Chapter 23

The Evolution of Populations

populations evolve
individuals are selected
X
evolution -- (1) all changes that have
transformed life on earth from its beginnings
to its current diversity, resulting from (2)
microevolution -- any change in the genetic
makeup of a population across generations
population -- localized group of individuals that
are capable of interbreeding and producing
fertile offspring
gene pool -- all of the genes in a population at
any one time
recall that genes are carried on chromosomes;
sexually reproducing species are diploid
(carry two alleles for each character)
modern synthesis =
Darwinian evolution + Mendelian genetics
Population genetics provides
a foundation for studying evolution
Fig. 23.3
one species, two populations
population -- localized group of individuals that
are capable of interbreeding and producing
fertile offspring
imagine a case of incomplete dominance
with two alleles for color...
C
R
= red C
B
= blue
genotype for Red ghost phenotype =
homozygous C
R
C
R
genotype for Blue ghost phenotype =
homozygous C
B
C
B
Heterozygous offspring C
R
C
B
are pink
x
C
R
C
R
C
B
C
B
C
R
C
B
Fig. 23.4
C
R
C
R
C
W
C
W
C
W
C
R
C
W
C
R
C
W
C
R
C
W
C
R
Fig. 23.4
C
R
C
W
C
R
C
W
C
R
C
R
C
R
C
W
C
W
C
R
C
W
C
W
Fig. 23.4
(phenotypic) polymorphism -- existence of
two or more distinct morphs (discrete forms),
each represented in a population in high
enough frequencies to be readily noticeable
This population of Ghostus pacmanus is
polymorphic for the character of color
but some alleles are fixed in a gene pool
(frequency = 100%)
e.g., allele for googly eyes in this example
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/
(phenotypic) polymorphism -- existence of
two or more distinct morphs (discrete forms),
each represented in a population in high
enough frequencies to be readily noticeable
Island populations of Hawaiian happy face
spiders are polymorphic for color pattern
red allele frequency p(C
R
) = ____
blue allele frequency p(C
B
) = ____
1) label the genotype of each individual
2) calculate the frequency of each allele
i.e., red allele frequency =all red alleles in pop
total #alleles in pop
Hardy-Weinberg Theorem -- frequencies of
alleles in population gene pool should
remain constant across generations
why? Mendelian genetics / statistical probability
does it happen in nature? usually no
conclusion: natural selection (etc.) cause
changes in the gene pool (evolution)
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
p
2
+ 2pq + q
2
= 1
p = frequency of C
W
q = frequency of C
R
Consider imaginary flower population with:
Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium: a null model
64% 32% 4%
p = frequency of C
R
= 64% 64%+ 0.5(32% 32%) = 80%
q = frequency of C
W
= 4% 4%+ 0.5(32% 32%) = 20%
p
2
+ 2pq + q
2
= 1
(0.8)
2
+ 2(0.8)(0.2) + (0.2)
2
=
0.64 + 0.32 + 0.04 = 1
Fig. 23.5
Fig. 23.5
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?
1) large population size
small sample increases chance
fluctuations
2) no gene flow
(between populations)
3) no mutations
mutation introduces new genotypes...
(= raw material for selection)
4) random mating
- mate preference affects allele frequency
sexual selection or assortative mating
- also inbreeding
5) no natural selection
H-W equilibrium is based on probability in
scenario with random chance determining
allele frequency; selection for / against
phenotypes (and therefore genotypes) =
not random
In nature, conditions for H-W equilibrium
are hardly ever met
mutation -- change in DNA nucleotide
sequence; corresponding change in
mRNA codon may alter protein synthesis
mutations can be somatic (body cells) or
germ line (gametes), spontaneous (no
outside influence) or induced (due to
external factors)
mutation = source of all heritable variation
(germ line)
many mutations do not affect phenotype
most that do are deleterious
once in a while... under certain conditions...
mutations can be beneficial
Mutation & sexual recombination produce
the variation that makes evolution possible
which yields a new generation...
consider our original ghost population:
what happened here?
several generations later...
also consider sexual selection...
hypotheses?
Fig. 23.7
genetic drift -- random fluctuation in gene pool
(especially important in small populations)
Natural selection, genetic drift & gene flow
can alter genetic composition of population
which yields a new generation...
consider our original ghost population:
possible alternative hypothesis?
is this population in H-W equilibrium?
Fig. 23.8
bottleneck effect -- sudden event dramatically
reduces population size (at random with
respect to individual phenotypes)...
consider consequences in future gene pool
Examples of genetic drift
include bottleneck & founder effects
if this population reaches its previous size over
generations, will the genetic composition be
similar to that prior to the bottleneck effect?
predict how it will be different...
bottleneck effect -- sudden event dramatically
reduces population size (at random with
respect to individual phenotypes)...
consider consequences in future gene pool
northern elephant seal (California coast)
hunting reduced pop size to ~20 by 1890s
genetic variation much reduced
(i.e., compared to southern elephant seal)
threats include disease, pollution, El Nio
black-footed Ferret (Wyoming high desert)
thought to be extinct (1970s)... until rediscovery
threats include disease, lack of prey & habitat loss
founder effect -- same effect as bottleneck,
different mechanism: isolated group starts
new population with no further gene flow
from source population
Examples of genetic drift
include bottleneck & founder effects
these two individuals migrate to a new habitat
(where a geographical barrier prevents further
interaction with the rest of the group).
genetic variation for color has been eliminated
(C
R
is fixed in future generations)
founder effect -- same effect as bottleneck,
different mechanism: isolated group starts
new population with no further gene flow
from source population
Pennsylvania Amish
increased frequency of Ellis-van Creveld syndrome
(polydactylism / dwarfism / heart defects)
inbreeding (from bottleneck, founder, artificial selection)
hemophilia: a sex-linked (recessive)
genetic disorder in humans
X Y X X
Royal families of Europe maintained a tradition
of marrying within their social status...
gene flow -- genetic input from other
populations can change allele frequencies
our red ghosts no longer encounter their
ancestral population, but one day they may be
joined by a few migrant orange ghosts from the
other side of the labyrinth...
you get the picture!
gene flow -- genetic input from other
populations can change allele frequencies
artificial selection... gene flow can be a
blessing or a curse
genes from wild ancestors of crops can be
introduced to increase genetic variation in
food plants
genes from genetically modified crops may
accidentally spread to wild plants (danger of
creating a superweed) or pollute the plants
of neighboring farms...