AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM

&
PATH FINDER
A MAJOR PROJECT
SUBMITTED IN THE FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
OF
KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY, KURUKSHETRA
BY
NAVNEET KUMAR (1504284)
NARENDER KUMAR (1504285)
HAPPY YADAV (1504286)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
M! SACHIN "ADH"A
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICA# ENGINEERING
N!C! CO##EGE OF ENGINEERING
ISRANA (PANIPAT)
$UNE 2008
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To execute a project honestly is the cherished desire of any would be
engineer and to do this we are no exception that we have managed to achieve
this at all.
We thank the INKT!"# $vt. %td for helping in the &esearch !xperiences for
'ndergraduates (&!') program and providing this educational opportunity.
We also thank Mr. SACHIN WADHWA for his guidance * helping us in all the
possible ways. We express our sincere thanks towards our guide for his
unstinted support * commitment to make our project see light of today and
the college for use of their facilities.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation report entitled +AUTOMATIC BRAKING
AND PATH FINDER, being submitted by- .
a) N/0N!!T K'1/& (2345675)
b) N/&!N8!& K'1/& (2345673)
c) #/$$9 9/8/0 (234567:)
In fulfillment for the award of degree of bachelor in technology in
Mechanical Engineering at the department of 1echanical !ngineering; N!1I
"#/N8 "%%!<! f !N<<.I=&/N/ is a record of students own work carried
by them under my supervision * guidance.
MR. SACHIN WADWA
(=r.lecturare)
1echanical 8eptt.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
To find auto break when enter accident area by proximity system when
the two disciplines (1echanical *!lectronic) are brought together; a whole
new world of interesting possibilities opens up. #ere is a very simple and
useful circuit for security purposes.
/ny vehicle when entered without break in proximity area become
safe; one can seek the help of security proximity system. The project has two
main parts an intruder sensor cum transmitter and a receiver.
I& transmitter and receiver pair can be used to reali>e a proximity
detector. The circuit presented here enables you to detect any object capable
of reflecting the I& beam and moving in front of the I& %!8 photo detector
pair up to a distance of about 3 meter from it.
#ere is a illustrative project; where a simple hardware circuit is directly
interfaced to other vehicle. It can object counter for an assembly line
conveyer belt; and so on. With a little modification of the hardware.
Bra!ing "#"$e% &' (ehicle"-.
The hybrid vehicle brake system includes both standard hydraulic brakes
during this phase of braking? the hydraulic brakes are not used. When more
rapid deceleration is re@uired; the
hydraulic brakes are activated to provide additional stopping power.
The sensors can become contaminated with metallic dust and fail to detect
wheel slip? this is not always picked up by the internal /A= controller
diagnostic.
#ere; two more sensors are added to help the system work- these are a
wheel angle sensor; and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is
simple- when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the
car doesnBt agree with what the wheel sensor says; the !=" software will
brake the necessary wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems) so that the car goes the way the driver intends. The wheel sensor
also helps in the operation of "A"; since this will tell the /A= that wheels on
the outside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the inside; and by
how much.
Typical =ystem (No /A=)-.
Typical %ayout of =ystem (with /A=) -.
Typica Sy!"#$ %ABS&'(
"omponents-. "omponents-.
=liding "aliper
Cixed "aliper
$ressure "ontrol 0alves
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The transmitter part consists of two 333 timers (I"2; I"6 for driving an
infrared %!8. the infrared detector to sense the transmission? To save power;
the duty cycle of the D7k#> a stable multi vibrator is maintained at 24 per
cent.
The receiver part have an infrared detector comprising (I"D; I"5; I"3;
I"E ) wired for operation and timer; followed by (T2) * (T6) transistor. 'pon
reception of infrared signals to pin.6 of I".5; the 333 (I"5) timer (mono) is
turned FonG and it remain FonG as long as the infrared signals are being
received.
Effectiveness
/ 644D /ustralian study

by 1onash 'niversity /ccident &esearch "entre found
that /A=-
&educed the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by E7 percent.
&educed the risk of run.off.road crashes by D3 percent.
n high.traction surfaces such as bitumen; or concrete many /A=.e@uipped
cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that
would be easily possible without the benefit of /A=. !ven an alert; skilled
driver without /A= would find it difficult; even through the use of techni@ues
like threshold braking; to match or improve on the performance of a typical
driver with an /A=.e@uipped vehicle; in real world conditions. /A= reduces
chances of crashing; andHor the severity of impact. The recommended
techni@ue for non.expert drivers in an /A=.e@uipped car; in a typical full.
braking emergency; is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and;
where appropriate; to steer around obstructions. In such situations; /A= will
significantly reduce the chances of a skid and subse@uent loss of control.
In gravel and deep snow; /A= tends to increase braking distances. n these
surfaces; locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more @uickly. /A=
prevents this from occurring. =ome /A= calibrations reduce this problem by
slowing the cycling time; thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and
unlock. The primary benefit of /A= on such surfaces is to increase the ability
of the driver to maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid I
though loss of control remains more likely on soft surfaces like gravel or
slippery surfaces like snow or ice. n a very slippery surface such as sheet ice
or gravel it is possible to lock multiple wheels at once; and this can defeat
/A= (which relies on detecting individual wheels skidding). /vailability of /A=
relieves most drivers from learning threshold braking.
When drivers do encounter an emergency that causes them to brake hard and
thus encounter this pulsing for the first time; many are believed to reduce
pedal pressure and thus lengthen braking distances; contributing to a higher
level of accidents than the superior emergency stopping capabilities of /A=
would otherwise promise. =ome manufacturers have therefore implemented
1ercedes.Aen>Bs Jbrake assistJ system that determines that the driver is
attempting a Jpanic stopJ and the system automatically increases braking
force where not enough pressure is applied. Nevertheless; /A= significantly
improves safety and control for drivers in most on.road situations
The /A= e@uipment may also be used to implement traction control on
acceleration of the vehicle. If; when accelerating; the tire loses traction with
the ground; the /A= controller can detect the situation and take suitable
action so that traction is regained. 1anufacturers often offer this as a
separately priced option even though the infrastructure is largely shared with
/A=. 1ore sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and
brakes simultaneously.
Design and selection of components
<iven the re@uired reliability it is illustrative to see the choices made in the
design of the /A= system. $roper functioning of the /A= system is considered
of the utmost importance; for safeguarding both the passengers and people
outside of the car. The system is therefore built with some redundancy; and is
designed to monitor its own working and report failures. The entire /A=
system is considered to be a hard real.time system; while the subsystem that
controls the self.diagnosis is considered soft real.time. /s stated above; the
general working of the /A= system consists of an electronic unit; also known
as !"' (electronic control unit); which collects data from the sensors and
drives the hydraulic control unit; or #"'; mainly consisting of the valves that
regulate the braking pressure for the wheels.
H&) A*$&%a$ic+Bra!ing S#"$e% W&r!
The communication between the !"' and the sensors must happen @uickly
and at real time. / possible solution is the use of the "/N bus system; which
has been and is still in use in many /A= systems today (in fact; this "/N
standard was developed by &obert Aosch <mb#; for connecting electronic
control unitsK). This allows for an easy combination of multiple signals into
one signal; which can be sent to the !"'. The communication with the valves
of the #"' is usually not done this way. The !"' and the #"' are generally
very close together. The valves; usually solenoid valves; are controlled
directly by the !"'. To drive the valves based on signals from the !"'; some
circuitry and amplifiers are needed (which would also have been the case if
the "/N.bus was used).
The sensors measure the position of the tires; and are generally placed on the
wheel.axis. The sensor should be robust and maintenance free; not to
endanger its proper working; for example an inductive sensor. These position
measurements are then processed by the !"' to calculate the wheel.spin.
The hydraulic control unit is generally located right next to the !"' (or the
other way around); and consists of a number of valves that control the
pressure in the braking circuits. /ll these valves are placed closely together
and packed in a solid block. This makes for a very simple layout; and is thus
very robust.
The central control unit generally consists of two microcontrollers; both active
simultaneously; to add some redundancy to the system. These two
microcontrollers interact; and check each otherBs proper working. These
microcontrollers are also chosen to be power.efficient; to avoid heating of the
controller which would reduce durability. The software that runs in the !"'
has a number of functions. 1ost notably; the algorithms that drive the #"' as
a function of the inputs; or control the brakes depending on the recorded
wheel spin. This is the obvious main task of the entire /A=.system. /part
from this; the software also needs to process the incoming information; e.g.
the signals from the sensors. There is also some software that constantly
tests each component of the /A= system for its proper working. =ome
software for interfacing with an external source to run a complete diagnosis is
also added. /s mentioned before the /A= system is considered hard real.
time. The control algorithms; and the signal processing software; certainly fall
in this category; and get a higher priority than the diagnosis and the testing
software. The re@uirement for the system to be hard real.time can therefore
be reduced to stating that the software should be hard real.time. The
re@uired calculations to drive the #"' have to be done in time. "hoosing a
microcontroller that can operate fast enough is therefore the key; preferably
with a large margin. The system is then limited by the dynamic ability of the
valves and the communication; the latter being noticeably faster. The control
system is thus comfortably fast enough; and is limited by the valves.
Parts of automatic braking system-.
There are four main components to an /A= system-
S,ee- "en"&r"
P*%,
.al(e"
C&n$r&ller
Speed Sensors
The braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to
lock up. The speed sensors; which are located at each wheel; or in some
cases in the differential; provide this information
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the /A=. n
some systems; the valve has three positions-
In position one; the valve is &,en? pressure from the master cylinder is
passed right through to the brake.
In position two; the valve /l&c!" the line; isolating that brake from the
master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should
the driver push the brake pedal harder.
In position three; the valve relea"e" some of the pressure from the brake.
Pump
=ince the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes; there has to be
some way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does? when a
valve reduces the pressure in a line; the pump is there to get the pressure
back up.
Controller
The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and
controls the valves.
%e$h&-&l&g# '&r $he in$er,re$a$i&n &' "en"&r -a$a0 r&*$e ,lanning0
an- (ehicle c&n$r&l
Ra-ar
=ignal processing software provided with the !psilon %ambda !lectronics
!%="E2.2/ D8 radar will produce a data map of the field of view with the
range; a>imuth; elevation; velocity; and signal amplitude for each object
detected. The a>imuth is known as a function of time because the radar
antenna is mechanically scanned across the field of view by a stepper motor.
The range
is found from a beat signal with amplitude. The velocity is found by 8oppler
fre@uency; and the elevation angle is found by taking the phase difference
between two IC channels. &ange resolution is approximately 2 meter; a>imuth
resolution is 2.7 degrees; and elevation resolution is about 2 degree.
We will interpret abrupt changes of elevation as obstacles for the vehicle to
avoid. Targets which seem to be moving relative to most of the field of view
will be interpreted as moving obstacles; probably other "hallenge 0ehicles;
and given an especially wide berth. We may be able to use the amplitude of a
signal return to further classify objects (e.g.; a stronger return would be
expected from a metal vehicle than from a desert plant).
.i"i&n
The vision system will consist of several video cameras; each rigidly mounted
to the vehicle. We will know the rigid transformations describing the position
and orientation of each camera and the radar system with respect to the
vehicle coordinate system and the other cameras; at every instant of time.
We also know the internal parameters of each camera; which can be obtained
using standard rig calibration techni@ues LAouguetM.
In this case; a point in space; N; projects onto each camera. 1ost points will
be attached to the same rigid surface; the terrain. =ome will be on opposing
vehicles; which can be modeled as separate rigid bodies moving in an
independent manner. =till other points in space will belong to miscellaneous
objects which may or may not be rigid; such as birds or clouds. Cor objects
within the range and field of view of the radar; the vision system will know
the approximate depth and velocity of locations in space. This greatly
simplifies various vision tasks; since the relative change in pose between two
instants of time is known. This provides a great deal of information for tasks
such as feature tracking; motion estimationHsegmentation; and geometric
reconstruction. bjects beyond radar range will also need to be -e$ec$e-0
$rac!e-0 an- ,&$en$iall# i-en$i'ie-0 /*$ "ince ge&%e$ric in'&r%a$i&n
%a# n&$ be easily obtained; we will use image.based techni@ues; such as
color segmentation and 68 recognition. We will also investigate the efficacy of
more advanced %evel =et tracking methods L"remersM.
8etection of ther "hallenge 0ehicles
The initial detection of a potential vehicle will occur in both the vision and
radar systems. The radar will indicate the presence of an obstructing object in
its depth map; assuming the object falls within the field and depth of view.
=imultaneously; the vision system will detect the presence of one or more
lights of the specified alert.light color in an invariant color space (such as
#=0). When this occurs; the car.detection software module will attempt to
find periodic flashing; which will positively indicate the presence of an
opposing vehicle. The other vehicleGs position in space can be updated by
tracking the image.plane coordinates of its lights and other areas.of.interest
on the image of the vehicle; as well as by using radar data if any.
De$ec$i&n &' Mi"cellane&*" O/1ec$"
The radar system should detect most medium and large positive obstacles in
its field of view. We rely on the vision system to detect negative obstacles;
positive obstacles which are significant but too small for the radar to resolve;
and obstacles which are outside of the radarGs field of view or which could not
be seen until they were inside the radarGs minimum range.
In the environment we will be traveling through; there are many regions of
the image with very regular appearances. &ocky and sandy surfaces will
present a difficult problem for image feature
tracking due to the similarity of appearance of many nearby areas in the
images. #ence; traditional structure.from.motion schemes will likely fail for
the task of detecting dangerous objects. %uckily; we can exploit other
information about the structure of the environment and a priori knowledge.
=ince the system will know the time of day; its orientation; and the lighting
conditions; it can employ a shape.from.shading and shape.from.shadow
system to determine the approximate position and dimensions of obstacles
like large rocks or craters.
Cla""i'ica$i&n &' Terrain
'nderstanding of the type of surface on which the vehicle is traveling is
essential for determining a safe speed and control techni@ue. $aved roads or
dry lakebeds will allow aggressive control at high speed; while rocky or
uneven terrain must be traversed with more care. The radar system might
provide some information regarding the terrain type from the amplitude of the
signal return; but generally we expect better data from the vision system. ur
terrain classification system will use Aayesian sensor fusion techni@ues;
whereby the signals from the cameras and the radar are jointly interpreted to
provide an estimate of the terrain type in the field of view. / statistical model
will be trained using recorded data from the cameras and radar; and the
parameters of the Aayesian network will be learned in a supervised manner.
ther inputs to the model will be time of day and weather; both of which will
influence the lighting conditions of the environment.
De$er%ina$i&n &' 2&cal R&a- Ge&%e$r#
While the <$= system and maps will provide medium and long.range path
planning goals (waypoints); knowledge of the local upcoming road geometry
can only be determined by on.board sensing. This information is crucial for
short.range control and path generation. In particular; the control system will
need to know the boundaries of the beaten trail; which will provide the safest
route through the terrain in the absence of other obstacles. 8etermining these
boundaries will be difficult due to the similarity of appearance of most parts of
the images. Crom initial experiments with off.road trail video; we have
determined that a distinguishable characteristic of the path is its relatively low
spatial fre@uency. In general; a beaten path will be smoother since it will have
fewer jagged rocks; little or no vegetation; and a somewhat consistent
material.

R&*$e Planning
/fter the &oute 8efinition 8ata Cile is provided; a nominal minimum.cost
route from each waypoint to the next will be computed based on map data
using a wavefront.propagation path planner. The output of this planner will be
nominal desired headings and target speed as a piecewise.polynomial
function of latitude and longitude across the permitted corridor between and
around each waypoint pair; and this information will be stored for
consideration at the appropriate point in the &oute.
/t all times after the vehicle passes the 8eparture %ine; it should have an
estimate of its current location and heading; and nominal desired headings
version of the wavefront.propagation path planner to find the optimal
obstacle.free trajectory that will take it to a point on the sensor hori>on with
as close as possible to the precomputed nominal desired heading and speed.
This second algorithm will be adapted to the local planning problem in that it
will more finely differentiate (x;y;theta) space and take more account of the
vehicle kinematics and dynamics (e.g.; steering linkage position; turning
radius as a function of speed).
If there is no unobstructed path to the nominal computed route within the
vehicleGs field of view; the vehicle will slow down; in anticipation that the route
might be blocked and it might be about to receive an !.=top signal. If space
permits; the vehicle will turn to shift its field of view and possibly find another
route. If the vehicle can neither turn nor progress forward; it will come to a
stop and wait for an !.=top; or for the route to clear.
In any case; at each instant the planner should provide a desired speed and
heading. $I8 control loops for the steering and acceleratorHbrake will then
attempt to correct the current speed and heading. The planner is responsible
for providing the $I8 controller with a +desired, trajectory that is within the
limits of the actuators and the vehicle dynamics; e.g. the planner should not
demand a turn which is unsafe at either the current or desired speeds.
CHAPTER ! "#TERAT$RE REV#E%
Though lot of literature survey has been done for this work. $roblem was the
industry generated and for its solution a thorough literature survey has been
done; from that we find out that there is lot of scope of improvement in
industrial productivity by Work =tudy techni@ues. =ome of the main papers
are as follows-
E-)ar- C. Franci" 314567 explained that A*$&%a$ic .ehicle C&n$r&l
O(er(ie)
$&T 6444O operates with a highly responsive control system; custom
developed by &aytheon to provide reliable and safe transit of passengers;
delivering maximum system capacity by operating with a minimum distance
between vehicles. This /utomatic 0ehicle "ontrol (/0") system has been
developed based on the principles common to all /utomatic Train "ontrol
(/T") systems; following the new /merican =ociety of "ivil !ngineers (/="!)
/utomatic $eople 1over (/$1) standards; and specific re@uirements uni@ue to
this application. $&T 6444O response times are fractions of a second;
allowing vehicles to operate at headways as short as 6.3 seconds at D4 mph.
0ehicle motion is continuously monitored and adjusted in real time to safely
and efficiently merge streams of traffic where guideway sections join; and to
properly switch vehicles toward their destination where a single guideway
section diverges into two. !mpty vehicles are automatically routed to stations
where passenger demand exists.
$&T6444BsO /0" system is constructed in a three.level hierarchy. !very
vehicle carries an on.board controller. These vehicle controllers receive
direction from and report status to stationary wayside controllers; responsible
for coordinating vehicle activities within fixed regions of the guideway. /n &C
data link mounted within the guideway structure allows continuous; high.
bandwidth communications between the vehicle and wayside. The following
figures depict a typical alignment and the partitioning of the control function
to the distributed waysides.
The wayside controllers are connected to each other via a high.speed fiber.
optic network to coordinate vehicles transitioning from one region of
guideway to the next. The fiber network extends to a central =ystem "ontrol
"enter (=""); providing the =ystem "ontrol perators with comprehensive
status and oversight of the systemBs behavior. Within this modular; three.
level computing hierarchy; $&T 6444BsO /0" system provides the functions
re@uired for the safe; automated control of vehicles. /utomatic 0ehicle
$rotection (/0$); /utomatic 0ehicle peration (/0) and /utomatic 0ehicle
=upervision (/0=) functions are provided; in accordance with /="! standards.
A*$&%a$ic .ehicle Pr&$ec$i&n
/0$ protects passengers; personnel and e@uipment from potentially
ha>ardous situations? it has precedence over /0 and /0= functions. Ay
reliably monitoring vehicle movement and e@uipment status within the
system; /0$ is able to revert the system to a safe state whenever a
potentially ha>ardous condition is detected.
/0$ autonomously monitors the position and speed of each vehicle; the state
of its doors and door locks; and the state of its in.vehicle switch. The /0$
system is based on a principle of permissive action? no action is permitted
unless /0$ can ensure it is safe. "ontinuous; positive action by /0$ is
re@uired to allow vehicles to proceed along the guideway. /s shown in the
inset; a complete set of /0$ functions is provided.
/ll processing associated with /0$ is performed in parallel by a pair of
redundant safety processors which are cross.checked for agreement. This
agreement is a condition for any vehicle motion. / fail.safe hardware
watchdog module on each vehicle keeps propulsion disabled and emergency
braking engaged unless it receives periodic indication that its processors are
operating correctly and the suite of safety checks they perform are all
satisfied. In addition; the watchdog must receive regular assurance that
communications with the wayside controller is functioning properly. In the
wayside controller; a similar fail.safe architecture uses a hardware watchdog
module to inhibit communications with vehicles unless it receives periodic
indication that its safety processors are operating correctly and that their
safety checks are satisfied.
/ll devices vital to safety are handled directly by /0$ hardware and software.
=afety.critical e@uipment sensors are triple redundant? a majority voting
scheme provides for safe and reliable operation. /0 access to the door locks;
the in.vehicle switch; and the parking brakes is via re@uest to /0$. /0$
satisfies a re@uest only if it is safe to do so.
A*$&%a$ic .ehicle O,era$i&n
/0 controls vehicles to provide automatic origin to destination passenger
service between all stations in the system. This re@uires commanding the
propulsion system to move the vehicle along the mainline guideway and
within the stations; operating the in.vehicle switch to pursue a route to the
vehicleBs destination; and operating vehicle doors for boarding and
deboarding. 0ehicle movement is performed such that system capacity is
maximi>ed while observing all necessary constraints for safety and ride
comfort. In particular; /0 operates the vehicles so that ha>ard protections
are not invoked within /0$; which serves as the fail.safe monitor for the $&T
6444 control system.
/0 moves vehicles throughout the system in accordance with their
destinations. !ach vehicle carries its current destination with it as it travels;
supplying it to the wayside controllers as part of its regularly reported status.
0ehicle destinations change automatically as passenger trips begin and end;
as empty vehicles are distributed; or as vehicles are added to or recalled from
active service. The =ystem "ontrol perator can also change vehicle
destinations via manual intervention.
/0 controls the route that a vehicle takes to reach its destination by
commanding its in.vehicle switch assembly either left or right each time the
vehicle travels through a diverge region. &outing tables distributed by /0= to
the wayside controllers provide the basis for /0Bs positioning of the switch.
$&T 6444Bs off.line passenger stations allow vehicles to travel directly from
their origin to their destination; bypassing all intermediate stations along the
way. /s the vehicle approaches its destination station; /0 manages its
entrance to the station; assigns it a berth and precision aligns it. /0 applies
the parking brake and holds the vehicle at >ero speed until passenger
boarding completes; then coordinates the exit of the vehicle from the station
back out onto the mainline.
/0= provides automatic and =ystem "ontrol perator (=") initiated system.
wide monitoring and control capabilities. There are three sets of related
responsibilities.
Cirst; /0= compares system performance against established levels of service
and automatically adjusts or controls the system to meet varying patron
demands. &outing tables are distributed to each of the wayside controllers to
specify the current best path to reach each destination. In most cases; all
vehicles are given the same direction for a given destination; corresponding to
the @uickest path. #owever; in situations where there are multiple paths to
the destination that may be traversed in approximately e@ual time; the
system may specify that a percentage goes one way and the remaining
percentage goes the other. !mpty vehicle management instructions are
specified for each station; based on demand. /0= controls audible and visual
interfaces with patrons throughout the course of their interaction with the
system; and controls the attendant ticket processing to initiate trips.
=econd; /0= monitors vehicle traffic and e@uipment health; maintaining an
active log of vehicle status; trip summary data; faults; and alarms. To the
degree it can; /0= may also initiate certain automated fault recovery
operations in response to unexpected events. Cor example; if one of the two
redundant traction motors fail; /0= will automatically recall the vehicle from
service after completing the current trip. /s part of its system monitoring
responsibility; /0= provides statistical accounting of trips and e@uipment
usage to support ridership analysis and maintenance activities.
Cinally; based on monitored system behavior and performance; /0= provides
information to and accepts controls from the =" to modify the automatic
operations of the system or manually intervene in extraordinary
circumstances. The ="Bs role is primarily one of monitoring stations for
safety and security; and responding to patron re@uests for assistance. /t the
same time; when an abnormal situation arises; /0= provides Jhuman. in.the.
loopJ controls for fault management.
A.C Har-)are C&%,&nen$"
/0" computer and data communications hardware is distributed between the
=ystem "ontrol "enter; the wayside and the vehicles; providing the platform
for /0$; /0; and /0= functions. This hardware operates in conjunction with
resident software and interfaces with other e@uipment to provide the re@uired
system level performance.
.ehicle C&n$r&ller
ne vehicle controller resides in each vehicle in a dual.redundant
configuration? it is automatically reconfigured to continue to operate through
hardware and software faults. The vehicle controller monitors and controls a
myriad of subsystems in the vehicle; as depicted in the figure below-
!ach vehicle controller can sense and drive a vehicleBs switches; annunciators;
display; sensors and actuators and other supporting controlHcommunication
e@uipment by way of resident real.time operating software. The vehicle
controller interfaces to the local wayside controller using its 0ehicle
"ommunications (0"1) &C communication antennas. Two antennas mount
on the chassis for bi.directional communication via the guideway antenna
located on the left or right side.
The vehicle controller has a dual redundant architecture; containing two
independent 0ehicle "ontrol =ets (0"=). !ach 0"= is an independent
computer with a complete complement of IH. nly one 0"= is active at a
time; with the active 0"= controlling actuators and 0"1 communication. The
non.active 0"= operates in a standby mode; ready to takeover if the active
0"= goes down.
Within a 0"=; a cross.checking pair of safety processors provides a safety.
critical computing environment. !ach member of the pair communicates with
the other and issues a heartbeat at regular intervals to a watchdog module
only after insuring its own health and that of its partner. If either both 0"=s
or the 0"1 is deemed unhealthy; the watchdog module will stop the vehicle
using the vehicleBs propulsion H brake interlock.
!ach vehicle carries a permanent uni@ue code as a 0ehicle I8 which is
accessible by software. This code is contained in an assembly that is
permanently mounted in the cabin and is separate from the "ontroller.
Within the vehicle controller there is also a set of non.redundant hardware for
non.safety.critical functions including controlling the vehicle doors and
interfacing to the passengers with a text display and audio board.
Wa#"i-e C&n$r&ller
/ wayside controller is configured to communicate to vehicles utili>ing up to
four separate communications antennas. !ach single antenna spans a
separate region of the guideway. &edundant hardware allows controllers to
operate through single hardware failures. Interfaces to ticketing e@uipment;
station signs; audio and other building e@uipment are provided; as depicted in
the following figure.
!ight processors typically reside in a wayside controller. Cour of the
processors provide two redundant pairs that manage all the /0 and /0=
functions. /n additional four processors are used to provide safety.critical
operations; configured as two cross.checking pairs. !ach member of a safety
pair communicates with the other and issues a heartbeat at regular intervals
to a watchdog module only when it considers both itself and its corresponding
processor to be healthy.
The watchdog module monitors the heartbeats from the four safety
processors; and selects one pair to monitor the safe operation of the system.
If; through the absence of heartbeats; the watchdog module determines that
neither processor pair is healthy; the watchdog shuts down the 0"1 region
controlled by the wayside controller. The vehicle controller is designed to
ensure that when 0"1 messages cease; the vehicle is brought to a stop;
guaranteeing a safe state.
Da$a C&%%*nica$i&n"
Two distinct data communications services are provided by the $&T 6444O
/0" system. 8ata exchange between the vehicle controller and wayside
controller is provided by an &C link that affords a non.contact mechanism for
exchange between the moving vehicle and stationary wayside. Wayside to
wayside communication is provided by a fiber.optic link that features the
range and high.speed data rates re@uired to manage the system. This fiber.
optic link is also used by the =ystem "ontrol "enter to communicate with all
the waysides.
Ti%&$h# A. S,ringer 314417 examined the initial step in leukocyte
accumulation in inflamed tissue is a rolling interaction on the vessel wall. The
driving force

for rolling is the hydrodynamic force of the bloodstream acting

on
the adherent cell? rapid formation and breakage of adhesive

bonds are
re@uired for the adhesive contact between the leukocyte

and the vessel wall to
be maintained and to be translated along

the vessel wall during rolling .&olling
occurs in

a series of steps or jerks that appear to represent receptor.ligand
dissociation events Crom measurements

of the dimension of the adhesive
contact >one in the direction

of flow and the average step distance; it has
been estimated that

as few as two adhesive bonds between the cell and the
substrate

are sufficient to support rolling .
The selectin glycoproteins are limited in expression to vascular cells and are
speciali>ed to mediate rolling. %.selectin

is expressed on leukocytes and binds
to carbohydrate ligands on

endothelium and other leukocytes? !.selection and
$.selectin are

expressed on endothelium and bind carbohydrate ligands on
leukocytes.

The structures of several of these molecules are known from
crystals

or electron micrographs and e@uilibrium constants;

kinetics; and effect
of applied force on kinetics are known for

several of the molecular interactions
&olling should be an inherently unstable transition state; delicately poised
between firm adhesion and lack of adhesion. #owever;

rolling through
selectins is highly stable to alterations in selectin

density and hydrodynamic
force acting on the cell this

force is proportional to and can be calculated from
the shear

stress at the vessel wall. The velocity of rolling cells varies

little in
vivo or in vitro despite wide variation in wall shear

stress). This stability

in the
velocity of rolling leukocytes is likely to be important

in the postulated
function of rolling as a checkpoint in the process

of leukocyte accumulation in
inflammation. &olling enables leukocytes

to survey endothelium for signs of
inflammation; including chemoattractants

that can activate firm adhesion
through integrins; and provide

directional cues for transendothelial migration
$articularly in early or in mild inflammation; leukocytes may

roll through a
postcapillary venule without developing firm adhesion;

and thereby reenter
the circulation . It appears that a

threshold level of activation must be
exceeded before firm adhesion

is stimulated. &olling velocity will determine
the time duration

of exposure of a leukocyte to activating stimuli on the vessel
wall; and hence should be of key importance in determining whether
activation occurs. Therefore; for proper control of activation

of rolling
leukocytes; it may be important for rolling velocity

to be relatively
independent of wall shear stress; which varies

widely depending on tissue and
physiologic and inflammatory state.

!ven for different postcapillary venules
within a single tissue;

wall shear stress can vary markedly? e.g.; it ranges
from D.D:

dynHcm
6
for D4.54.Pm venules in cat mesentery
&ecently; a number of constants critical to an understanding of rolling at the
cellular and molecular level have been measured.

1ost measurements come
from studies of the dissociation rate constants

for Jtransiently tetheredJ cells.
Transient tethers occur when

leukocytes in a hydrodynamic flow chamber
interact with a substrate;

i.e.; the lower wall of the flow chamber; that bears
selectins

or ligands at densities too low to enable rolling . 'nder

these
conditions; leukocytes moving at the hydrodynamic flow velocity

will
momentarily bind to the substrate and remain almost motionless;

then
dissociate and resume movement at the hydrodynamic velocity.

Transient
tethers have first.order dissociation kinetics and may

reflect unimolecular
binding and dissociation events.
Greg"&n K. 314487 suggested how to judge between competing work.study
projects in order that efforts were wisely and profitably directed. =howed that
factor analysis could be a useful techni@ue to determine which of a number of
possible paths of an investigation were likely to yield the best results.
8escribed factor analysis by citing a specific example.
CHAPTER 8 WORKING
8.1 PROCESS IN SENSOR
This project was based on photo diodes and photo transistor. $hoto diodes
had been used as a transmitter and photo transistor as a receiver. This
project had been divided in two part; Cirst part transmitter section and second
part receiver section.
TRANSMISSION SECTION+ Transmitter module uses I".333 as a stable
multivibrator operating at a fre@uency of around 2 K#> with a $N$ transistor
in I&!8 (photo diode) driver stage at the output. This module emits
modulated infrared light. I&!8 is connected in series for more range and
wider directivity. The module can transmit I& rays up to few meters without
use of any external lens.
FIG. TRANSMISSION COMPONENT
When a vehicle comes nearly person; circuit is energi>ed. The output of I".
333 is s@uare wave from $in No. D. T2 gets biasing current to out put of I".
333 and the I&.%!8 is connected to T2 collector with &3. The transmit I&
beams modulated at same fre@uency 2K#>. The oscillator fre@uency can be
shifted by adjusting preset 0&.2. The receiver uses infrared module. The I&.
signal form the transmitter is sensed by the receiver sensor. The same
automatically turns FoffG; as the person moves away.
RECEI.ER SECTION+ Alock diagram of the circuit is shown in transmitter
section consists of a power supply; an oscillator; and an output sage; whereas
the receiver section comprises power supply; an infra.red detector module;
time delay circuit; op.amp with noise filter; and an output section. The
complete schematic diagrams of the transmitter and receiver sections are
shown in circuit diagram respectively.
FIG. RECEI.ER COMPONENT
This section is divided in a three part; witch pe.amp.; amp. and switching
section. The receiver uses infrared modules I&.signal from the transmitter is
sensed by the sensor and its output $IN 2 goes low and switched I".D. I".D is
worked on astable pulse which receives at $in No. 6. Its output at $in No :
troughs high; witch amplifier to weak signals.
The receiver part have an infrared detector comprising (I"D;I"5;I"3;I"E )
wired for operation in /mp.mode and timer; followed by pnp (T2) * npn (T6)
transistor. 'pon reception of infrared signals to pin.6 of I".5; the 333 (I"5)
timer (mono) is turned FonG and it remain FonG as long as the infrared signals
are being received.
The op.amp are in the set state. $in : of I".3 are high. The computer reads
its parallel port; to see if pin number 22 is low. &emember; whenever a
aeroplane passes in front of the radar; I".D are received input pulse; and pin
: of I".D goes high and I".5 receives input pin.6 form T6. I".5 is worked as
a power amp; $in.D of I".5 is / burst output of D7 k#>; modulated at 244
#>. I".3 works as a switching; collector of T5 is low ; I".3 take input plus at
pin.6 and output goes at pin.: (high). /s soon as The computer reads its
collector of T3; a software inside the computer starts ticking. /fter a are
checked to see if the aeroplane has crossed without information to I& beam
also. This fact is displayed on the screen. $in.6 of $" is high output; The
computer is switched the gun. If; aeroplane is passed signal; second receiver
is switched to proximity system.
The same arrangement can be turned into a burglar alarm by just modifying
the software.
8.9 WORKING PRINCIP2E
/ny vehicle when entered without break in proximity area become
safe; one can seek the help of security proximity system. The project has two
main parts an intruder sensor cum transmitter and a receiver.
I& transmitter and receiver pair can be used to reali>e a proximity
detector. The circuit presented here enables you to detect any object capable
of reflecting the I& beam and moving in front of the I& %!8 photo detector
pair up to a distance of about 3 meter from it.
#ere is a illustrative project; where a simple hardware circuit is directly
interfaced to other vehicle. It can object counter for an assembly line
conveyer belt; and so on. With a little modification of the hardware.
Bra!ing "#"$e% &' (ehicle"-.
The hybrid vehicle brake system includes both standard hydraulic brakes
during this phase of braking? the hydraulic brakes are not used. When more
rapid deceleration is re@uired; the hydraulic brakes are activated to provide
additional stopping power.
The sensors can become contaminated with metallic dust and fail to detect
wheel slip? this is not always picked up by the internal /A= controller
diagnostic.
#ere; two more sensors are added to help the system work- these are a
wheel angle sensor; and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is
simple- when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the
car doesnBt agree with what the wheel sensor says; the !=" software will
brake the necessary wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems) so that the car goes the way the driver intends. The wheel sensor
also helps in the operation of "A"; since this will tell the /A= that wheels on
the outside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the inside; and by
how much.
<iven the re@uired reliability it is illustrative to see the choices made in the
design of the /A= system. $roper functioning of the /A= system is considered
of the utmost importance; for safeguarding both the passengers and people
outside of the car. The system is therefore built with some redundancy; and is
designed to monitor its own working and report failures. The entire /A=
system is considered to be a hard real.time system; while the subsystem that
controls the self.diagnosis is considered soft real.time. /s stated above; the
general working of the /A= system consists of an electronic unit; also known
as !"' (electronic control unit); which collects data from the sensors and
drives the hydraulic control unit; or #"'; mainly consisting of the valves that
regulate the braking pressure for the wheels.
8.9 PURPOSE OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING S:STEM
/ preceding vehicle following control apparatus includes a sensor sensing an
actual vehicle speed; a sensor sensing an actual vehicle spacing from a
controlled vehicle to a preceding vehicle ahead; and an actuator for regulating
a drivingHbraking force of the controlled vehicle. / controller controls the
vehicle speed or the vehicle spacing in a following control mode with the
actuator; and starts a deceleration control if an anti.lock brake control is
started in the following control mode. The controller cancels the deceleration
control when the vehicle spacing becomes greater than a predetermined
spacing value
8.9.1 BETTER CONTRO2
/ vehicle speed sensor to sense an actual vehicle speed of the controlled
vehicle. 0ehicle spacing sensor to sense actual vehicle spacing from the
controlled vehicle to a preceding vehicle? a vehicle speed controller to vary
the actual vehicle speed of the controlled vehicle in accordance with a desired
vehicle speed? anti.lock brake controller to perform an anti.lock brake control
for preventing wheel locking? and
vehicle speed controller to determine the desired vehicle speed in accordance
with the actual vehicle speed and the actual vehicle spacing; the controller
comprising;
following control section to perform a preceding vehicle following control by
setting a desired vehicle spacing from the controlled vehicle to a preceding
vehicle in accordance with the actual vehicle speed and actual vehicle spacing
and determining the desired vehicle speed to bring actual vehicle spacing
closer to desired spacing;
deceleration control section to perform a deceleration control determining the
desired vehicle speed to decrease the actual vehicle speed of the controlled
vehicle; and mode change control section to cancel the following control of the
following control section and instead compulsorily initiating the deceleration
control of the deceleration control section in response to a start of the anti.
lock brake control of the anti.lock brake controller.
8.9.9 CUT CAR CRASHES
it detects the risk of a crash; and automatically applies the brakes if it judges
that the car may have trouble avoiding an object. The "ollision 1itigation
Arake =ystem ("1=); a world first; also automatically tightens seatbelts just
before a collision. #onda has fitted it to its new top.of.the.range sedan; the
Inspire; which went on sale in Qune. The 1inistry of %and; Infrastructure; and
Transport has taken the lead in encouraging domestic carmakers to develop
advanced safety vehicles (/=0s); and some of these are now approaching the
stage where they are ready for practical use. /utomakers are looking to
develop and commerciali>e a wide range of safety systems to reduce road
risks.
8.9.8 STAB2I;ATION IN DRI.ING
Wall shear stress in postcapillary venules varies widely within and between
tissues and in response to inflammation and exercise.

#owever; the speed at
which leukocytes roll in vivo has been shown

to be almost constant within a
wide range of wall shear stress;

i.e.; force on the cell. =imilarly; rolling
velocities on purified

selections and their legends in vitro tend to plateau. This
may

be important to enable rolling leukocytes to be exposed uniformly

to
activating stimuli on endothelium; independent of local homodynamic
conditions. Wall shear stress increases the rate of dissociation

of individual
selectin.ligand tether bonds exponentially (;

) thereby destabili>ing rolling. We
find that this is compensated

by a shear.dependent increase in the number of
bonds per rolling

step. We also find an increase in the number of microvillus
tethers

to the substrate. This explains (a) the lack of firm adhesion

through
selections at low shear stress or high legend density;

and (b) the stability of
rolling on selections to wide variation

in wall shear stress and legend density;
in contrast to rolling

on antibodies (). Curthermore; our data successfully
predict

the threshold wall shear stress below which rolling does not occur.

This
is a special case of the more general regulation by shear

of the number of
bonds; in which the number of bonds falls below

one.
8.9.< FOR MA=. WINDING EFFICENC:
The /utomatic Araking =ystem (/A=) supplies the advanced tool re@uired for
efficiently locating and correcting defects. It increases winder or re.reeler
capacity by optimi>ing the time to locate the defects to be patched or culled.
When manual control is used; the unwinding rate must be reduced to crawl
speed well in advance of suspected problem areas in order to avoid missing
the defect. This often leads to the winderHre.reeler function becoming a
bottle.neck in the paper production line.
/utomatic Araking can be effectively utili>ed in virtually any paper type or
grade.
Ay taking into consideration both the location of the defect and the limitations
of the customer specific winder drive; /utomatic Araking calculates the
optimal speed curve to the defect. It then automatically slows down the drive
to crawl speed or alternately stops the winder or re.reeler at the precise
selected defect location. The status of the unwinding; e.g. the length to the
next stopping position; is continuously updated on the display. With /utomatic
Araking; the operators have the additional facility of virtually unwinding the
reel in advance. With the help of the defect classification and high resolution
images; operators are able to easily determine the severity of the defects and
thus minimi>e unnecessary stops..
8.9.> PATH FO22OWER
/ $ath Collower is an invisible thing that follows a path of Interpolation
$oints and can provide something for a camera to aim it if you want the
camera to follow a path with a complicated aiming se@uence.
The $ath Collower (R4E2) takes three parameters-
)* l&) /#$e- low byte of tid of first Interpolation $oint in path.
+* high /#$e- high byte of tid of first Interpolation $oint in path.
,* &,$i&n"- (/dd any of the following values? i.e. for options 6 and 5; this
parameter would be :)-
o 1- path is linear instead of curved.
o 9- "amera will adjust its angle to match those of the points it
passes.
o 8- "amera will adjust its pitch to match those of the points it
passes.
o <- When used with 6 andHor 5; the camera faces in the direction
of movement instead of the direction the Interpolation $oints are facing
.
/n obstacle detection device for a vehicle includes an area determining
section for determining a detection area extended forward of a running
vehicle and provided for detecting an obstacle; a split section for splitting the
area into a plurality of small split >ones; a detecting section for detecting an
obstacle in each of the small split >ones; inferring section for an inferring a
path of the vehicle in the obstacle detection area; and a judging section for
judging a rank of danger of an obstacle in the detection area. The obstacle
can be properly detected so that the vehicle can take a responsive and
appropriate action for avoiding the obstacle.
$ath.finder would bear a strong family resemblance to the full.si>e /rmada
='0; we were afraid. 0ery afraid. The old $ath.finder was a good.looking
truck; whereas the /rmada is the =hrek of its field.
Cortunately; the new $athfinder has real character; even though the styling is
hardly beautiful. %ike every new mid.si>e ='0; it is bigger inside and out;
more powerful; and heavier; and it features a third.row seat.
'nlike the old $athfinder; the new one uses body.on.frame construction. It
has upper. and lower.control.arm front and rear suspension; with coil springs
and antiroll bars at both ends. <round clearance varies between 7.3 and R.6
inches; depending on the model.
The $athfinder is the first recipient of the latest 0S 0.: engine. 8isplacing 5.4
liters (in.stead of D.3); it has been tuned to produce good midrange tor@ue;
with 74 percent of the peak 6R2 pound.feet being available below 6444 revs.
It also makes 6E4 horsepower and mates to a five.speed automatic
transmission.
Nissan expects that around D4 percent of $athfinders will be rear.wheel.drive;
but thereBs a choice of two all.wheel.drive systems- a part.time system that
can be shifted on the fly and an on.demand version that shunts up to 34
percent of the tor@ue to the front wheels in case of wheel slippage. /ll
$athfinders have a standard skid.control system and antilock brakes? all.
wheel.drive models also have J/ctive Araking %imited =lip;J which uses the
traction.control system to move up to 34 percent of the engine tor@ue to any
one wheel. =! ff.&oad models with 5wd have hill.descent control and hill.
start assist; plus skid plates; &ancho performance dampers; adjustable
pedals; and rear /H". $athfinders can tow up to :444 pounds; and a receiver.
type hitch is neatly integrated into the rear bumper.
The base N! comes reasonably well e@uipped; but the =! adds running
boards; an easy.clean cargo area; and an eight.way power driverBs seat. /
six.disc in.dash "8 changer; a moonroof; and dual.>one climate control are
included in options packages. The upscale %! has cheesy wood.grain trim;
leather seats; a power passengerBs seat; and full length curtain air bags. /
navigation system and 808 entertainment system are optional.
This impressive mid.si>e ='0 rides nicely; steers well; and has good passing
performance; although the 0.: lacks the low.down steam of a big /merican
0.7. The five.speed automatic is well matched to the engine; and itBs pretty
good on back roads. 9ouBll definitely notice the 5544.to.5744.pound bulk as it
pummels into deep dips. ff.road; the awd systems will con@uer most The
mid.si>e.='0 market is crowded; but the $athfinder is up near the top. The
CHAPTER &! 'uture scope of A$T()AT#C *RA+#,- A,D PATH '#,DER
When we heard that the new $ath.finder would bear a strong family
Cortunately; the new $athfinder has real character; even though the styling is
hardly beautiful. %ike every new mid.si>e ='0; it is bigger inside and out;
more powerful; and heavier; and it features a third.row seat.
$athfinder; the new one uses body.on.frame construction. It has upper. and
lower.control.arm front and rear suspension; with coil springs and antiroll
bars at both ends. <round clearance varies between 7.3 and R.6 inches;
depending on the model.
The $athfinder is the first recipient of the latest 0S 0.: engine. 8isplacing 5.4
liters (in.stead of D.3); it has been tuned to produce good midrange tor@ue;
with 74 percent of the peak 6R2 pound.feet being available below 6444 revs.
It also makes 6E4 horsepower and mates to a five.speed automatic
transmission.
$athfinders will be rear.wheel.drive; but thereBs a choice of two all.wheel.
drive systems- a part.time system that can be shifted on the fly and an on.
demand version that shunts up to 34 percent of the tor@ue to the front wheels
in case of wheel slippage. /ll $athfinders have a standard skid.control system
and antilock brakes? all.wheel.drive models also have J/ctive Araking %imited
=lip;J which uses the traction.control system to move up to 34 percent of the
engine tor@ue to any one wheel. Inside; the $athfinder is spacious and
versatile