DIGITAL

MODULATIONS
Why digital modulation?
If our goal was to design a digital
baseband communication system, we have
done that
Problem is baseband communication wont
2
Problem is baseband communication wont
takes us far, literally and figuratively
Digital modulation to a square pulse is
what analog modulation was to messages
A block diagram
Messsage
source
Source
coder
Line coder
Pulse
shaping
modulator
1011
3
demodulator detector
channel
decision
GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION
OF SIGNALS
The idea
We are used to seeing signals expressed
either in time or frequency domain
There is another representation space
that portrays signals in more intuitive
5
that portrays signals in more intuitive
format
In this section we develop the idea of
signals as multidimensional vectors
Have we seen this before?
Why yes! Remember the beloved e
j2fct
which can be written as
e
j2fct
=cos(2f
c
t)+jsin(2f
c
t)
6
inphase
quadrature
Expressing signals as a weighted sum
Suppose a signal set consists of M signals
s
i
(t),I=1,,M. Each signal can be
represented by a linear sum of basis
functions
7
s
i
t ( ) = s
ij

j
t ( )
j =1
N

i =1,..., M
0 t T
Conditions on basis functions
For the expansion to hold, basis functions
must be orthogonal to each other
Mathematically:

i
t ( )
j
t ( )

dt =
0 i j
1 i = j



8
Geometrically:

i
t ( )
j
t ( )

dt =
1 i = j

k
Components of the signal vector
Each signal needs N numbers to be
represented by a vector.
These N numbers are given by projecting
each signal onto the individual basis
9
each signal onto the individual basis
functions:
s
ij
means projection of s
i
(t)on
j
(t)
( )dt t t s s
T
j i ij

=
0
) (
s
ij
s
i

j
Signal space dimension
How many basis functions does it take to
express a signal? It depends on the
dimensionality of the signal
Some need just 1 some need an infinite
10
Some need just 1 some need an infinite
number.
The number of dimensions is N and is
always less than the number of signals in
the set
N<=M
Example: Fourier series
Remember Fourier series? A signal was
expanded as a linear sum of sins and
cosines of different frequencies. Sounds
familiar?
11
Sins and cosines are the basis functions
and are in fact orthogonal to each other
cos 2nf
o
t
( )
T
o

cos 2mf
o
t
( )
dt = 0, m n
f
o
=1/ T
o
Example: four signal set
A communication system sends one of 4
possible signals. Expand each signal in
terms of two given basis functions
12
1
1
1
1 2
1
-0.5
2
1
Components of s
1
(t)
This is a 2-D signal space. Therefore,
each signal can be represented by a
pair of numbers. Lets find them
For s
1
(t)
s
1
(t)
13
For s
1
(t)
s
11
= s
1
(t)
1
t ( )
0
2

dt = 1 ( ) 1 ( )
0
1

dt + 0 =1
s
12
= s
1
(t)
2
t ( )
0
2

dt = 0 + 0.5 ( ) 1 ( )
0
1

dt = 0.5
t
t
1 2
1
1
-0.5

1
s=(1,-0.5)
Interpretation
s
1
(t) is now condensed into just two
numbers.
We can reconstruct s
1
(t) like this
s
1
(t)=(1)
1
(t)+(-0.5)
2
(t)
14
s
1
(t)=(1)
1
(t)+(-0.5)
2
(t)
Another way of looking at it is this
1
-0.5

2
Signal constellation
Finding individual components of each
signal along the two dimensions gets us
the constellation
s4

2
15
s1
s2
s3

1
-0.5
-0.5 0.5
Learning from the constellation
So many signal properties can be inferred
by simple visual inspection or simple math
Orthogonality:
s
1
and s
4
or orthogonal. To show that,
16
s
1
and s
4
or orthogonal. To show that,
simply find their inner product:
<s
1
, s
4
> = s
11
xs
41
+s
12
xs
42
= (1)(0.5)+(1)(-0.5)=0
Finding the energy from the constellation
This is a simple matter. Remember,
Replace the signal by its expansion
E
i
= s
i
2
(t)dt
0
T

17
Replace the signal by its expansion
E
i
= s
ij

j
(t)
j =1
N

(

(
0
T

s
ik

k
(t)
k =1
N

(

(
dt
Exploiting the orthogonality
Expanding the summation, all cross
product terms integrate to zero. What
remains are N terms where j=k
=
2

2
( )
N

(
T

=
2

2
( )
T

(
N

18

E
i
= s
ij
2

j
2
t ( )
j =1
N

(

(
0

dt = s
ij
2

j
2
t ( )dt
0

(

(
j=1
N

s
ij
2

j
2
t ( )dt
0
T

=1
1 2 4 3 4
j =1
N

= s
ij
2
j =1
N

Energy in simple language

The energy of a signal is simply the
square of the length of its corresponding
constellation vector
19
3
2
E=9+4=13
E
Constrained energy signals
Lets say you are under peak energy E
p
constraint. Just make sure all your
signals are inside a circle of radius
sqrt(E
p
)
20
E
p
Correlation of two signals
A very desirable situation in is to have
signals that are mutually orthogonal.
How do we test this? Find the angle
between them
21
between them

s1
s2
cos
12
( ) =
s
1
T
s
2
s
1
s
2
transpose
Find the angle between s
1
and s
2
Given that s
1
=(1,2)
T
and s
2
=(2,1)
T
, what
is the angle between the two?
s
T
s = 1 2
[ ]
2


(
(
= 2 + 2 = 4
cos ( ) =
4
=
4
22
s
1
s
2
= 1 2
[ ]
1



(
= 2 + 2 = 4
s
1
= 1+ 4 = 5
s
2
= 4 +1 = 5
cos
12
( ) =
4
5 5
=
4
5

12
= 36.9
o
Distance between two signals
The closer signals are together the more
chances of detection error. Here is how
we can find their separation
23
d
12
2
= s
1
s
2
2
= s
1j
s
2 j
( )
2
j =1
N

= (1)
2
+ (1)
2
= 2
d
12
= 2
1 2
1
2
Correlator banks
We can decompose the signal into its
components as follows
dt
0
T

s
1
24
s(t)

N
dt
0
T

dt
0
T

s
2
s
N
N components
Detection in the constellation space
Received signal is put through the filter
bank below and mapped to a point
dt
T

s
25
s(t)

N
dt
0

dt
0
T

dt
0
T

s
1
s
2
s
N
components
mapped to a single point
Constellation recovery in noise
Assume signal is contaminated with noise.
All N components will also be affected.
The original position of s
i
(t) will be
disturbed
26
disturbed
Actual example
Here is a 16-level constellation which is
reconstructed in the presence of noise
2
Eb/No=5 dB
27
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Detection in signal space
One of the M signals is transmitted,
processed through the correlator banks
and mapped onto constellation, what was
the transmitted signal?
28
received signal
which of the four did it
come from
Minimum distance decision rule
It can be shown that the optimum decision, in the
sense of lowest BER, is to pick the signal that is
closest to the received vector. This is called
maximum likelihood decision making
this is the most likely
29
this is the most likely
transmitted signal
received
Defining decision regions
An easy detection method, is to compute decision
regions offline. Here are a few examples
decide s1
decide s2
30
decide s1
decide s2
s1
s2
measurement
decide s1
decide s2
decide s3 decide s4
s1
s2
s3
s4
decide s1
s1
More formally...
Partition the decision space into M decision regions
Z
i
, i=1,,M. Let X be the measurement vector
extracted from the received signal. Then
if X Z
i
s
i
was transmitted
31
if X Z
i
s
i
was transmitted
How does detection error occur?
Detection error occurs when X lands in Z
i
but it
wasnt s
i
that was transmitted. Noise, among
others, may be the culprit
X
32
departure from transmitted
position due to noise
X
s
i
Error probability
we can write an expression for error like this
P{error|s
i
}=P{X does not lie in Z
i
|s
i
was transmitted}
Generally
33
Generally
P
e
= P X Z
i
| s
i
{ }
P{
i =1
M

s
i
}
Example: BPSK
BPSK is a well known digital modulation obtained by
carrier modulating a polar NRZ signal. The rule is
1: s
1
=Acos(2f
c
t)
0: s
2
= - Acos(2f
c
t)
34
1s and 0s are identified by 180 degree phase
reversal at bit transitions
Signal space for BPSK
Look at s
1
and s
2
. What is the basis function for
them? Both signals can be uniquely written as a
scalar multiple of a cosine. So a single cosine is the
sole basis function. We have a 1-D constellation
35
A -A
cos(2pif
c
t)
Bringing in E
b
We want each bit to have an energy E
b
. Bits in
BPSK are RF pulses of amplitude A and duration T
b
.
Their energy is A
2
T
b
/2 . Therefore
E
b
= A
2
T
b
/2 --->A=sqrt(2E
b
/T
b
)
We can write the two bits as follows
36
We can write the two bits as follows
s
1
t ( ) =
2E
b
T
b
cos 2f
c
t ( )
s
2
t ( ) =
2E
b
T
b
cos 2f
c
t
( )
BPSK basis function
As a 1-D signal, there is one basis function. We
also know that basis functions must have unit
energy. Using a normalization factor
E

=1
37
E

=1

1
t ( ) =
2
T
b
cos 2f
c
t
( )
Formulating BER
BPSK constellation looks like this
X|1=[E +n,n]
received
if noise is negative enough, it will push
X to the left of the boundary, deciding 0
38
E
b
-E
b
X|1=[E
b
+n,n]
transmitted
noise
P
e1
= P E
b
+ n < 0 | 1 is transmitted
{ }
X to the left of the boundary, deciding 0
instead
Finding BER
Lets rewrite BER
But n is gaussian with mean 0 and variance N
o
/2
P
e1
= P E
b
+ n < 0 | 1
{ }
= P n < E
b
{ }
39
-sqrt(E
b
)
BER for BPSK
Using the trick to find the area under a Gaussian
density (after normalization with respect to
variance)]
|
|
|

|
=
b
E
Q BER
2
40
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
=
o
b
o
b
N
E
erfc
N
Q BER
2
1
BPSK Example
Data is transmitted at R
b
=10
6
b/s. Noise PSD is
10
-6
and pulses are rectangular with amplitude 0.2
volt. What is the BER?
First we need energy per bit, E
b
. 1s and 0s are
sent by
41
sent by

2E
b
T
b
cos(2f
c
t)
2E
b
T
b
= 0.2
Solving for E
b
Since bit rate is 10
6
, bit length must be 1/R
b
=10
-6
Therefore,
E
b
=20x10
-6
=20 w-sec
Remember, this is the received energy. What was
42
Remember, this is the received energy. What was
transmitted are probably several orders of
magnitude bigger
Solving for BER
Noise PSD is N
o
/2 =10
-6
. We know for BPSK
BER=0.5erfc[(E
b
/No)
0.5
]
What we have is then
43
What we have is then
Finish this using erf tables
BER =
1
2
erfc
E
b
N
o
|
\

|

| =
1
2
erfc
2 10
7
2 10
6
|
\

|

|
=
1
2
erfc( 0.1) =
1
2
erfc(0.316)
Binary FSK
Another method to transmit 1s and 0s is to use
two distinct tones, f
1
and f
2
of the form below
s
i
t ( ) =
2E
b
T
b
cos 2f
i
t
( )
, 0 t T
b



44
But what is the requirements on the tones? Can
they be any tones?
s
i
t ( ) =
T
b
0



Picking the right tones
It is desirable to keep the tones orthogonal
Since tones are sinusoids, it is sufficient for the
tones to be separated by an integer multiple of
inverse duration, i.e.
n + i
45
f
i
=
n
c
+ i
T
b
, i =1, 2
n
c
= some integer
Example tones
Lets say we are sending data at the rate of 1
Mb/sec in BFSK, What are some typical tones?
Bit length is 10
-6
sec. Therefore, possible tones
are (use n
c
=0)
f =1/T =1 MHz
46
f
1
=1/T
b
=1 MHz
f
2
=2/T
b
=2MHz
BFSK dimensionality
What does the constellation of BFSK look like? We
first have to find its dimension
s
1
and s
2
can be represented by two orthonormal
basis functions:
2
( )
47
Notice f
1
and f
2
are selected to make them
orthogonal

i
t ( ) =
2
T
b
cos 2f
i
t
( )
, 0 t T
b
BFKS constellation
There are two dimensions. Find the components of
signals along each dimension using
s
11
= s
1
t ( )
0
T
b

1
t ( )dt = E
b
E
b
48
11 1
0

1 b
s
12
= s
1
t ( )
0
T
b

2
t ( )dt = 0
s
1
= ( E
b
, 0)
E
b
Decision regions in BFSK
Decisions are made based on distances. Signals
closer to s
1
will be classified as s
1
and vice versa
49
Detection error in BFSK
Let the received signal land where shown.
Assume s
1
is sent. How would a detection error
occur?
P
e1
=P{x
2
>x
1
|s
1
was sent}
50
x
2
>x
1
puts X in the
s
2
partition
s
1
s
2
X=received
x
1
x
2
P
e1
=P{x
2
>x
1
|s
1
was sent}
Where do (x
1
,x
2
) come from?
Use the correlator bank to extract signal
components
dt
0
T
b

x
1
(gaussian)
51
x=
s
1
(t)+noise

2
dt
0
T
b

x
2
(gaussian)
Finding BER
We have to answer this question: what is the
probability of one random variable exceeding
another random variable?
To cast P(x
2
>x
1
) into like of P(x>2), rewrite
P(x
2
>x
1
|x
1
)
52
P(x
2
>x
1
|x
1
)
x
1
is now treated as constant. Then, integrate out
x
1
to eliminate it
BER for BFSK
Skipping the details of derivation, we get
|
|

\
|
=
o
b
N
E
Q BER
53
|
|

\
|
=
\
o
b
N
E
erfc
2 2
1
BPSK and BFSK comparison
Lets compare their BERs
BPSK
N
E
Q P
o
b
e
,
2
|
|

\
|
=
What does it take to have the
same BER?
E
b
in BFSK must be twice as
big as BPSK
Conclusion: energy per bit must
54
BFSK
N
E
Q P
o
b
e
,
|
|

\
|
=
\
Conclusion: energy per bit must
be twice as large in BFSK to
achieve the same BER
BPSK has more energy
efficiency than BFSK
Comparison in the constellation space
Distances determine BERs. Lets compare
2 E
E
b
1.4 E
b
55
Both have the same E
b
, but BPSKs are farther
apart, hence lower BER
E
b
E
b
2 E
b
E
b
b
Differential PSK
Concept of differential encoding is very
powerful
Take the the bit sequence 11001001
Differentially encoding of this stream means
56
Differentially encoding of this stream means
that we start we a reference bit and then
record changes
Differential encoding example
Data to be encoded
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Set the reference bit to 1, then use the following
rule
Generate a 1 if no change
57
Generate a 1 if no change
Generate a 0 if change
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Detection logic
Detecting a differentially encoded signal is based on
the comparison of two adjacent bits
If two coded bits are the same, that means data
bit must have been a 1, otherwise 0
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? unknown
58
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Encoded
received bits
unknown
transmitted bits
DPSK: generation
Once data is differentially encoded, carrier
modulation can be carried out by a straight BPSK
encoding
Digit 1:phase 0
Digit 0:phase 180
59
Digit 0:phase 180
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Differentially encoded data
Phase encoded(BPSK)
DPSK detection
Data is detected by a phase comparison of two
adjacent pulses
No phase change: data bit is 1
Phase change: data bit is 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Detected data
Bit errors in DPSK
Bit errors happen in an interesting way
Since detection is done by comparing adjacent
bits, errors have the potential of propagating
Allow a single detection error in DPSK
61
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Back on track:no errors
Transmitted bits
Incoming phases
Detected bits
2 errors
Conclusion
In DPSK, if the phase of the RF pulse is detected
in error, error propagates
However, error propagation stops quickly. Only two
bit errors are misdetected. The rest are correctly
recovered
62
recovered
Detecting regular BPSK needs a coherent detector,
requiring a phase reference
DPSK needs no such thing. The only reference is
the previous bit which is readily available
M-ary signaling
Binary communications sends one of only 2 levels; 0
or 1
There is another way: combine several bits into
symbols
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
63
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
Combining two bits at a time gives rise to 4
symbols; a 4-ary signaling
8-level PAM
Here is an example of 8-level signaling
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
binary
64
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
7
5
3
2
1
-1
-3
-5
-7
A few definitions
We used to work with bit length T
b
. Now we have a
new parameter which we call symbol length,T
s
1 1
0
65
1 1
0
T
s
T
b
Bit length-symbol length relationship
When we combine n bits into one symbol; the
following relationships hold
T
s
=nT
b
- symbol length
n=logM bits/symbol
66
T
s
=T
b
xlogM- symbol length
All logarithms are base 2
Example
If 8 bits are combined into one symbol, the
resulting symbol is 8 times wider
Using n=8, we have M=2
8
=256 symbols to pick from
Symbol length T
s
=nT
b
=8T
b
67
Defining baud
When we combine n bits into one symbol, numerical
data rate goes down by a factor of n
We define baud as the number of symbols/sec
Symbol rate is a fraction of bit rate
68
R
s
=symbol rate=R
b
/n=R
b
/logM
For 8-level signaling, baud rate is 1/3 of bit rate
Why M-ary?
Remember Nyquist bandwidth? It takes a minimum
of R
s
/2 Hz to transmit R
s
pulses/sec.
If we can reduce the pulse rate, required
bandwidth goes down too
M-ary does just that. It takes R bits/sec and
69
M-ary does just that. It takes R
b
bits/sec and
turns it into R
b
/logM pulses sec.
Issues in transmitting 9600 bits/sec
Want to transmit 9600 bits/sec. Options:
Nyquists minimum bandwidth:9600/2=4800 Hz
Full roll off raised cosine:9600 Hz
None of them fit inside the 4 KHz wide phone lines
70
Go to a 16 - level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate is
reduced to
R
s
=R
b
/logM=9600/4=2400 Hz
Using 16-level signaling
Go to a 16-level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate is then
cut down to
R
s
=R
b
/logM=9600/4=2400 pulses/sec
To accommodate 2400 pulses /sec, we have several
options. Using sinc we need only 1200 Hz. Full roll-
71
options. Using sinc we need only 1200 Hz. Full roll-
off needs 2400Hz
Both fit within the 4 KHz phone line bandwidth
Bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth efficiency is defined as the number of
bits that can be transmitted within 1 Hz of
bandwidth
=R
b
/B
T
bits/sec/Hz
72
In binary communication using sincs, B
T
=R
b
/2 =2
bits/sec/Hz
M-ary bandwidth efficiency
In M-ary signaling , pulse rate is given by
R
s
=R
b
/logM. Full roll-off raised cosine bandwidth is
B
T
=R
s
= R
b
/logM.
Bandwidth efficiency is then given by
=R /B =logM bits/sec/Hz
73
=R
b
/B
T
=logM bits/sec/Hz
For M=2, binary we have 1 bit/sec/Hz. For M=16,
we have 4 bits/sec/Hz
M-ary bandwidth
Summarizing, M-ary and binary bandwidth are
related by
B
M-ary
=B
binary
/logM
Clearly , M-ary bandwidth is reduced by a factor
of logM compared to the binary bandwidth
74
of logM compared to the binary bandwidth
8-ary bandwidth
Let the bit rate be 9600 bits/sec. Binary
bandwidth is nominally equal to the bit rate, 9600
Hz
We then go to 8-level modulation (3 bits/symbol)
M-ary bandwidth is given by
75
M-ary bandwidth is given by
B
M-ary
=B
binary
/logM=9600/log8=3200 Hz
Bandwidth efficiency numbers
Here are some numbers
n(bits/symbol) M(levels) (bits/sec/Hz)
1 2 1
2 4 2
3 8 3
76
3 8 3
4 16 4
8 256 8
Symbol energy vs. bit energy
Each symbol is made up of n bits. It is not
therefore surprising for a symbol to have n times
the energy of a bit
E
s
=nE
b
77
E
b
E
QPSK
This is a 4 level modulation.
Every two bits is combined and mapped to one of 4
phases of an RF signal
These phases are 45
o
,135
o
,225
o
,315
o
78
T t
i i t f
T
E
t s
c
s
i

=
(

+
= 0 ,
0
4 , 3 , 2 , 1 ,
4
) 1 2 ( 2 cos
2
) (

Symbol energy
Symbol width
QPSK constellation
45
o
00
01
E
s
79
11
10

1
t ( ) =
2
T
cos2f
c
t

2
t ( ) =
2
T
sin2f
c
t
Basis functions
S=[0.7 E
s
,- 0.7 E
s
]
QPSK decision regions
00
01
80
11
10
Decision regions re color-coded
QPSK error rate
Symbol error rate for QPSK is given by
|
|

\
|
=
o
s
e
N
E
Q P
81
This brings up the distinction between symbol error
and bit error. They are not the same!
\
Symbol error
Symbol error occurs when received vector is
assigned to the wrong partition in the constellation
00
11
s1
s2
82
When s
1
is mistaken for s
2
, 00 is mistaken for 11
Symbol error vs. bit error
When a symbol error occurs, we might suffer more
than one bit error such as mistaking 00 for 11.
It is however unlikely to have more than one bit
error when a symbol error occurs
83
10 10 11 10 00
11 10 11 10 00
10 symbols = 20 bits
Sym.error=1/10
Bit error=1/20
Interpreting symbol error
Numerically, symbol error is larger than bit error
but in fact they are describing the same situation;
1 error in 20 bits
In general, if P
e
is symbol error
84
P
e
log M
BER P
e
Symbol error and bit error for QPSK
We saw that symbol error for QPSK was
Assuming no more than 1 bit error for each symbol
|
|

\
|
=
o
s
e
N
E
Q P 2
85
Assuming no more than 1 bit error for each symbol
error, BER is half of symbol error
Remember symbol energy E
s
=2E
b
|
|

\
|
=
o
s
e
N
E
Q P
QPSK vs. BPSK
Lets compare the two based on BER and bandwidth
BER Bandwidth
BPSK | QPSK BPSK | QPSK
86
|
|

\
|
o
b
N
E
Q
2
|
|

\
|
o
b
N
E
Q
2
R
b
R
b
/2
EQUAL
M-phase PSK (MPSK)
If you combine 3 bits into one symbol, we have
to realize 2
3
=8 states. We can accomplish this
with a single RF pulse taking 8 different
phases 45
o
apart
87
T t
i i t f
T
E
t s
c
s
i

=
(

+
= 0 ,
0
8 ,..., 1 ,
4
) 1 ( 2 cos
2
) (

8-PSK constellation
Distribute 8 phasors uniformly around a circle
of radius E
s
45
o
88
Decision region
Symbol error for MPSK
We can have M phases around the circle
separated by 2/M radians.
It can be shown that symbol error probability
is approximately given by
89
4 , sin
2
2
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
M
M N
E
Q P
o
s
e

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

MPSK was a phase modulation scheme. All
amplitudes are the same
QAM is described by a constellation consisting
of combination of phase and amplitudes
The rule governing bits-to-symbols are the
90
The rule governing bits-to-symbols are the
same, i.e. n bits are mapped to M=2
n
symbols
16-QAM constellation using Gray coding
16-QAM has the following constellation
Note gray coding
where adjacent symbols
differ by only 1 bit
0010 0011 0001 0000
91
differ by only 1 bit
1010
1110
0110
1011
1111
0111
1001
1101
0101
1000
1100
0100
Vector representation of 16-QAM
There are 16 vectors, each defined by a pair of
coordinates. The following 4x4 matrix describes the
16-QAM constellation
92
[a
i
, b
i
] =
3, 3 ( ) 1, 3 ( ) 1, 3 ( ) 3, 3 ( )
3,1 ( ) 1,1 ( ) 1,1 ( ) 3,1 ( )
3, 1 ( ) 1, 1 ( ) 1, 1 ( ) 3, 1 ( )
3, 3 ( ) 1, 3 ( ) 1, 3 ( ) 3, 3 ( )





(

(
(
(
What is energy per symbol in QAM?
We had no trouble defining energy per symbol E for
MPSK. For QAM, there is no single symbol energy.
There are many
We therefore need to define average symbol energy
E
avg
93
E
avg
E
avg
=
1
M
a
i
2
+ b
i
2
( )
i =1
M

E
avg
for 16-QAM
Using the [a
i
,b
i
] matrix and using E=a
i
^2+b
i
^2 we
get one energy per signal
E =
18 10 10 18
10 2 2 10


(
(
94
E =
10 2 2 10
10 2 2 10
18 10 10 18





(
(
(
E
avg
=10
Symbol error for M-ary QAM
With the definition of energy in mind, symbol error
is approximated by
( )
|
|
|

|
|
|

|

avg
e
E
Q P
3
1
1 2
95
( )
|
|

\

o
e
N M
Q
M
P
1
1 2
Familiar constellations
Here are a few golden oldies
96
V.22
600 baud
1200 bps
V.22 bis
600 baud
2400 bps
V.32 bis
2400 baud
9600 bps
M-ary FSK
Using M tones, instead of M phases/amplitudes is a
fundamentally different way of M-ary modulation
The idea is to use M RF pulses. The frequencies
chosen must be orthogonal
97
( ) ( )
M i
T t t f
T
E
t s
i
s
i
,..., 1
0 , 2 cos
2
=
=
MFSK constellation: 3-dimensions
MFSK is different from MPSK in that each signal
sits on an orthogonal axis(basis)
s
3

i
t ( ) =
2
cos 2f
i
t
( )
,
s
1
=[E
s
, 0, 0]
s
2
=[0, E
s
, 0]
s =[0, 0, E ]
E
s
98
s
1
s
2

i
t ( ) =
T
cos 2f
i
t
( )
,
0 t T
i =1,..., M
2 s
s
3
=[0, 0, E
s
]
E
s
E
s
E
s
Orthogonal signals
We just saw that in a 3 dimensional space, we can
have no more than 3 orthogonal signals
Equivalently, 3 orthogonal signals dont need more
than 3 dimensions because each can sit on one
dimension
99
dimension
Therefore, number of dimensions is always less than
or equal to number of signals
How to pick the tones?
Orthogonal FSK requires tones that are orthogonal.
Two carrier frequencies separated by integer
multiples of period are orthogonal
100
Example
Take two tones one at f
1
the other at f
2
. T must
cover one or more periods for the integral to be
zero
2cos 2f
1
t ( )cos 2f
2
t ( )dt = cos 2 f
1
+ f
2
( )dt
T

101

2cos 2f
1
t ( )cos 2f
2
t ( )dt = cos 2 f
1
+ f
2
( )dt
0

averages to zero
1 2 4 4 4 3 4 4 4
0

+ cos2 f
1
f
2
( )dt
0
T

averages to zero if T=i/(f1-f2)

; i =integer
1 2 4 4 4 3 4 4 4
Take f
1
=1000 and T=1/1000. Then
if f
2
=2000 , the two are orthogonal
so will f
2
=3000,4000 etc
MFSK symbol error
Here is the error expression with the usual
notations
( )
|
|

\
|

s
e
N
E
Q M P 1
102
( )
|

\

o
e
N
Q M P 1
Bandwidth of digital
modulations
Spectrum of M-ary signals
So far E
b
/N
o
, i.e. power, has been our main
concern. The flip side of the coin is bandwidth.
Frequently the two move in opposite directions
Lets first look at binary modulation bandwidth
104
BPSK bandwidth
Remember BPSK was obtained from a polar signal by
carrier modulation
We know the bandwidth of polar NRZ using square
pulses was B
T
=R
b
.
It doesnt take much to realize that carrier
105
It doesnt take much to realize that carrier
modulation doubles this bandwidth
Illustrating BPSK bandwidth
The expression for baseband BPSK (polar)
bandwidth is
S
B
(f)=2E
b
sinc
2
(T
b
f)
2/T
b
=2R
b
106
B
T
=2R
b
f 1/T
b
BPSK
f
c
+/T
b
f
c
-/T
b
f
c
BFSK as a sum of two RF streams
BFSK can be thought of superposition of two
unipolar signals, one at f
1
and the other at f
2
0.5
1
1
BFSK for 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
107
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-1
-0.5
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
+
Modeling of BFSK bandwidth
Each stream is just a carrier modulated unipolar
signal. Each has a sinc spectrum
108
f
1
f
2
1/T
b
=R
b
f
c
f
c
=(f
1
+f
2
)/2
f
B
T
=2 f+2R
b
f= (f
2
-f
1
)/2
Example: 1200 bps bandwidth
The old 1200 bps standard used BFSK modulation
using 1200 Hz for mark and 2200 Hz for space.
What is the bandwidth?
Use
B =2 f+2R
109
B
T
=2 f+2R
b
f=(f
2
-f
1
)/2=(2200-1200)/2=500 Hz
B
T
=2x500+2x1200=3400 Hz
This is more than BPSK of 2R
b
=2400 Hz
Sundes FSK
We might have to pick tones f
1
and f
2
that are not
orthogonal. In such a case there will be a finite
correlation between the tones
=
2
T
b
cos(2f
1
t)
T
b

cos(2f
2
t)dt
110
T
b
0

1 2 3
2(f
2
-f
1
)T
b
Good points,zero correlation

Picking the 2nd zero crossing

If we pick the second zc term (the first term puts
the tones too close) we get
2(f
2
-f
1
)T
b
=2--> f=1/2T
b
=R
b
/2
remember f is (f
2
-f
1
)/2
111
Sundes FSK bandwidth is then given by
B
T
=2 f+2R
b
=R
b
+2R
b
=3R
b
The practical bandwidth is a lot smaller
Sundes FSK bandwidth
Due to sidelobe cancellation, practical bandwidth is
just B
T
=2 f=R
b
1/T =R
112
f
1
f
2
1/T
b
=R
b
f
c
f
c
=(f
1
+f
2
)/2
f
B
T
=2 f+2R
b
f= (f
2
-f
1
)/2
f
BFSK example
A BFSK system operates at the 3rd zero
crossing of -T
b
plane. If the bit rate is 1
Mbps, what is the frequency separation of the
tones?
113
The 3rd zc is for 2(f
2
-f
1
)T
b
=3. Recalling that
f=(f
2
-f
1
)/2 then f =0.75/T
b
Then f =0.75/T
b
=0.75x10
6
=750 KHz
And B
T
=2(f +R
b
)=2(0.75+1)10
6
=3.5 MHz
Point to remember
FSK is not a particularly bandwidth-friendly
modulation. In this example, to transmit 1
Mbps, we needed 3.5 MHz.
Of course, it is working at the 3rd zero
crossing that is responsible
114
crossing that is responsible
Original Sundes FSK requires B
T
=R
b
=1 MHz
MPSK bandwidth review
In MPSK we used pulses that are log
2
M times
wider tan binary hence bandwidth goes down
by the same factor.
T=symbol width=T
b
log
2
M
For example, in a 16-phase modulation, M=16,
115
For example, in a 16-phase modulation, M=16,
T=4T
b
.
B
qpsk
=B
bpsk
/log
2
M= B
bpsk
/4
MPSK bandwidth
MPSK spectrum is given by
S
B
(f)=(2E
b
log
2
M)sinc
2
(T
b
flog
2
M)
Set to 1 for zero crossing
116
f/R
b
Notice normalized frequency
1/logM
Set to 1 for zero crossing
BW: T
b
flog
2
M=1
f=1/ T
b
flog
2
M =R
b
/log
2
M
B
T
= R
b
/log
2
M
Bandwidth after carrier modulation
What we just saw is MPSK bandwidth in
baseband
A true MPSK is carrier modulated. This will
only double the bandwidth. Therefore,
Bmpsk=2R /log M
117
Bmpsk=2R
b
/log
2
M
QPSK bandwidth
QPSK is a special case of MPSK with M=4 phases.
Its baseband spectrum is given by
S
B
(f)=2Esinc
2
(2T
b
f)
118
f/R
b
0.5
B=0.5R
b
-->
half of BPSK
1
After modulation:
B
qpsk
=R
b
Some numbers
Take a 9600 bits/sec data stream
Using BPSK: B=2Rb=19,200 Hz (too much for 4KHz
analog phone lines)
QPSK: B=19200/log
2
4=9600Hz, still high
Use 8PSK:B= 19200/log
2
8=6400Hz
119
Use 8PSK:B= 19200/log
2
8=6400Hz
Use 16PSK:B=19200/ log
2
16=4800 Hz. This may
barely fit
MPSK vs.BPSK
Lets say we fix BER at some level. How do
bandwidth and power levels compare?
M Bm-ary/Bbinary (Avg.power)M/(Avg.power)bin
4 0.5 0.34 dB
8 1/3 3.91 dB
16 1/4 8.52 dB
120
16 1/4 8.52 dB
32 1/5 13.52 dB
Lesson: By going to multiphase modulation, we save bandwidth but
have to pay in increased power, But why?
Power-bandwidth tradeoff
The goal is to keep BER fixed as we increase M.
Consider an 8PSK set.
121
What happens if you go to 16PSK? Signals get
closer hence higher BER
Solution: go to a larger circle-->higher energy
Additional comparisons
Take a 28.8 Kb/sec data rate and lets
compare the required bandwidths:
BPSK: B
T
=2(R
b
)=57.6 KHz
BFSK: B
T
= R
b
=28.8 KHz ...Sundes FSK
122
BFSK: B
T
= R
b
=28.8 KHz ...Sundes FSK
QPSK: B
T
=half of BPSK=28.8 KHz
16-PSK: B
T
=quarter of BPSK=14.4 KHz
64-PSK: B
T
=1/6 of BPSK=9.6 KHz
Power-limited systems
Modulations that are power-limited achieve
their goals with minimum expenditure of power
at the expense of bandwidth.
Examples are MFSK and other orthogonal
signaling
123
signaling
Bandwidth-limited systems
Modulations that achieve error rates at a
minimum expenditure of bandwidth but
possibly at the expense of too high a power
are bandwidth-limited
Examples are variations of MPSK and many
124
Examples are variations of MPSK and many
QAM
Check BER rate curves for BFSK and
BPSK/QAM cases
Bandwidth efficiency index
A while back we defined the following ratio as
a bandwidth efficiency measure in
bits/sec/HZ
=R
b
/B
T
bits/sec/Hz
Every digital modulation has its own
125
b T
Every digital modulation has its own
for MPSK
At a bit rate of R
b
, BPSK bandwidth is 2R
b
When we go to MPSK, bandwidth goes down by a
factor of log
2
M
B
T
=2R
b
/ log
2
M
Then
126
Then
=R
b
/B
T
= log
2
M/2 bits/sec/Hz
Some numbers
Lets evaluate vs. M for MPSK
M 2 4 8 16 32 64
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Notice that bits/sec/Hz goes up by a factor of 6
from M=2 and M=64
127
from M=2 and M=64
The price we pay is that if power level is fixed
(constellation radius fixed) BER will go up. We need
more power to keep BER the same
Defining MFSK:
In MFSK we transmit one of M frequencies for
every symbol duration T
These frequencies must be orthogonal. One way to
do that is to space them 1/2T apart. They could
also be spaced 1/T apart.
128
also be spaced 1/T apart.
Following The textbook we choose the former (this
corresponds to using the first zero crossing of
correlation curve)
MFSK bandwidth
Symbol duration in MFSK is M times longer than
binary
T=T
b
log
2
M symbol length
Each pair of tones are separated by 1/2T. If there
are M of them,
129
are M of them,
B
T
=M/2T=M/2T
b
log
2
M
B
T
=MR
b
/2log
2
M
Contrast with MPSK
Variation of bandwidth with M differs drastically
compared to MPSK
MPSK MFSK
B
T
=2R
b
/log
2
M B
T
=MR
b
/2log
2
M
As M goes up, MFSK eats up more bandwidth but
130
As M goes up, MFSK eats up more bandwidth but
MPSK save bandwidth
MFSK bandwidth efficiency
Lets compute s for MFSK
=R
b
/M=2log
2
M/M bits/sec/HzMFSK
M 2 4 8 16 32 64
131
M 2 4 8 16 32 64
1 1 .75 .5 .3 .18
Notice bandwidth efficiency drop. We are sending
fewer and fewer bits per 1 Hz of bandwidth
COMPARISON OF DIGITAL
MODULATIONS*
*B. Sklar, Defining, Designing and Evaluating Digital Communication Systems,
IEEE Communication Magazine, vol. 31, no.11, November 1993, pp. 92-101
Notations
duration symbol
sec /
log
=
/ log =
symbols of # 2
2
2
s s
b
n
T
bits
T
M
T
n
R
symbol bits M n
M
=
=
=
Bandwidth efficiency
measure
M R 1 log
= =
133
length bit
1 1
rate symbol
duration symbol
s
s
b
b
b
s
s
nR n
T
R
T
data rate R
R
T
= = =
=
=
=
b T s T T
b
T B T B
M
B
R 1 log
2
= =
Bandwidth-limited Systems
There are situations where bandwidth is at a
premium, therefore, we need modulations with
large R
b
/B
T
.
Hence we need standards with large time-
bandwidth product
134
bandwidth product
The GSM standard uses Gaussian minimum
shift keying(GMSK) with B
T
T
b
=0.3
Case of MPSK
In MPSK, symbols are m times as wide as
binary.
Nyquist bandwidth is B
T
=R
s
/2=1/2T
s
However, the bandpass bandwidth is twice
that, B =1/T then:
135
However, the bandpass bandwidth is twice
that, B
T
=1/T
s
then:
z bits/sec/H log
log
2
2
M
T B
M
B
R
s T T
b
= =
Cost of Bandwidth Efficiency
As M increases, modulation becomes more
bandwidth efficient.
Lets fix BER. To maintain this BER while
increasing M requires an increase in E
b
/N
o
.
136
Power-Limited Systems
There are cases that bandwidth is available
but power is limited
In these cases as M goes up, the bandwidth
increases but required power levels to meet a
specified BER remains stable
137
specified BER remains stable
Case of MFSK
MFSK is an orthogonal modulation scheme.
Nyquist bandwidth is M-times the binary case
because of using M orthogonal frequencies:
B
T
= M/T
s
= MR
s
then
138
B
T
= M/T
s
= MR
s
then
z bits/sec/H
log log
2 2
M
M
T B
M
B
R
s T T
b
= =
Select an Appropriate Modulation
We have a channel of 4KHz with an available
S/No=53 dBHz, required data rate R=9600
bits/sec and required BER=10
-5
.
Choose a modulation scheme to meet these
requirements?
139
requirements?
Minimum Number of Phases
To conserve power, we should pick the minimum
number of phases that still meets the 4KHz
bandwidth
A 9600 bits/sec if encoded as 8-PSK results in
3200 symbols/sec needing 3200Hz
140
3200 symbols/sec needing 3200Hz
So, M=8
What is the required E
b
/No?
=
= =
= =
b
o
b
b o
b
s
o
s
s o
s
o
S E
R
N
E
T N
E
R
N
E
T N
E
N
S
141
89 . 20 10
2 . 13
sec) / ( ) ( ) (
10
2 . 13
= =
=
=
o
b
b
o o
b
N
E
dB
dBbits R dBHz
N
S
dB
N
E
Is BER met? Yes
The symbol error probability in 8-PSK is
Solve for Es/No
P
E
M ( ) = 2Q
2E
s
N
o
sin

M
|
\
|




(

(
142
Solve for PE
BER =
P
E
log
2
M
=
2.2 10
5
3
= 7.3 10
6
E
s
N
o
= log
2
M ( )
E
b
N
0
= 3 20.89 = 62.67
Power-limited uncoded system
Same bit rate and BER
Available bandwidth W=45 KHz
Available S/No=48 dBHz
Choose a modulation scheme that yields the
143
Choose a modulation scheme that yields the
required performance
Binary vs. M-ary Model
M-ary Modulator
R
b
bits/s
R
144
) / (
log
2
s symbol
M
R
R
b
s
=
M-ary demodulator
R
b
bits/s
b
o
b
s
o
s
o
R
N
E
R
N
E
N
S
= =
Choice of Modulation
With R=9600 bits/sec and W=45 KHz, the channel
is not bandwidth limited
Lets find the available Eb/No
sec) / ( ) ( ) ( =
b
dBbits R dBHz
S
dB
E
145
10
2 . 8
10
2 . 8 ) 9600 log( 10 48
sec) / ( ) ( ) (
=
= =
=
o
b
b
o o
b
N
E
dB
dBbits R dBHz
N
S
dB
N
E
Choose MFSK
We have a lot of bandwidth but little power
orthogonal modulation(MFSK)
The larger the M, the more power efficiency
but more bandwidth is needed
146
but more bandwidth is needed
Pick the largest M without going beyond the 45
KHz bandwidth.
MFSK Parameters
From Table 1, M=16 for an MFSK modulation
requires a bandwidth of 38.4 KHz for 9600
bits/sec data rate
We also wanted to have a BER < 10
-5
. Question
is if this is met for a 16FSK modulation.
147
We also wanted to have a BER < 10 . Question
is if this is met for a 16FSK modulation.
16-FSK
Again from Table 1, to achieve BER of 10
-5
we
need E
b
/No of 8.1dB.
We solved for the available E
b
/No and that came to
8.2dB
148
Symbol error for MFSK
For noncoherent orthogonal MFSK, symbol error
probability is
P
E
M ( )
M 1
2
exp
E
s
2N
|
\

|

|
149
2 2N
o
\
E
s
= E
b
log
2
M
BER for MFSK
We found out that Eb/No=8.2dB or 6.61
Relating Es/No and Eb/No
E
s
N
= log
2
M
( )
E
b
N
150
BER and symbol error are related by
N
o
N
o
P
B
=
2
m1
2
m
1
P
E
Example
Lets look at the 16FSK case. With 16 levels, we
are talking about m=4 bits per symbol. Therefore,
P
B
=
2
3
2
4
1
P
E
=
8
15
P
E
151
With Es/No=26.44, symbol error prob.
P
E
=1.4x10
-5
P
B
=7.3x10
-6
2 1 15
Summary
Given:
R=9600 bits/s
BER=10
-5
Channel bandwith=45 KHz
E /No=8.2dB
152
E
b
/No=8.2dB
Solution
16-FSK
required bw=38.4khz
required E
b
/No=8.1dB