Using the ASME and BSI codes to predict crack growth due to

repeated thermal shock

Brian B. Kerezsi, John W.H. Price
*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Monash University, P.O. Box 197, 900 Dandenong Road, East Cauleld, Vic. 3145, Australia
Received 20 January 2002; revised 22 February 2002; accepted 22 February 2002
Abstract
This paper examines the use of the ASME and British Standard codes to estimate the growth of cracks driven mainly by thermal shocks.
Thermal shock loading of operating pressure equipment is a common occurrence, particularly in thermal power stations. The tensile stresses
that are produced at the surface of a heated component exposed to a rapid thermal down shock can be high, particularly in the presence of
stress concentrations. Repeated application of the thermal shocks may lead to crack initiation and crack growth.
The ability to use current codes and standards to describe this type of crack growth is desirable. Unfortunately, thermal shock is a complex
transient situation with highly non-linear stress distributions and environmental effects that are not well described by some codes. This paper
describes attempts to use the techniques described in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code Section XI and British Standard BS7910 to
predict crack growth rates derived from Monash University experiments. Areas of large conservatism in the methods currently used in
industry are identied and possible alternative, less conservative approaches are suggested.
If the methods are fully applied, the possibility of crack growth slowing can be captured and the replacement or repair of equipment with
thermal shock cracking might be avoided. q 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Thermal shock; Crack growth; ASME Division VIII; British Standard BS 7910; Crack slowing and arrest
1. Introduction
The aim of this paper is to compare current methods for
predicting repeated thermal shock crack growth with data
obtained during an experimental program conducted at
Monash University. Currently, thermal shock crack growth
with environmental assistance cannot be fully analysed with
the tools available in the codes and standards commonly
used in industry for the analysis of in-service aws. As
will be shown, those processes, which are available, are
very conservative.
Thermal shock is common in plant involving water and
steam. Down shocks often occur when low temperature uid
strikes an already hot surface. Another less common
situation is where there are rapid depressurisations in
pressurised plant such as can be caused by sudden leaks
or valve operations. Thermal shock driven cracking is one
of the most common cracking phenomena observed in many
types of pressure equipment such as those in electricity
generating boilers, nuclear plant, steam turbine auxiliary
plant and other situations. Thermal shock cracking tends
to start at geometrical discontinuities [14].
Thermal shock driven cracks are often found after many
years of operation when areas are inspected internally and
this often creates a crisis since such cracking is very easily
visible and may be regarded by inspectors as unacceptable.
However, such cracking can in fact be stable and slow grow-
ing and thus it may also be tolerable to return the component
to service without repair. Repairs either take the form of
replacement of cracked components or expensive in situ
welding. Clearly, industry requires guidelines to assist the
assessment of such cracking if it is found.
Unlike thermal expansion stresses, thermal shock stresses
are not considered in detail in design standards and similarly
the peculiarities of their growth have not been considered in
tness for purpose codes. Typical crack growth analysis
used in industry will follow one of the commonly available
tness for purpose codes: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code Section XI [5] (Appendix A), BS 7910 [6] (Section 8
and Annexe M) or API 579 [7] (Section 9 and associated
appendices). In general, these codes allow for analysis of
crack growth at low temperatures in selected environments
(e.g. air, marine, water reactor). Temperatures relevant to
thermal shock cracking are not covered, nor are the
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371
0308-0161/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
PII: S0308-0161(02)00023-6
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 161-3-9903-2868; fax: 161-3-9903-2766.
E-mail address: john.price@eng.monash.edu.au (J.W.H. Price).
environmental interactions that can occur. Looking for
example at BS 7910, it is suggested that data for crack
growth rates that is not provided by the code should be
collated through testing, with replication of factors such as
material, environment, loading frequency and waveform,
temperature, geometry (including machining marks) and
dynamic effects. When cracking is found in an industrial
situation, there is no time nor is it economical to carry out
such testing. For this reason, testing such as the Monash
University testing is a valuable addition to the data resource.
2. Experimental data
2.1. Experimental work at Monash
A thermal fatigue test rig has been purposely built for the
investigation of crack initiation and growth due to repeated
thermal shock loading. The experimental work, which is
being conducted at Monash is unique in several ways and
uses full scale test specimens which mimic plant conditions.
Details of the experimental set up have been discussed
elsewhere [8,9].
The tests at Monash take several months to complete as
the specimens are put through thousands of cycles which
take 1520 min each. The specimens are alternatively
heated in a convection furnace and then cooled by sprays
of cold water normally lasting for 7 s. There is pH and
dissolved oxygen control on the quenching water. Approxi-
mately one-dimensional conditions exist at any one crack
because of use of attached thermal masses as shown in
Fig. 1. A steady mechanical loading is applied to some
specimens which enables the effect of primary stresses to
be tested as well. The distribution of the transient peak stress
intensity factors are shown in Fig. 2.
The growth of the cracks is recorded every hundred or so
cycles by removing the specimen from the furnace and
examining it under a microscope. The one-dimensional
character of the growth is conrmed by the crack front
being basically straight.
In addition to the test rig, a number of specimens cracked
by thermal shock and records of such cracking have been
collected from a number of power stations.
3. Using ASME Section XI
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code [5] is
currently one of the most widely accepted standards for
the analysis of cracks in pressure equipment. In particular,
it is Appendix A of Section XI that deals with the analysis of
aws. Developed for use in the nuclear power industry, it
provides the tools required for the prediction of crack propa-
gation rates. Figures A-4300-1 and 2 of Section XI provide
the crack growth reference curves for translating the stress
intensity factors produced at the tip of a crack into crack
growth rates for carbon and low alloy ferritic steels exposed
to air and water reactor environments, respectively. These
reference curves also provide for the effect of load ratio R
(dened as the ratio of the minimum to maximum stress
intensity factors over a cycle (K
min
/K
max
)). Water reactor
environments are basically A.V.T. (all volatiles water treat-
ment), thus oxygen and pH are controlled at less than 10 ppb
and about 7.09.0, respectively.
The ASME XI code provides details of a weight function
method for calculating stress intensity factors in situations
of complex stress distribution such as thermal shock. The
method relies on tting a polynomial stress prole as an
approximation to the actual stress prole. Fig. 3 shows a
typical t for the Monash University experimental work.
Further details of the approach used are described in Ref. [8].
It is to be noted that ASME XI crack growth curves are
produced on tensile test machines. In the case of the water
reactor environment, the specimen is immersed in a treated
but stagnant uid supposedly simulating the water reactor
environment. The thermal shock case is not like the oscillat-
ing primary load of the tensile test machine since the
thermal shock stress component quickly diminishes from
the surface. The environment in thermal shock also changes,
either from hot to cold water, from steam to cold water or
from air to cold water. In addition, the uid is also in violent
motion. Consequently, the choice of which of the ASME XI
crack growth reference curves to use in a thermal shock
analysis is unclear.
As mentioned earlier, ASME data also require a quanti-
cation of the R-ratio. A problem is posed when deciding
what the R-ratio is at the crack tip during thermal shock.
Thermal shock stresses are highly non-linear and decrease
rapidly away from the shocked surface resulting in a reduc-
tion in K
max
with crack growth (as shown in Fig. 2). This
means that for cases of non-zero primary stress and hence
non-zero K
min
, the R-ratio is increasing as the crack grows.
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 362
Fig. 1. Specimen design (not to scale).
Because R is changing the selection of an appropriate crack
growth reference curve is not clear.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is based on
linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and relies on the
stress intensity factor being suitable to describe the stress
condition surrounding the crack tip. This is only the case
when the bulk of the material is behaving predominantly in
an elastic manner. In the case of thermal shock, the bulk of
material away from the shocked face remains at stresses
below yield and hence crack growth in this region may be
analysed using LEFM methods.
3.1. Crack growth analysis
Fig. 4 shows experimental crack growth data plotted as
cyclic crack growth vs. DK as calculated using the ASME
weight function method for cracks growing in an LEFM
region. Superimposed on the gure are the Paris Law
reference growth laws suggested in the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code for air and water reactor environ-
ments. It is immediately visible that the water environment
curves of the ASME code provide very conservative
estimates of crack growth when compared to the experimen-
tal results, regardless of R-ratio or environment. In fact in
some cases, a factor of 10 conservatism on growth rate is
observed. Alternatively, the ASME air curves seem to lie
much closer to the bulk of the test data, particularly those
generated at low R-ratios. The conservatism shown by the
ASME code can be partially attributed to the fact that the
crack growth reference curves are based on the upper
bounds of their own testing data.
Comparing actual experimental crack growth to that
predicted by using the ASME Paris Law reference curves
is completed by integrating the appropriate reference curves
along the desired crack length
N
1
C
Za
f
a
i
DK
2m
da 1
where N is the number of cycles to grow a crack from length
a
i
to a
f
, and C and m are the Paris Law coefcients obtained
from the ASME code itself.
Fig. 5(a) and (b) show crack length against number of
thermal shock cycles for growing an established crack that
is 5 mm deep. Experimental test data are shown as points
and predicted data are shown as solid curves.
From these curves, it seems that the ASME code is
successfully predicting the trends of the experimental
crack growth. As expected, predictions using the water
reference curves are fairly conservative. Even with an
assumption of R 0; predictions based on the water curves
still over-estimate actual experimental crack growth rates.
In Ref. [9] it was reported that during repeated thermal
shock crack growth, any environmental assistance was high-
est when R-ratios were above 0.3. This is reected in the
results shown here. Growth curves based on the ASME
water reference curve seem to predict the enhanced growth
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 363
Fig. 3. Fitting a polynomial to the actual (measured and calculated) stress
prole.
Fig. 2. Maximum stress intensity factor proles during 7 s shock from 370 8C, with and without 90 MPa primary load. Note that the combined stress intensity
factors are modied by plastic zone correction factors in this presentation.
of the test data with R , 0:5 (Fig. 5(a)), while the growth
curves based on the air reference curves provide better
predictions for all the data where R , 0:3 (Fig. 5(a) and (b)).
4. Using BS 7910
The British Standard BS 7910 [6] has wide applications. In
our case, the aws being investigated are not normally
associated with welds unless the welds are at a point of stress
concentration. The focus of the analysis in this section will
be on the crack growth analysis used in BS 7910 Section 8.
4.1. Generation of stress intensity factor proles
The rst step in the BS 7910 crack growth analysis
requires the simplication of the stress prole in the mate-
rial into two components, namely the membrane and bend-
ing stresses. In the case of a highly non-linear stress prole,
as is the case with thermal shock, correctly following the
code procedure can result in a very conservative result. Fig. 6
shows a typical stress prole generated during the thermal
shock of the specimens used in Section 2 of this work. Also
included is the suggested BS 7910 `linearisation' prole.
This rather conservative approach (over-estimation of
stress through the component thickness) is required due to
the fact that uctuating thermal stresses are treated as
primary (as opposed to sary) loads in a fatigue assessment
(BS 7910: 1999, Section 6.4.3).
The results of this stress linearisation are combined with
the equations provided in BS 7910, Annex M to calculate
DK for a number of complex aw geometries including
provisions for nite component size. Crack growth rates
are then predicted using Paris Law type equations. Deriva-
tives of the Paris Law equations are provided to take into
account environment (air and marine environments) and
load ratio R. Unfortunately, the data are provided with a
number of restrictions on their use. Included in these restric-
tions are that the air data be used only for non-aggressive
environments at temperatures less than 100 8C and that the
marine data only be used for environments of less than
20 8C. No suggestion is given for where data can be sourced
for components operating outside of these limits.
4.2. Crack growth reference curves
Fig. 7(a) and (b) shows the experimental data plotted as
cyclic crack growth vs. DK calculated using the accurate
weight function approach (as opposed to using BS 7910
linearisation). Superimposed on these gures are the crack
growth reference curves that are presented in BS 7910 for
dry and marine environments, respectively. Each set of
curves from BS 7910 consists of three individual curves.
The rst is based on mean test data, the second on mean
test data plus two standard deviation (2SD) data and the
third `simple' curve is based on a conservative analysis.
Initial observations of Fig. 7(a) and (b) shows that the dry
curves do a good job of bounding the experimental data
obtained at low R-ratios when environmental inuence is
small. Similarly, the marine curves do a good job of bound-
ing the experimental data obtained at high R-ratios when
environmental inuence is large.
The following is a list of suggested guidelines for using
the BS 7910 growth curves in predicting repeated thermal
shock crack growth in a water environment. They are based
on comparisons with the experimental data shown in
Fig. 7(a) and (b) only.
1. For a slightly conservative analysis at all points, the
simple BS 7910 data curves can be used for crack growth
prediction. The marine curves would be used for high
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 364
Fig. 4. Comparison of experimental crack growth data with prediction curves of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section XI (1998), Appendix A.
R-ratio data and dry curves for low R-ratio data. Trends
indicate, however, that these curves could under-estimate
crack growth rates at DK values greater than those used in
the experimental work.
2. For slightly more accurate predictions, the mean 12SD
data from the marine and dry curve sets could be used.
Use of the curves outside of the experimental data region
is not suggested until more data can be collected.
3. The use of the mean curves for crack growth prediction is
not recommended, as they sometimes under-estimate
observed crack growth rates.
4.3. Comparison with experimental data
Fig. 8(a) and (b) shows crack length vs. number of cycles
for a starting crack length of 5 mm. Experimental crack
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 365
Fig. 6. Stress linearisation for fatigue analysis in BS 7910 [6] for crack
length a in plate of width W.
Fig. 5. Crack length vs. number of cycles. Comparison of actual data with ASME XI [5] predictions for a 7 s thermal shock. For (a) shocks from 370 8C while
for (b) shocks from 350 8C. Solid points refer to test data taken with dissolved oxygen (D.O.) of 8 ppm, hollow points for data with D.O. of 2 ppm.
growth data are compared with those generated using the BS
7910 technique of stress linearisation to calculate DK and
the mean data Paris Law reference curves. The conservatism
generated by the BS 7910 analyses is very large. According
to the analysis, crack growth due to the repeated
thermal shocks will accelerate into the test specimen
until failure (by fracture or plastic collapse) occurs. As
observed experimentally, however, this is far from the
case with slow crack growth tending towards deceleration
and possible crack arrest observed in all experimental cases.
The large amount of conservatism shown by Fig. 8(a) and
(b) is not due to variations in the Paris Law reference
equations. Instead, it is due to inaccuracies developed by
applying the linear approximation to the thermal shock
stress prole as shown in Fig. 6.
4.3.1. A modied approach
In addition to providing stress linearisation proles for
fatigue analysis, BS 7910 [6] also provides similar, yet
less conservative, methods for use in fracture analysis. An
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 366
Fig. 7. (a) Comparison of experimental crack growth data with dry environment prediction curves of BS 7910 [6]. BS 7910 curves for R , 0:5 are shown for:
mean data, mean data plus two standard deviations (2SD), and simplied growth data. (b) Comparison of experimental crack growth data with marine
environment prediction curves of BS 7910 (no cathodic protection). BS 7910 curves for R , 0:5 are shown for: mean data, mean data plus two standard
deviations (2SD), and simplied growth data.
example of applying these methods to the case of thermal
shock stress is given in Fig. 9. Note that using this method,
the stress prole along the crack length is modelled much
more accurately. The process of modelling stresses only
along the crack length is also used in the ASME Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code [5].
The use of this form of stress prole linearisation results
in the following comparison of observed and predicted
crack growth shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b). It is clear that
the models now more closely t the observed data.
However, crack deceleration is still not adequately
predicted. Rather, predicted crack growth appears to
continue at a constant rate until failure. The disadvantage
of this method is that the stress prole must be re-calculated
for each increment of crack growth. Fortunately, automation
of such a procedure is fairly simple using modern computa-
tional software.
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 367
Fig. 8. Crack length vs. number of cycles. Comparison of actual data with BS 7910 [6] predictions for a 7 s thermal shock. For (a) shocks are from 370 8C while
for (b) shocks are from 350 8C. Solid points refer to data taken with D.O. of 8 ppm, hollow points for data with D.O. of 2 ppm.
Fig. 9. Modied stress linearisation for fatigue analysis in BS 7910 [6] for
crack length a in plate of width W.
5. Combining ASME and BS 7910 approaches
While the stress intensity factor prole for repeated
thermal shock is accurately modelled by the ASME code,
the generation of accurate crack growth data from this can
be difcult and confusing. Alternatively, the British
Standard method provides inaccurate solutions for generat-
ing repeated thermal shock stress intensity factor proles,
although it does recommend a series of Paris Law reference
curves that are relatively accurate and easy to apply. Conse-
quently, a combination of the two methods may provide a
better alternative than the application of either alone.
Fig. 11(a) and (b) shows the results of a combined analy-
sis. Crack length vs. number of cycles is plotted again, this
time using the ASME weight function technique combined
with BS 7910 crack growth reference curves (mean 12SD
data). For the case of high R-ratios (and hence high
environmental interaction) the marine reference curves
provide good crack growth estimations. Similarly, while
R-ratios are low (as is the environmental inuence), the
dry reference curves provide a good growth estimation.
6. Discussion
In service, when a cracked component is discovered, a
fracture mechanics analysis can be performed to see
whether the component should be immediately replaced or
if it is safe to return to service. If the component is not in
danger of failure, but the crack is predicted to continue
growing, a schedule for inspection of the component is
required if the component is returned to service. Monitoring
of the crack growth needs to be made to ensure removal
before failure. The schedule is based on the predicted
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 368
Fig. 10. Crack length vs. number of cycles. Comparison of actual data with modied BS 7910 [6] predictions for a 7 s thermal shock. For (a) shocks are from
370 8C while for (b) shocks are from 350 8C. Solid points refer to data taken with D.O. of 8 ppm, hollow points for data with D.O. of 2 ppm.
crack growth rate, which in the case of a component
exposed to repeated thermal shock would be one of the
methods outlined in Sections 24.
As can be seen for repeated thermal shock loadings
in the cases examined in this paper, the crack growth is
in fact steadily slowing down to the point of nearly arrest-
ing. In this case, the component may never need to be
repaired.
To place the various levels of conservatism generated by
the techniques outlined in Sections 35 into perspective, the
predicted number of cycles required for a crack to grow to a
predetermined length are compared in Table 1.
The crack length at which failure in a component will
occur can be conservatively estimated using a level one
failure assessment diagram (FAD) from BS 7910. The
crack length at which failure is expected in the test
specimens has been calculated as approximately 23 mm.
Estimates for the number of thermal shock cycles required
for a crack to grow to a length of 23 mm from an initial aw
size (crack depth) of 4.8 mm are shown in Table 1 for each
of the methods outlined in this paper.
As shown in Table 1, methods 14, based on conservative
linear approximations of the thermal shock stress proles,
all predict crack growth to a length suitable for specimen
failure in a relatively small number of cycles. Depending on
the number of thermal shock cycles, a component was
expected to face in service, using this analysis could easily
(and most probably) lead to a recommendation of compo-
nent replacement.
Alternatively, methods 57 are based on more accurate
polynomial stress prole approximations and weight
function techniques. The results of these solutions indicate
that the specimen should have essentially an innite life.
This means the specimen is aw tolerant and should be
suited to continuous operation. Inspection of in-service
crack growth in the specimen could be carried out at the
B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 369
Fig. 11. Crack length vs. number of cycles. Comparison of actual data with combined ASME XI [5] and BS 7910 [6] approach for a 7 s thermal shock. For (a)
shocks are from 370 8C while for (b) shocks are from 350 8C. Solid points refer to data taken with dissolved oxygen (D.O.) of 8 ppm, hollow points for data
with D.O. of 2 ppm.
time of the next planned shutdown, with no additional
down-time expenses.
Based on a balance of simplicity of application and
accuracy, method 6 could be deemed the most successful.
This is because it has shown sufcient accuracy to avoid the
incorrect conclusion that the component should be replaced
and is still based on data taken from a single Paris Law
reference curve, irrespective of the R-ratio.
7. Conclusions
In loading with repeated thermal shock loadings there is a
signicant possibility that the crack growth will actually
slow down after a certain stage of growth. It is important
to capture this possibility when developing responses to the
discovery of thermal shock cracks.
This paper has provided a comparison of existing design
and analysis code techniques that are commonly applied for
crack growth prediction with actual experimental test data
for a at plate specimen exposed to repeated thermal shock.
The following code specic conclusions can be made:
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
The polynomial stress prole approximation and
weight function technique produce an accurate
model of the crack length vs. number of cycles growth
curve for a at plate specimen exposed to repeated
thermal shock.
The selection of the provided crack growth reference
curves appropriate for converting stress intensity
factors to crack growth rates is not immediately
obvious when environmental interaction occurs.
BS 7910
The stress linearisation techniques used for determin-
ing stress intensity factor proles are too conservative
for use with the highly non-linear stresses generated
during a thermal shock.
The crack growth reference curves for a marine envir-
onment provide a good approximation of observed
experimental crack growths when environmental
assistance is present (i.e. when R . 0:3).
The crack growth reference curves for a dry environ-
ment provide a good approximation of observed
experimental crack growth rates when environmental
assistance is small or not present (i.e. with R , 0:3).
It is observed that a combined technique using the ASME
approach for calculating the stress intensity factor prole
and the simple crack growth reference curves from BS
7910 provides a good balance between accuracy and simpli-
city when estimating crack growth due to repeated thermal
shock.
Acknowledgements
This work has been completed with the assistance of an
Australian Research Council grant with contributions from
HRL Technology Ltd, Optima Energy, Western Power,
Pacic Power and the Electric Power Research Institute of
USA. The Monash University Postgraduate Publications
Award has also provided assistance.
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Table 1
Predicted number of cycles required for a crack to grow from 4.8 to 23 mm in an experimental specimen when exposed to repeated 7 s thermal shocks from
370 8C combined with a 90 MPa steady state primary load
Method Description Stress approximation Crack growth
prediction curve used
Number of cycles
1 BS 7910 analysis Linear across component BS 7910, simple
(8.2.3.4), marine curve
350
2 BS 7910 analysis Linear across component BS 7910, mean 12SD,
(Table 5) marine curve
2770
3 Modied BS 7910 analysis Linear along crack face BS 7910, simple
(8.2.3.4), marine curve
5930
4 Modied BS 7910 analysis Linear along crack face BS 7910, mean 12SD,
(Table 5) marine curve
9710
5 ASME XI analysis Polynomial along crack face ASME, water reactor
environment curves
6.955 10
8
6 Combined ASME and BS
7910 analysis
Polynomial along crack face BS 7910, simple
(8.2.3.4), marine curve
3.317 10
8
7 Combined ASME and BS
7910 analysis
Polynomial along crack face BS 7910, mean 12SD,
(Table 5) marine curve
3.317 10
9
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B.B. Kerezsi, J.W.H. Price / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 79 (2002) 361371 371