
apart from the constant factor (1/p0 ), coincides with Ay , one of the cartesian components of the HBLRL vector
1
M kr
A (p L L p)
,
2
r
(23)
2
2M u + v 2
2 2
+ 2
u2
v
u2
2k
= E.
+ v2
(24)
Substituting = U (u)V (v) into Eq. (24), one obtains the separated equations
h
2 d2 V
Ev 2 V = (k )V,
2M dv 2
h
2 d2 U
Eu2 U = (k + )U,
2M du2
(25)
where is a separation constant. Each of these separated equations, for E < 0, has
the form of the Schrodinger equation for a harmonic oscillator (cf. Refs. 6, 7 and 15);
q
p0 /
h u and
p0 /h v, from Eqs.
(25) we get
2M (k + )
d2 U
+ 2U =
U,
2
d
h
p0
d2 V
2M (k )
+ 2V =
V,
2
d
h
p0
M (k )
= n2 + 21 ,
h
p0
(26)
2 /2
Hn1 ()e
2 /2
2 /2
h
Hn2 () = Cep0 u
h u)ep0 v
Hn1 ( p0 /
2 /2
h
Hn2 ( p0 /h v),
(27)
that n1 and n2 be both odd or even; hence, n1 + n2 must always be an even number,
2l, say, and, for a fixed value of l,
my 12 (n1 n2 ),
(28)
can take the (2l + 1) integral values l, l + 1, . . . , l. Then, adding Eqs. (26) and
recalling Eq. (5) we obtain again E = 2M k 2 /[h2 (2l + 1)2 ] and subtracting Eqs. (26)
we find that the separation constant must be quantized according to
=
h
p0
my .
M
(29)
(Note that the existence of 2l + 1 different values of my for a given value of l means
that the degeneracy of the energy levels is 2l + 1.)
The meaning of the separation constant (and, hence, of my ) can be found by
multiplying the first equation in (25) by v 2 V , the second one by u2 U and subtracting,
which leads to
2
2
1
h
2
k(u2 v 2 )
2
2
u
=
+
2M u2 + v 2
u2
v 2
u2 + v 2
or, equivalently,
"
1
h
2
h
2
x
y
x
y
M
2 y
y
x
2
y
x
M kx
= ,
y
r
(30)
which is just the condition (1/M )Ax = (cf. Eq. (23)). Hence, the separable
solutions of Eq. (1) in parabolic coordinates are eigenfunctions of (1/p0 )Ax (which
y ), with eigenvalue M /p0 =
is the operator on the wave functions corresponding to L
corresponding (by means of
my h
. Thus, whereas the functions on the sphere, ,
Eq. (22)) to the separable solutions (19) of Eq. (1) in polar coordinates are the
z and L2 , those corresponding to the separable solutions (27) of
eigenfunctions of L
y and L2 .
Eq. (1) in parabolic coordinates are the eigenfunctions of L
13
2 /2
h
Hl+my ( p0 /h u)ep0 v
2 /2
h
Hlmy ( p0 /
h v)
(31)
[see Eqs. (27) and (28)] by one unit. In fact, a straightforward computation, using
again the relation p20 = h
2 2 + (2M k/r), gives the simple expression
h
i
Lz Ay =
p0
i
p0
u
2h
h
2p0 u
! r
p0
v
2h
h
.
2p0 v
(32)
The operators in the right-hand side of the last equation can be recognized as raising
or lowering operators corresponding to the linear harmonic oscillators described by
Eqs. (25). Letting a1
a2
Lz +
p0 /2
hv +
p0 /2h u +
h
/2p0 /v, a2
i
Ay = iha1 a2 ,
p0
Lz
h
/2p0 /u, a1
p0 /2h v
i
Ay = i
ha1 a2 ,
p0
14
p0 /2h u
h
/2p0 /u,
h
/2p0 /v, we have
1
h
Ax = (a1 a1 a2 a2 ). (33)
p0
2
These equations correspond to the well-known Schwingers realization of the Lie algebra of the rotation group in terms of creation and annihilation operators.
M k Z (p0 ) 2 0
d p.
h
|p p0 |
(34)
2M k q
,
h
q2
(35)
2M k
,
h
q
d2 p =
4M 2 k 2 2
d q,
h
2q4
|p p0 | =
2M k |q q0 |
,
h
qq 0
where
0)
1 Z (q
(q)
=
d2 q0 ,
2 |q q0 |
(36)
2M k
h
2 p3
(q)
(q)
=
(p).
h
q3
4M 2 k 2
(37)
Equation (36) is explicitly invariant under SE(2), the group of rigid transformations
of the Euclidean plane onto itself that do not change the orientation.
15
The homogeneous integral equation (36) can be easily solved. Substituting (q)
=
R
0
1 Z Z f (s)eisq d2 sd2 q0 Z f (s)eisq 2
d s=
=
ds
2
|q q0 |
s
isq 2
f (s)e
m=
where (, ) are the polar coordinates of q and s = (cos , sin ), it follows that
) = Jm ()eim is a separable solution in polar coordinates of Eq. (36), for any
(,
integral value of m. Hence, the degeneracy of the energy level E = 0 is infinite. It
may be noticed that the solutions to Eq. (36) coincide with those of the Helmholtz
= .
A somewhat similar result holds in the case of the integral
equation 2
= l(l + 1)h2 ,
(, ) =
(x, y)e2iM k(x cos +y sin )/h d2 r,
2 3
(38)
where, again, , are the polar coordinates of q. On the other hand, the generators
of the rigid motions of the plane can be chosen as
!
sin
,
P1 = i
h cos
cos
P2 = i
h sin
+
,
16
(39)
z = i
L
h .
z , P1 ] = ihP2 ,
[L
z , P2 ] = ihP1 .
[L
(40)
The operators on the wave functions corresponding to the generators of the symmetry
transformations (39) can be obtained following the same steps as in Sec. 2.3, making
use of Eq. (38). One finds, for instance,
"
!
#
3
M k Z ipr/h h
2
2
e
P1 =
+x
2y
(x, y)d2 r
2M k
x
y 2 x2
x y
h2 3
h
3
2
2M k
+ 2x 2 + 2 x 2y
2M k
x
y
x y
h
r
( 2 "
!
!#
)
h
M kx
h
=
x
x
+
=
y
+
y
Ax
Mk 2
y
x y y
y
x
r
Mk
[see Eq. (23)]. In a similar way, one finds that the operators corresponding to P2 and
z are (
L
h/M k)Ay and Lz , respectively. Thus, Ax , Ay and Lz generate symmetry
transformations of the Schrodinger equation (1), as in the case where E is negative.
z under the correspondence
The fact that Lz is the operator corresponding to L
(38) implies that, under this relationship, the separable solutions in polar coordinates
of the Schrodinger equation with E = 0 correspond to the separable solutions in polar
coordinates of Eq. (36) (which are of the form Jm ()eim ). On the other hand, since
Eq. (30) holds for any value of E, the separable solutions in parabolic coordinates of
the Schrodinger equation with E = 0 are eigenfunctions of Ax and, therefore, they
17
3.2. Symmetry of the Schro dinger equation for the three-dimensional Kepler
problem with zero energy
Considering now the Schrodinger equation (1) in three dimensions, writing
(r) =
Z
1
(p)eipr/h d3 p,
(2
h)3/2
M k Z (p0 ) 3 0
d p,
2h
|p p0 |2
(41)
(q)
= 2
d3 q0 ,
2
|q q0 |2
where
!3/2
(42)
!5/2
2M k
(q)
h
(q)
p4 (p).
=
4
h
q
2M k
Equation (42) is manifestly invariant under the rigid transformations of the threedimensional Euclidean space, which means that this group of transformations constitute a symmetry group of the three-dimensional Kepler problem with zero energy.
= eisq , where s is a constant vector
It can be easily seen that the functions
= jl ()Ylm (, ) are separable solutions of Eq. (42) in cartesian
with |s| = 1, and
coordinates and spherical coordinates, respectively, and these functions are also solu = ;
the existence of these sets of separable
tions of the Helmholtz equation 2
solutions corresponds to the separability of the Schrodinger equation (1) in parabolic
and spherical coordinates.
18
4. Concluding remarks
The cases considered in this paper, as well as those treated in Refs. 3 and 4, show the
usefulness of exhibiting the underlying symmetry of the quantum Kepler problem,
which allows to change the Schrodinger equation by a simpler condition.
The results of Sec. 2 show, among other things, that the usual spherical harmonics
are related with the associated Laguerre polynomials and the Hermite polynomials,
which form bases for representations of the rotation group; these results also show
one of the many connections between the Kepler problem with negative energy and
the isotropic oscillator (cf. also Ref. 9 and the references cited therein).
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by CONACYT. The authors would like to thank
Prof. K.B. Wolf for correspondence relating to the topic of this paper and Profs. H.V.
McIntosh and E.G. Kalnins for useful comments.
Appendix
The separability of the Schrodinger equation and of the HamiltonJacobi equation
for the two-dimensional Kepler problem in polar coordinates is a consequence of the
invariance of the Hamiltonian under rotations about the center of force (as in the
case of any central potential) which, in turn, is equivalent to the conservation of
the angular momentum Lz . The 1/r potential is distinguished by the existence of
another conserved vector the HBLRL vector which turns out to be related with
the separability of the above-mentioned equations in parabolic coordinates.
19
1
1
S
2
2
2M u + v
u
!2
S
+
v
!2
u2
S
2k
+
= 0.
2
+v
t
(A.1)
Even though both coordinates are non-ignorable, Eq. (A.1) admits separable solutions
of the form
S(u, v, t) = Et + f (u) + g(v).
(A.2)
In fact, substituting Eq. (A.2) into Eq. (A.1) one obtains the separated equations
1
2M
df
du
!2
1
2M
k Eu = ,
dg
dv
!2
k Ev 2 = ,
(A.3)
1 2 df
v
2M
du
!2
u2
dg
dv
!2
+ k(u2 v 2 ) = (u2 + v 2 ),
(A.4)
1
M kx
Ax
=
(xpy ypx )py
= ,
M
r
M
where A p L M kr/r now denotes the classical HBLRL vector (cf. Eq. (30)).
From Eqs. (A.3) it follows that, if E 0, then k k (cf. Eqs. (26)).
In a similar way one finds that Ay corresponds to a separation constant using the
coordinate system y = 12 (v 2 u2 ), x = uv.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
H.V. McIntosh, in Group theory and its applications, Vol. 2, E.M. Loebl (ed.),
(Academic Press, N.Y., 1971).
6.
7.
8.
M.J. Englefield, Group Theory and the Coulomb Problem, (Wiley, N.Y., 1972).
9.
O.L. de Lange and R.E. Raab, Operator Methods in Quantum Mechanics, (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991).
10. G.F. Torres del Castillo and J.L. Calvario Acocal, Rev. Mex. Fs. 43 (1997) 649.
11. H. Hochstadt, The Functions of Mathematical Physics, (Wiley-Interscience, New
York, 1971), reprinted by Dover (New York, 1986), Chap. 8.
12. G. Arfken, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 3rd ed. (Academic Press, San
Diego, 1985), Chap. 12.
13. H. Hochstadt, op. cit., Chap. 2.
14. K.B. Wolf, Supl. Nuovo Cimento 5 (1967) 1041.
15. M. Moshinsky, T.H. Seligman and K.B. Wolf, J. Math. Phys. 13 (1972) 901.
16. H. Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, 2nd ed. (Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.,
1980).
21