LESSON

5
LECTURE
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
SUB - OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson the Trainee ill !e a!le to de"onstrate an #nderstand the
Nondestr#$ti%e Testin&'
(') INTRODUCTION
In the past two to three decades the art of testing without destroying has developed
into an indispensable tool for production and maintenance. During this period !.E.
manufacturing plants have developed many nondestructive testing procedures
which have contributed greatly to the safety and reliability of our turbine"!enerator
units. Radiographic ultrasonic magnetic particle red dye #enetrant inspections
and fluorescent are regularly used during the manufacturing cycle to inspect forging
castings weldments and machined parts.
During periodic inspection or in the event of a failure which has developed in
service the $ield Engineer may employee some of these techni%ues to detect flaws
not discernable during visual inspection. &lso the field engineer may e'plore the
e'tent of flaws noted or to insure the integrity of various components.
Tests which have received widespread field acceptance are red dye #enetrant
inspections magnetic particle inspection of rotors buc(ets castings and welds and
ultrasonic inspections of rotors buc(et wheels buc(et dovetail pins and stud bolts
generator field wedges fans etc.
&s a general rule forged and wrought ferritic materials are ultrasonic and magnetic
particle tested. )on"magnetic materials receive a #enetrant test in lieu of a
magnetic particle test. *teel castings are radiographed and magnetic particle
tested.
*AGNETIC +ARTICLE INS+ECTION *ET,OD
+agnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive means for detecting discontinuities
in ferromagnetic materials. The three basic operations involved are ,
-. Establishing a suitable magnetic field in the test ob.ect.
/. &pplying magnetic particles to the test ob.ect.
0. E'amining the test ob.ect surface for the accumulation of particles
1indications2.
$undamentally a magnetic field is suitable when the magneti3ing lines of force are
at 456 to the e'pected direction of crac(s or defects. &t any discontinuity in the
surface the magnetic lines of force will be interrupted forming north and south poles
at opposing surfaces of the interruption. These magnetic poles attract the
magnetic particles and form a magnetic particle build"up or indication.
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The magnetic particles used for this inspection are made from finely divided iron
o'ide particles. The particles can be applied as a dry powder or appli0ed in a
vehicle such as water or (erosene. &pplication of dry powder is accomplished by
using a powder blower type spray gun or with a hand bulb.
<et particles i.e. particles suspended in water are sprayed over the test surface by
any of several spraying techni%ues to produce a slow and uniform flow of
suspension over the entire area to be inspected. The wet method is considered
more sensitive and is preferred due to the mobility of the particles in the li%uid.
It is recommended that magnetic materials be inspected by the magnetic particles
inspection method as it will be more apt to show up subsurface defects. It may be
advantageous at times to use a visible #enetrant test on a suspected flow to
determine whether or not the flaw is actually open to the surface.
The following outlines the general procedures used when performing magnetic
particle tests,
*AGNETI-ING .ACILITIES
*ince it is normally necessary to magneti3e the parts in more than one direction
facilities must be provided for handling and holding the part so that the magneti3ing
field can be applied in the proper direction in a uniform and controlled manner.
+agneti3ing is accomplished in one or more of the following ways,
:y passing current directly through the part itself.
:y passing current through a local section of the part.
:y use of central conductors which allow the current to flow through openings in the
part.
:y use of coils which encircle all or a section of the part.
The e'act timing of inspections may depend on the factors mentioned above and
may be made to correspond to periods of shutdown for wor( on or inspection of
other power plant components where this can be done consistent with the
recommendations above.
&ny of the factors previous mentioned plus others may indicate need for sooner
more fre%uent or more complete inspections. *pecific recommendations for
detailed inspection procedures on particular turbine generators can be obtained
from !eneral Electric District 8ffices.
8wners of turbine generators are advised to ma(e periodic inspections of all their
*chenectady serviced units to achieve minimum long term power generation costs
which result from ma'imum T"! reliability and efficiency.
+any of the factors related to the timing of inspections are determinable by the
owner operators. These include,
8perating symptoms vibration abnormal pressures and temperatures loss of
capability increases in heat rate etc.
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+ode of operation = cyclic duty will generally indicate necessity of more fre%uent
inspections.
Consistency of operation within the recommendations of the manufacturer.
$indings from prior inspections.
8ther factors derive from (nowledge collected by the manufacturer on this or similar
units. To the e'tent that information is available to it. !eneral Electric monitors
operating e'perience. inspection results and in"service operating troubles on all
large turbine generators manufactured by them. It analy3es the data so obtained to
identify conditions that may need correction on similar units. Recommendations to
owners on specific matters are forwarded by means of technical information letters
and an &dvanced +aintenance #lanning #rogram so that timely action can be ta(en
to obtain ma'imum reliability and efficiency.
The purposes of inspections include loo(ing for minimi3ing the causes of and
correcting items such as,
-. <ear = bearings gears lin(ages valve parts pac(ings spill strips
hydrogen seals collector rings etc.
/. Erosion = solid particle in dry regions = moisture in wet regions.
0. Deposits = collections in the steam path that result in loss of capability or
efficiency and possible e'posure to undesirable chemicals.
>. Distortions.
;. +isalignment.
?. Crac(ing = thermal or fatigue.
@. +echanical damage = buc(ets diaphragms stator core etc.
A. Contamination of fluid systems.
4. Reduction in integrity of insulation on stator bars field winding or core
laminations.
-5. Loosening of generator hardware bloc(ing supports core etc.
--. !enerator contamination 1oil or dirt2B bloc(ing of ventilation passages.
-/. E'cessive heating in electrical systems.
-0. E'citation system electrical and mechanical problems
In general it is recommended that turbine generators that have been operated in
accordance with the CompanyCs specific operating instructions or in the absence
thereof in accordance with generally accepted operating practices of the electric
power producing industry be opened for inspection starting appro'imately one year
after initial synchroni3ation in order to find and correct any incipient problems at an
early date. In the case of modern multiple casing units and in the absence of
information indicating the desirability of doing other wise it will be satisfactory to
open the 9# section one R9 section one L# section one of each type of valves
and remove the generator field recogni3ing that further inspection may be indicated
by findings in those components inspected or by findings on other units. &u'iliary
components should be inspected at this time. In any case all sections and valves
should have their first inspection within three years of start"up. *ubse%uent
inspections should generally be made such that each component is serviced at
intervals of three to five years. 7alves on fossil units with their higher temperatures
may re%uire more fre%uent inspections depending on observed rate of o'ide build"
up on the up and will not all crac( simultaneously. It is important that all of these
valves be set in the pressure range between ma'imum normal e'traction pressure
or reheater pressure and the ma'imum value given on the drawings for the unit.
The normal relief valve has a Dblow"downE characteristic meaning that the valve will
relieve at somewhat lower pressure than was re%uired to crac( it. This is due to the
flow characteristics of the valve dis( and seat. The amount of blow down will affect
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the ma'imum pressure at which the turbine can operate in the sense that once the
relief valve has been crac(ed the steam pressure must be lowered significantly
below the crac(ing point pressure in order to reset the relief valve dis(. If the relief
valve has too high a blow down characteristic it is possible to reach a condition
where the entire pressure system must be reduced to a pressure level below normal
in order to reset the relief valve. )ormal blow down is appro'imately five percent of
set pressure.
*ISCELLANEOUS VALVES
AUTO*ATIC UNLOADING VALVE
& direct acting diaphragm regulating valve is provided in the gland steam lea("off
line to automatically hold the lea(off pressure at - to / psig. During starting when a
vacuum e'ists throughout the turbine it will be necessary to supply sealing steam to
the lea(off line through the manual live steam valve. &s soon as the unit is put on
the line and the stage pressures build up the automatic regulating valve discharges
the e'cess steam to a lower e'traction point.
If the automatic unloading valve fails for any reason a manual unloading valve can
be used to regulate the lea(off pressure. It is operated from the turbine floor by a
handwheel in the valve panel.
E/TRACTION RELA0 DU*+
*ome of the chec( valves in the e'traction lines are e%uipped with closing
mechanisms operated by the over"speed emergency governor. &n e'traction relay
dump valve is provided inside the turbine oil tan( to accomplish this. It is an oil
tripped valve which controls the air operated mechanisms such as those on the non"
return valves. <hen the stop valve trips the air supply is cut off from the non"return
valves and the air is dumped from the valves to atmosphere. *upply air pressure
may be ?5 to -55 psig.
&lthough it is desirable to have as reliable a source of air as possible loss of air
pressure will not shut off the e'traction lines because the springs in the chec( valve
closing mechanisms are not strong enough. The only effect will be to put a pressure
drop of about -5 percent in the e'traction lines.
If the current is to be passed through the part itself the e%uipment must provide
contacting or clamping elements with sufficient surface and clamping pressure to
allow the re%uired current to flow without in.ury to the parts by locali3ed heating.
SUR.ACE +RE+ARATION
*urfaces to be inspected shall be clean and free from oil grease sand loose rust
or loose scale which may interfere with satisfactory testing. Degreasing is usually
an e'cellent surface preparation prior to wet or dry magnetic particle inspection.
&s cast or as welded surfaces are generally satisfactory if clean and relatively
smooth. Thin adherent paint does not interfere with the formation of indications but
must be removed at points where electrical contact is to be made. If the surface is
unusually rough such as with burned in sand or a very rough weld bead
interpretation may be difficult because the indicator may be trapped mechanically
producing false indications. In case of doubt grinding may be necessary to
determine if actual indications are present. 8ne cleaning method which has been
successfully applied to turbine rotors is an aluminum o'ide blast of the steam
passage ways.
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*AGNETI-ING CURRENT
Either direct or rectified current is recommended for the purpose of magneti3ing
parts for magnetic particle inspection.
*ince poorly defined indications are produced when discontinuities are parallel to
the magnetic field 1perpendicular to current flow2 it is necessary to select and
control the direction of magneti3ation so that flaws will be ade%uately indicated. If
indications may occur in various or un(nown directions in a part each part must be
magneti3ed in at least two different directions. 8n most parts longitudinal and
circular magneti3ation is used. 8n some parts circular magneti3ation in two or
more directions or longitudinal magneti3ation in two or more directions may be
more satisfactory.
CIRCULAR *AGNETI-ATION
Electric current passing through any conductor creates a magnetic field around and
within the conductor. The direction of the magnetic field is always at right angles to
the direction of the magneti3ing current. It best indicates flaws or discontinuities
parallel to the current flow.
DIRECT CIRCULAR *AGNETI-ATION
This method is accomplished by passing current directly through the part being
magneti3ed. This method can be applied by either of the two following techni%ues,
LOCALI-ED *AGNETI-ATION
This is accomplished by using prods to magneti3e a local area of the part between
the prods. & current rating of -55 amperes to -/; amperes per inch of prod spacing
is recommended.
OVERALL *AGNETI-ATION
This consist of a magneti3ing the part as a whole by passing current through the
entire part. The use of this techni%ue is limited to parts of suitable shape so that the
magnetic field can be set up in the right direction. & current rating of -55 amperes
to -/; amperes per inch of diameter or ma'imum dimension at right angles to the
current flow is recommended.
INDIRECT CIRCULAR *AGNETI-ATION
This method is accomplished by passing current through a central conductor on
tubular parts or parts having a central opening. *everal turns of cable can also be
made through parts having an opening. 8ne advantage of indirect circular
magneti3ation is the ability to magneti3e both inside and outside surfaces at the
same time. <hen & central conductor is used a current rating of -55 amperes to
-/; amperes per inch of inside diameter is recommended. <hen several turns are
employed the current rating should be based on -55 ampere turns to -/; ampere
turns per inch of diameter.
LONGITUDINAL *AGNETI-ATION
<hen electric current is passed through a coil made up of several loops there is a
magnetic field in the coil lengthwise or longitudinally. If a magnetic part is placed
within this coil a field will be produced in the part parallel with the a'is of the coil.
This will create two or more poles at the ends of the part. This is called a
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longitudinal field and is suitable for detecting flaws essentially transverse to the a'is
of the coil 1parallel to the direction of the current flow2.
OVERALL CIRCULAR *AGNETI-ATION
$or overall circular magneti3ation the magneti3ing currents should be -55 to -/;
amp per in. of diameter or inch of greatest width in a plane at right angles to current
flow. This is applied both to passing the current through the part itself or through a
central conductor on tubular parts or parts having a central opening. If several
turns are made through a central opening the Dampere turnsE rather than amperes
should be considered.
LONGITUDINAL *AGNETI-ATION
The magnetic fieldCs strength in a part being magneti3ed in a coil is determined
primarily by the ampere turns of the coil and length to diameter 1LFD2 ratio of the
part. +ost parts cannot be effectively inspected in a coil unless their LFD ratio is two
or more. The formula for determining the correct number of ampere turns is as
follows,
L/D
45,000
= turns Ampere
Coils are usually effective in magneti3ing the part for a distance of ?E to 4E either
side of the coil. If larger parts are to be inspected several magneti3ing shots will be
re%uired.
Inspection by the continuous method is recommendedB that is the magneti3ing
current remains on during the period the inspection medium is being applied and
also while the e'cess inspection medium is being removed with a gentle air stream
or draining.
INS+ECTION 1DR0 +O2DER *ET,OD
This method provides a uniform procedure for magnetic particle inspection with dry
powder of large parts such as castings and weldments which will produce
satisfactory and consistent results.
A++ARATUS
&pplicators may be used for rapid and uniform application of dry powder. Care
should be ta(en to dust on the powder very lightly and sparingly. & low velocity low
pressure air stream from a hand bulb or a small air hose may be used to remove
e'cess powder. &de%uate lighting must be provided to observe indications.
INS+ECTION *EDIU*
Commercially available dry powers used as the inspection medium are of high
permeability and low retentivity and of suitable si3es and shapes to readily produce
magnetic particle indications. It should be of a color that will provide ade%uate
contrast with the bac(ground of the surface being inspected. The powder should be
applied by lightly dusting a small %uantity over the surface and then removing the
e'cess with a gentle air steam. The air stream must be so controlled that it does not
disturb or remove lightly held powder patterns. In order to recogni3e the board
fu33y lightly held powder patterns produced by sub"surface discontinuities it is
essential to observe carefully the formation of indications while the powder is being
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applied and also while the e'cess is being removed. &de%uate lighting must be
provided for easy observation of the indications.
It is recommended that the no33le si3e and air pressure shall be such that when
operating in free air a pressure of appro'imately - in. of water will be produced
when measured with a manometer tube located at an a'ial distance of - in. from the
no33le.
INS+ECTION 1 2ET *ET,OD
This method outlines a techni%ue for the wet method of magnetic particle inspection
using the indicator carried in a li%uid medium.
Commercially available magnetic particles used as the indicator for the wet method
of inspection are e'tremely small being on the order of a few microns in si3e. This
indicator is particularly well suited tot he detection of e'tremely fine discontinuities
e'tending to the surface such as grinding crac(s and fatigue crac(s. The wet
method also has the advantage that it is possible to cover more easily and %uic(ly
with a film of indicator those pieces of irregular si3e and shape. It is therefore
particularly well adapted to inspection of small and medium si3ed parts. <ith proper
e%uipment however it can also be applied to large pieces.
A++ARATUS
BAT, ,ANDLING .ACILITIES
*ince the inspection medium is a suspension and not a solution it must be
constantly agitated in order to (eep the particles distributed throughout the bath so
that a uniform amount will be applied to all surfaces to be inspected. <hen
applying the indicator to the partsC surfaces care must be ta(en to assure that the
application techni%ue will not wash away or remove lightly held indications from the
surface of the parts.
INS+ECTION AREA
The inspection area must have ade%uate lighting to facilitate e'amination of the
piece for indications. If red or blac( indicators are used the illumination should be
comparable to that sued for visual inspection. If a fluorescent indicator is being
used high intensity blac( lights 1near ultraviolet2 such as the C9"> 9-55"*#> and
L9"- or e%uivalent must be used. The blac( lights are provided with suitable clean
filters which will pass near ultraviolet 10?;56&2 range but will filter out the short
wave length burning rays and most of the visible light. & partially shaded or
dar(ened area is re%uired to provided ade%uate contrast for the fluorescent
indications.
INS+ECTION *EDIU*
The magnetic particles must be used in suspension in the re%uired li%uid medium.
They should have a color that will provide ade%uate contrast with the bac(ground of
the surface being inspected.
+ARTICLE COLOR
Two types of wet magnetic particles may be used as follows,
.LUORESCENT *AGNETIC +ARTICLES
The particles used in the wet method fluorescent magnetic particle bath are coated
with a dye which causes them to fluoresce brilliantly when e'posed to near
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ultraviolet 1blac(2 light. The purpose of this dye is to provide ma'imum contrast
between the indications and their bac(ground so that fine discontinuities can be
observed more readily and %uic(ly.
VISIBLE *AGNETIC +ARTICLES
The visible magnetic particles normally used in the wet baths are either reddish or
blac( and are observed under normal white light. There is no difference in the
sensitivity and the color should be selected which will provide the best contract
against the bac(ground of the part being inspected.
LI3UID VE,ICLE
The types of li%uid vehicles are used,
2ATER BAT,
<ater should be used as the suspending agent only with those indicating materials
which have been formulated for use with water and should include proper wetting
and corrosion inhibiting materials. The bath must wet the surface being inspected in
order to provide for formation of the magnetic indications. Inhibiting materials
should also be included to minimi3e corrosion and other damage to the e%uipment
and parts. #roper precaution should be ta(en in use of water base materials to
insure against danger of short circuits or shoc(.
OIL BAT,
+ost parts are inspected using oil 1(erosene2 as the suspending vehicle. The oil
used in preparing the bath is a light well"refined petroleum distillate of low sulfur
content treated to reduce any unpleasant odors. If the oil is to be used as a vehicle
for fluorescent particles it should also be chec(ed with a blac( light to assure that it
has a very low amount of natural fluorescence.
A++LICATION O. INS+ECTION *EDIU*
The suspension may be applied by either spraying or flowing it over the areas to be
inspected or by dipping the part in an agitated suspension of the inspection
medium. The mechanics and timing of the suspension application must be such
that indications will have sufficient time to form.
SE3UENCE O. O+ERATIONS
CONTINUOUS *ET,OD
In the continuous method the indicating medium is applied while the magneti3ing
force is present. <ith this method the magneti3ing field is at a ma'imum when the
suspension is applied which provides ma'imum sensitivity. The continuous method
should be used unless otherwise specified. <hen inspecting by the continuous
method the se%uence of operations must be carefully controlled either by a
%ualified operator or by proper setting of the automatic controls of the e%uipment. &
film of the inspection medium must cover all surfaces to be inspected at the time the
magneti3ing current is being applied and the magneti3ing current must continue to
flow until the e'cess inspection medium has drained off.
*ATERIALS AND E3UI+*ENT
+O2ER SU++L0
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DC welding generator /55 amps or more full wave or half wave rectified current
from a portable power pac(.
<elding cables of sufficient length
Gerosene or safety solvent
*pray gun Devibiss type 9<& or similar
+agnetic pastes = blac(
!.E. *pec. D//C&
Ritter designation type G* magnetite obtainable in ; lb. Cans from Ritter Chemical
company &msterdam )ew Hor( or +agnaflu' blac( paste )o. y from +agnaflu'
Corporation Chicago Illinois
+agnetic paste = fluorescent
)o. -5 +agnaglo particles available in I J and - lb. Cans from +agnaflu'
Corporation
:lac( light 1for fluorescent indicators2 including bulbs filters and transformer Cat.
)o. K:/? or similar. 8btainable from +agnaflu' Corporation.
LI3UID +ENETRANT INS+ECTION *ET,OD
& li%uid #enetrant inspection is used for inspecting non"magnetic materials for
surface flaws. D #enetrant inspection is basically a simple process where a highly
penetrating li%uid is applied to the surface of the part by spraying or brushing. This
#enetrant is then allowed to remain on the surface allowing the solution to seep into
defects open to the surface. &fter a reasonable penetrating time 1-;"/5 minutes2
the e'cess #enetrant is removed from the surface and a developer is then applied.
This developer acts li(e a blotter drawing some of the #enetrant out of the flaw
allowing it to spread on the test surface around the defect. &fter a reasonable
developing time the surface of the part is then inspected visually for surface defects.
Two types of commonly used #enetrant are red dye and fluorescent #enetrant. The
red dye employs a white developer of highly refined talc calcium carbonite or sierra
talc which is dusted or sprayed on dry. Red dye also uses a wet developer 1!.E.
material D//"C?2 for use with !.E. visible #enetrant D//"C- or Ritter -5"-5. The
Ritter -5"-5 may be obtained by !.E. components directly from the Ritter Chemical
Company.
The visible or red dye penetrate is more convenient for use in field wor( because
the fluorescent #enetrant re%uire viewing under a blac( light 1near ultraviolet light of
0?;5 & wavelength2 and under subdued lighting conditions. &lso the !.E. material
D//"C- is water washable.
$luorescent #enetrant and blac( light units can be obtained through the +agnaflu'
Corporation Chicago Illinois.
<hen conducting a li%uid #enetrant test the following conditions must be met,
*urfaces to be inspected must be smooth dry and clean to allow proper inspection.
Care must be ta(en in preparing surfaces so that the cleaning process does not
result in conditions which prevent the #enetrant from entering the voids. $or
instance heavy grinding or shot peening could seal up tight voids ma(ing them un"
dectable.
The #enetrant must enter the flaw in order to form an indication. Conse%uently it is
essential that contaminants which restrict the flow of #enetrant be removed
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Contaminant conditions resulting from moisture entrapment can be overcome by
heating the surface to be tested to -;56$ with infra"red lights or gas torches.
*ufficient penetrating time should be allowed. *mall or tight flaws re%uire longer
penetrating times than larger or open voids.
<hen removing the e'cess #enetrant from the surface of the part care should be
e'ercised to assure that the #enetrant will not be removed from the flaws.
ULTRASONIC INS+ECTION *ET,OD
Ultrasonic testing ma(es use of high fre%uency sound waves 15.; to -5.5 +932 for
inspection of materials for flaws and for measuring distance i.e. wall thic(ness.
These two applications are commonly used in the production and maintenance of
large steam turbines and generators. 8ther applications could involve measuring
fluid levels in containers assessing bond integrity between dissimilar materials
measuring fluid levels in containers assessing bound integrity between dissimilar
materials measuring bore eccentricity in rotors locating hidden (ey"ways or holes
etc.
*ince most sonic testing e%uipment is readily portable the test is well suited for field
inspections. There are many battery operated instruments on the mar(et today
capable of doing many types of %ualitative tests.
9igh fre%uency sound waves obey the same physical laws as light waves and can
be reflected refracted absorbed and polari3ed. Using an ultrasonic beam to scan
materials such as acoustically transparent steel or aluminum is analogous to using a
light beam to scan optically transparent materials such as glass or water.
&s with all other methods of nondestructive testing there are distinct advantages
and disadvantages associated with ultrasonic tests. The advantages of ultrasonic
tests are ,
-. 9ighly sensitive permitting detection of minute defects.
/. #enetrating power allowing inspection of thic( sections.
0. &ccuracy in locating and measuring flaw si3e.
>. $ast response permitting rapid inspection.
The disadvantages of ultrasonic tests are that the test can be limited by ,
-. Unfavorable part geometry such as si3e contour comple'ity and relative
defect orientation.
/. +aterial structure such as grain si3e porosity inclusion content or fine
dispersed precipitates.
Ultrasonic tests fall into three basic categories pulse echo through transmission
and resonance testing. #ulse echo testing is used for practically all testing of Large
*team Turbine and !enerator components. It involves transmitting a short burst of
high fre%uency sound through the piece being tested and detecting the echoes from
within the material.
In operation the electronic pulser produces a short burst of high fre%uency electrical
signal. This is transmitted to the transducer which is forced to vibrate usually and
its resonant fre%uency. The sound vibration is coupled into the test piece with oil
water or some other li%uid or grease. The wave train then travels through the test
piece until a discontinuity or boundary is encountered. This interruption in the
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medium then reflects the sound bac( to the transducer. The vibrational energy of
the sound wave sets the transducer in motion producing an electrical impulse which
is fed into the amplifier. The output of the amplifier is usually a cathode ray tube
which displays the signals on linear time base line. If a linear amplifier is used the
amplitude of the returned echoes can be used as a measure of the area producing
the reflected signal.
The second method is resonance testing which ma(es use of a tunable continuous
wave system. This method is usually employed for measuring small wall
thic(nesses ranging from a few mils to several inches. Interference caused by the
generation of standing waves is converted to a reading of the wall thic(ness within
the resonance testing instrument.
The methods .ust described can be conducted with the transducers in direct contact
with the test piece 1which is called contact testing2 or made with a delay medium
which is normally water interposed between the transducers and the test piece.
#ractically all L*TL! components are tested by the dirt contact method.
&ll tests are dependent on the test surface conditions particularly the direct contact
method. &s such machined surfaces in the range of ?0 to /;5 micro inches are
ideally suited for sonic testing. *urfaces should be free from loose scale dirt o'ide
tool tears etc. tightly adhering scale and uniformly painted surface have little or no
affect on this type of test.
:ecause of the comple'ity of the testing procedures and the speciali3ed e%uipment
re%uired for the e'amination of some of the ma.or components ultrasonic
inspections should only be made by personnel approved by L*T"! Engineering.
The +anager Ultrasonic Testing +aterials and #rocesses Laboratory *chenectady
)ew Hor( should be contacted for personnel %ualified to perform ultrasonic
inspections on various parts or components.
RADIOGRA+,IC INS+ECTION *ET,OD
Radiography is a nondestructive test method used to a high degree for the
e'amination of material soundness of turbine castings and weldments during the
manufacturing cycle. In the field or at power stations radiographic e%uipment is
generally limited to portable low energy machines and radio"active isotopes such as
Cobalt ?5 and Iridium -4/ where the resultant radiant energy can be safely
controlled. :ecause of the lower energy there are limitations in the application of
these energy sources. Low voltage machines and Iridium -4/ may be used to test
up to /E or so of steel cross section and cobalt for thic(er sections from - JE to ?E
as a ma'imum. 9owever from a practical point of view >E with Cobalt ?5 becomes
the reasonable limit because of physical limitations within the turbine and the radiant
energy strength of the isotopes available for field wor( in unprotected areas.
<hen considering radiograph as a nondestructive testing method it must be
remembered that radiography is a highly speciali3ed and ha3ardous operation and
when an application of this techni%ue is desirable and practical specialists must be
employed to perform the wor( to insure both satisfaction and safety. There are a
number of licensed companies and laboratories whose business is to supply
e%uipment and technicians when called upon. <here a list of recommended
companies is not available the Radiographic Testing unit *chenectady ).H. may
be contacted for recommended sources as well as other technical advice on
radiographic testing.
&D7&)CED C8UR*E +EC9&)IC&L +&I)TE)&)CE
*TE&+ TUR:I)E 87ER9&UL LE**8) ; #&!E --
In all radiographic wor( a radiation health ha3ard e'ists for all personnel in the
wor(ing area. &t )uclear #ower *tations Radiation *afety 8fficers are always on
hand to insure compliance with the appropriate regulations at the station. In
addition company directives relative to radiation safety at such stations must be
followed.
<here radiography is to utili3ed at fossil fueled stations $ederal andFor *tate laws
regarding radiation safety must be adhered to and could be the direct responsibility
of whoever contracts the wor(.
In general these regulations specify radiation does limits to personnel both in time
and %uantity the use of proper monitoring devices for the detection of radiationB the
need to cordon off the wor(ing area with appropriate warning signs and the action
to be ta(en when the specifications are e'ceeded or violated.
Determining the practicality of radiography as an inspection techni%ue is based on
several factors, Cross sectional thic(ness of the material included 1generally steel2
type and si3e of the radiant energy available and accessibility of the area involved.
&s noted previously there are definite thic(ness limits for sources available for on"
site testing. $urther as the individual limit for each source is reached the time
re%uired for a proper e'posure increases in some instances to a point of
impracticality 1the e'posure time can be measured in hours2. &fter determining
thic(ness feasibility consideration must be made of the physical si3e and strength
of the appropriate radiant energy source1s2 available and the accessibility of the
area involved. <hen using radioactive isotopes strength in curies and the physical
si3e of the source are important. The smaller the si3e the closer to the material it
can be placed and at the same time the smaller the si3e the wea(er the source in
curies and the longer the e'posure time. Low voltage '"ray machines are available
in energy output from -555 G7# to >55 G7# the higher types being re%uired for
penetration at -E to /E of material thic(ness. The focal spot si3e corresponding to
isotope si3e determines minimum source to film distance for satisfactory
radiography. The higher the G7# the larger the si3e of the generating unit thereby
re%uiring more wor(ing room ad.acent to the testing area.
&ccessibility beyond what has already been noted must be of a magnitude that will
provide a clear path from the radiant source to the material to be tested at the
minimum source to film distance established for the source and the ability to place
the film cassette on the opposite side of the area being tested. Useful radiation is
not derived from a point source but emanates from a two dimensional area varying
as the physical si3e of the isotope or the focal spot in an '"ray machine. Intensity of
radiation is inversely proportional to the s%uare of the distance from its source and
the obvious conclusion is to bring the source and the material as close together as
possible. :ut the shorter the source to film distance the greater the paralla' or
halo effect on the film which can easily blur or dissipate the image of any inclusion
that might be in the test material thus defeating the purpose of the radiograph.
+inimum source to film distances according to type of source si3e of focal spot
and the thic(ness involved is determined by a standard formula for Dgeometrical
unsharpnessE a measurement of the DhaloE width. !enerally geometric
unsharpness shall be no more than 5.5/5E for material thic(ness up to /E no more
than 5.505E from /E to >E and no more 5.5;5E greater than >E. &ny %ualified
radiographer should be able to demonstrate his ability to meet these conditions. In
cases where these conditions cannot be met and only a less than minimum source
to film distance is available it is suggested that the Radiographic Testing Unit
+aterials and #rocesses Laboratory *chenectady ).H. be consulted to determine
the value of radiography in relation to the results desired an the techni%ue that
must be employed.
+EC9&)IC&L +&I)TE)&)CE &D7&)CED C8UR*E
LE**8) ; #&!E -/ *TE&+ TUR:I)E 87ER9&UL
In addition to the parameters noted the e'posure time for any radiograph should be
sufficient to meet film density standard as a measure of the dar(ening effect on
e'posed film. Radiographs that are too light may not reveal a slight but dangerous
inclusion and in those that are too dar( it may be impossible to separate the
inclusion from the bac(ground.
Density measured to the standard 9LD scale should be no less than -.; or more
than >.5 on a single film. If a double film techni%ue is used and for reading super
imposed the combined density should be no less than /.5 or more than >.5.
$or radiography in the field or at power stations it is recommended practice to use
double films in each cassette for each e'posure. This provides a cross"chec( on
what may be seen in the radiograph particularly eliminating the possibility of
confusing individual film defects with material defects which would be common to
both films. This is particularly true where the developing process is not as well
controlled on site as it is in a permanent radiographic facility.
Caution must be observed in attempting to radiograph material when the
temperature of the sub.ect is above normal. 9eat has a very harmful effect on film
emulsion and should not be used on a surface hotter than one can place a bare
hand. Insulation such as asbestos can be used in some cases but it should be
proven before any magnetite of wor( is performed.
&fter radiographs are completely processed they should be sent to *chenectady for
evaluation. Radiographic evidence should be interpreted by e'perienced personnel
who are able to correlate any inclusions to the appropriate standards and the
service operating conditions of the part involved. +any discontinuities may be
undesirable but they might not be harmful when proper consideration is made
relative to location wall thic(ness and operating stresses involved. There are
defects such as crac(s that are unacceptable under any conditions. Depending
upon the orientation of the defect to the '"ray beam they may not be clearly
defined and re%uire the e'perience of specialists to ma(e the proper interpretation.
<henever radiographs are ta(en in the field every effort must be made to utili3e
the original area identification stamping if the part concerned has been sub.ect to
radiographic inspection during the manufacturing cycle. This permits comparison of
the new radiograph with the original on file in *chenectady. If there is no original
stamping or the stamping has become obscured new identification must be metal
stamped in such a way that the corresponding lead characters will be shown on the
e'tremes of the film. In the main casting areas will have four identification mar(ers
one in each corner and planned welds will have two mar(ers above or below and at
the e'tremity of the weld on each radiograph.
If the area to be radiographed is between but not including two e'isting
identifications the same numbering system should be used. $or e'ample if the
general area is ?"@ and it is not practical to include both numbers stamp an
intermediate number of ?.; and the new identification will be come ?"?.; or ?.;"@.
<here letters are used such as D"E insert the letter DME and the new identification
would become D"M or M"E. the following information is important and should be
referred to *chenectady,
-. Determine whether the area has been previously welded. &cid etching will
often locate the welded areas if not evident by visual inspection. $or both
alloy steel and stainless steel castings swabbing the area with a
concentrated ferric chloride in hydrochloric acid etching solution 1$eCl
0
in
9C-2 will bring out the outline of the weld. *aturated ammonium per"
sulphate solution 1)9
>
2
/
*
/
8
A
is easier to use but this will not wor( on the
stainless steel castings.
&D7&)CED C8UR*E +EC9&)IC&L +&I)TE)&)CE
*TE&+ TUR:I)E 87ER9&UL LE**8) ; #&!E -0
/. 8btain name of part turbine number serial number and drawing number.
0. +a(e a s(etch of the areas to be radiographed showing relative locations of
film and source placement.
>. #rovide a copy of the radiographic wor(sheet containing the following
information,
)ame of part
*erial number
Turbine number
Drawing number
Type of energy and focal spot si3e
*ource to film distance used
Types of film used
Radiation energy used
E'posure used
+aterial thic(ness
The following conditions although not inclusive may call for radiographic
inspections,
-. :ecause of casting lea(s it is necessary to determine the e'tent of the
defect.
/. &fter hipping to determine the soundness of the remaining thic(ness.
0. :efore repair welding to determine the soundness of the metal to be welded
on.
>. &fter ma.or repair welding to determine the soundness of the repair weld.
8n welded areas prior to radiographic wor( the surfaces should be ground so as to
eliminate any surface irregularities that might interfere with proper interpretation of
the film.
+EC9&)IC&L +&I)TE)&)CE &D7&)CED C8UR*E
LE**8) ; #&!E -> *TE&+ TUR:I)E 87ER9&UL