Writing the

Methodology
Chapter
Function of the
Methodology
Chapter
The methodology chapter or section, usually Chapter 3,
presents all the information the reader will require to
replicate the study and to understand that all steps in the
scientific method the researcher followed to ensure the
reliability and validity of the study.
Introduction
Begin the chapter or section with a brief introduction.
Include a restatement of the purpose of the study and
conclude the introductory section with a brief overview of
the chapter. No need to get clever. Just write, "Chapter 3
includes a review of the research method and design
appropriateness, a discussion of the population and sample.
In addition, Chapter 3 presents . . ."
The introduction should be no more than 3 paragraphs, and,
per APA, should NOT include the title "Introduction".
Research Method
and Design
Appropriateness
Base the research design on the problem under investigation,
the theoretical framework of the study, and the purpose of
the study. Provide sufficient detail to suggest
recommendations to answer the research questions. The
purpose of this section is to assure the reader that the type of
research design is justified and appropriate for the desired
outcomes.
This section should also clearly delineate and explicate the
type of design used (e.g., correlational, historical,
phenomenological, etc.). Explain and fully justify any
deviation from the steps necessary to fulfill the research
design; otherwise, the reader may conclude that the
procedure is flawed.
Provide a complete description and definition of the
independent variables (IV) and dependent variables (DV).
The dependent variable is the response or the criterion
variable, which is caused or influenced by the independent
treatment conditions. The independent variables, which are
under the control of the researcher, provide the treatment or
act as factors in the study. (Note: if you are doing a
qualitative study, there are no IVs and DVs; if you are doing
a correlational study, refer to the variables a research
variables rather than IV/DV)
The research design establishes a logical sequence of events
in the research process. The length of this section depends
upon the number of tests performed and the results expected.
A detailed explication of each point of each selected method
is required to adequately document the study for replication.
You should include these elements:
1. Provide a detailed rationale for the research
method (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed)
appropriateness, including a discussion of why you
selected one method instead of another.
2. Provide a detailed rationale explaining why the
proposed research design (experimental,
quasiexperimental, nonexperimental, for example) is
appropriate to the study. Do not merely list and
describe a variety of research designs, but explain why
the chosen design is appropriate.
3. Explain how the proposed design will help you
accomplish the study goals.
4. Explain why the design is the optimum choice for
this specific research.
Research Questions
It is often useful to copy/paste the research questions and
hypotheses from Chapter 1.
Population
The population is the ENTIRE GROUP you are trying to
generalize to and consists of the entire group from which you
will draw your sample.
Describe the population in great detail (age, gender,
race/ethnicity, etc.). If you presented information about the
population in previous chapters, be absolutely certain these
sections are consistent.
Note: there is no such thing as a "sample population" - the
sample is a subset of the population.
Sampling Frame
Clearly describe how you will choose the sample. In
quantitative studies, random sampling is nearly ALWAYS
better than trying to sample the entire population (which
allows for self selection and therefore adding bias to your
study). See the Sample Size Calculatorto determine the
appropriate sample size for your population.
Explain the sampling method (e.g., simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, convenience
sampling) and clearly explain the parameters used.
Discuss who has been excluded from the sample and
why. If your selected subjects/participants opt out of the
study, that is not the same as delimiting the study (selecting
the type of person you will include). Self-selecting out of the
study adds bias and you must carefully select replacement
subjects/participants to replace those who self-select out of
the study.
Note that your original sample consists of all potential
participants you approach to participate; the final sample
consists of those who actually DO PARTICIPATE.
Informed Consent
and Confidentiality
Participants must give voluntary informed consent to
participate in most studies.
The U.S. Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP), the
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires that the
following information must be provided to research subjects
before they participate in a study:
1. Participants must be informed that they are being
asked to participate in a research study,
2. Participants must be provided an explanation of the
purposes of the research and the expected duration of
their participation,
3. Participants must be given a description of the
procedures to be followed and of any experimental
procedures must be identified,
4. Participants must be given a description of any
reasonably foreseeable risks or discomforts they may
experience,
5. Participants must be given a description of any
benefits to themselves or others that may reasonably
be expected from the results of the study,
6. Appropriate alternative procedures or courses of
treatment, if any, that might be advantageous to the
subject of an experimental or quasiexperimental study
must be disclosed
7. Participants must be given a statement describing the
extent, if any, to which confidentiality of records
identifying the subject/participant will be maintained
8. For research involving more than minimal risk,
participants must be given an explanation about any
treatments or compensation if injury occurs and, if so,
what they consist of, or where further information
may be obtained. (Note: A risk is considered
"minimal" when the probability and magnitude of
harm or discomfort anticipated in the proposed
research are not greater, in and of themselves, than
those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the
performance of routine physical or psychological
examinations or tests).
9. Participants must be told whom to contact for answers
to pertinent questions about the research and research
subjects'/participants' rights, and whom to contact in
the event of a research-related injury
10. Participants must be given a statement that
participation is voluntary, refusal to participate will
involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which the
subject/participants is otherwise entitled, and the
subject/participant may discontinue participation at
any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which
the subject/participant is otherwise entitled
Note: It is essential that consent forms be written in plain
language that research subjects/participants can understand.
In addition, the consent form should not contain any
exculpatory language. That is, subjects/participants should
not be asked to waive (or appear to waive) any of their legal
rights, nor should they be asked to release the investigator,
sponsor, or institution (or its agents) from liability for
negligence.
Data Collection
Describe how you will collect data , including the data coding
and input procedures. Did you use a tape recorder ? Did
participants grant permission to tape record the session? The
procedures for collecting data must be thoroughly and
clearly stated. Provide reasons for the use of the particular
procedure of data collection.
Include
1. Technique(s) used and rationale for the technique(s)
selected, including a comparison to other technique(s)
that could be used, and
2. The type of data to be collected and rationale for the
kind of data.
The discussion must be consistent with, and elaborate upon,
the design appropriateness and the dissertation problem
statement.
Instrumentation
If you used a standardized instrument , clearly describe the
instrument (include a copy in the appendix unless the
instrument is copyrighted and you do not have permission to
do so) and report why this instrument is appropriate to the
study.
The reliability and validity coefficients must be reported.
If you created the instrument, describe how you created and
tested the instrument - what steps did you take to ensure its
reliability and validity.
Explain why you chose this instrument over others.
Explain why this instrument was appropriate to this study.
Obtain (and provide in an appendix) permission
statements for each validated instrument developed by
another researcher.
Note: you must provide reliability and validity information for both
quantitative AND qualitative studies/instruments.
Validity
Validity and reliability issues are the main factors that can
weaken the power of the research study.
Campbell and Stanley (1963) identified eight factors related
to internal validity of experimental and quasiexperimental
designs: (a) history, (b) maturation, (c) testing, (d)
instrumentation, (e) statistical regression, (f) differential
selection, (g) experimental mortality, and (h) selection-
maturation interaction.
If the instrument is unique to this study, discuss the
procedures to be used to pilot test the study. Present pilot test
results in Chapter 4 or the results section prior to
presentation of the study results.
Reliability
The two types of reliability criteria that determine the quality
of a research study are (a) the reliability of the study and (b)
the reliability of the research instruments. Reliability is the
extent to which other researchers could arrive at the same or
similar results if they conducted the same study with the
same participants or subjects using the exact same
procedures as you.
In reference to reliability of the research
instruments, reliability is the degree to which the
instruments consistently measure what the instrument is
designed to measure. Reliability is measured numerically.
For example, a coefficient over .60 (Cronbach's alpha) would
indicate an acceptable reliability. A standard error of
measurement is another way to express reliability.
Cronbach's alpha in the high .90s might indicate
multicollinearity (the questions on an instrument are
measuring EXACTLY the same thing and not different
dimensions of the same variable).
Data Analysis
Provide a detailed data analysis plan identifying the
statistical techniques (to be) used. Include a description of
why the statistical tests are appropriate to assess each
statistical hypothesis.
Also include a clear explanation of why the disadvantages
and advantages of parameter-free tests are justified, when
chosen over parametric tests. Computer techniques are
appropriate and should be well described. In the dissertation
(as opposed to the proposal), it may be useful to mention any
deviation from the anticipated data analyses that were
offered in the proposal, along with the circumstances,
justification, and resolution of the deviation.
Summary
In the last section of the chapter, summarize what you have
written. You can usually do this with one or two paragraphs
to summarize the research method and design
appropriateness, including a restatement of the purpose of
the study. The second paragraph can be used to summarize
the population and sample (be sure to include geographic
location). A third paragraph can include a summary of the
informed consent and confidentiality. A fourth paragraph
can include the instrumentation and data collection, and a
fifth paragraph can include the reliability and validity
summary. The final paragraph includes a brief explanation of
the data analysis and concludes with a sentence introducing
the next chapter or section.


An effectively written methodology section should:

1. Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research
problem. Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed
method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more
neutral stance? Discuss is sufficient detail the philosophical foundation of your research.


2. Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design. Your methods
should have a clear connection with your research problem. In other words, make sure
that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common
deficiencies found in dissertations is that the proposed methodology is unsuited to
achieving the stated objectives.
3. Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use, such as,
surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, and archival research. If you are
analysing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was
originally created or gathered and by whom.


4. Explain how you intend to analyse your results. Will you use statistical analysis?
Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyse a text or explain
observed behaviours? Discuss how you will analyse qualitative data and quantitative

5. Provide background and rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for
your readers. Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for
investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules
governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.


6. Provide a rationale for subject selection and sampling procedure. For instance,
if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample
population? If you are analysing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you
are using statistics, why is this set of statistics being used? If other data sources exist,
explain why the data you chose is most appropriate.
7. Address potential limitations. Are there any practical limitations that could affect
your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables
and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this
openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems
cropping up.

NOTE: Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section,
subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly
and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the
research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analysing the data
should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be
presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic.


Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail
The methodology section of your dissertation should be thorough but to the point. Dont
provide any background information that doesnt directly help the reader to understand
why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how
it was analysed.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures

Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You
should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to
investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into
great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how
you applied a method, not on the mechanics of doing a method. NOTE: An exception to
this rule is if you select an unconventional approach to doing the method; if this is the
case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall
research process.

Problem Blindness

It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your
data. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting
how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It
demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you
made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review

J ust as the literature review section of your dissertation provides an overview of sources
you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should
cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e.,
the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help
construct the survey].

Its More than Sources of Information!

A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of
the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in itself, especially if it is
accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The
description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets
forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources