Cell Structure FEB 2014

Cell Membrane
The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane ) is one biological membrane separating
the interior of a cell from the outside environment. The cell membrane surrounds all cells and it
is semi-permeable, controlling the movement of substances in and out of cells.
Function
The cell membrane in animal cells physically separates the intracellular components from the
extracellular environment, thereby serving a function similar to that of skin. The cell membrane
also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the
extracellular matrix and other cells to help group cells together to form tissues. The barrier is
differentially permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the
transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can
be either passive, occurring without the input of cellular energy, or active, requiring the cell to
expend energy in moving it. Specific proteins embedded in the cell membrane can act as
molecular signals that allow cells to communicate with each other.


Structure of Lipid bilayer
The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of phospholipids which spontaneously
arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are shielded from the surrounding polar fluid,
causing the more hydrophilic "head" regions to associate with the cytosolic and extracellular
faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer.
The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar
solutes e.g. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions from diffusing across
the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules.
This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane
protein complexes such as pores and gates.
Cytoplasm:
Cytoplasm is a water-like substance that fills cells. The cytoplasm consists of cytosol and the
cellular organelles, except the cell nucleus. The cytosol is made up of water, salts, organic
molecules and many enzymes that catalyze reactions.


Ribosomes :
A ribosome is an organelle in cells that assembles proteins. Ribosomes are the workhorses of
protein biosynthesis, the process of translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into protein.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Protein translation, folding, and transport of proteins to be used in the cell membrane . There two
types - RER which is singularly involved in protein synthesis of secretory and membrane
molecules.
- SER involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, deposition of toxins and drugs, as well
as the synthesis of fats.
Golgi Apparatus:
packaging or the addition of molecules to synthesize secretory medial cisternae products such as
secretory enzymes like amylase.
Lysosomes:
All its function concerned with breakdown of structures or molecules for e.g.. Get rid of old
organelles, digest bacteria taken in by phagocytosis.
Mitochondria:
in aerobic respiration cristae are the sites of oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport,
and so is the power house of the cell as these reactions produce ATP.
Nucleus:
contains the DNA which is the molecule of inheritance, these control all the cellular activities.
Nuclear division is the basis of cell replication, and hence reproduction.
The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm.
Nuclear Envelope & Pores
The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and separates the cell's genetic material
from the surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from diffusing
freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
Nuclear pores, which provide aqueous channels through the envelope, are composed of multiple
proteins, collectively referred to as nucleo-porins.
Chromosomes
The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell's genetic material, in the form of multiple linear
DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. During most of the cell cycle
these are organized in a DNA-protein complex known as chromatin, used during mitosis.

Cell Transportation;
The two major types:
Active Transport:
transport of molecules against a concentration gradient (from regions of low concentration to
regions of high concentration, with the aid of proteins in the cell membrane and energy from
ATP
For e.g. Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, plus other solutes by specialized cells.
Passive Transport:
involves the transport of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low
concentration.
No energy is used in this process. This process has four special cases and they are:

a) Simple Diffusion:
is the tendency of molecules to spread from regions of high concentration to regions of low
concentration. This movement is due to a concentration gradient. This is the difference in
concentration between two different regions. An example - when you spray perfume in the
corner of a room and eventually you can smell it everywhere
b) Facilitated (HELPED) Diffusion: is similar to simple diffusion, but it involves
molecules diffusion quickly across a cell membrane, through transport proteins. It only
works from high to low concentration where a transport protein binds to the substance on
one side of the cell membrane and then releases it on the other side.
c) Osmosis: is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a
region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration.
d) Filtration: This involves movement of water, usually with a solute, by hydrostatic
pressure and requires a filtration membrane. Factors affecting rate are the amount of
pressure and the size of pores in the filter. The substances needed for movement across
blood vessels are water and small ions.
Tissue;Group of interconnected cells functioning together to perform a similar task in an
organism.
There are four basic types of tissue in the body:
o Epithelial tissue; -
Tissues composed of layers of cells that cover organ surfaces such as surface of the
skin and inner lining of digestive tract: the tissues that serve for protection, secretion,
and absorption.
o Connective tissue
As the name suggests, connective tissue holds everything binding together
supporting
protecting
forming blood
storing fats
filling space
Types of connective tissue;
Embryonic tissues: Mostly found in embryo and fetus consists of
mesenchyme (develop other connective tissues in the embryo) and mucous
(found in umbilical cord during fetal development)

Mature Tissues:
Dense tissues: which includes its densely packed collagen fibres
have great tensile strength. Dense regular tissue that are found in
tendons and ligaments (connect bone to bone at a joint) and then
there is the dense irregular connect muscle to bone. Elastic is
providing the stretch and strength to organs such as the skin. Dense
irregular connective tissue has fibres that are not arranged in
parallel bundles as in dense regular connective tissue. This tissue
comprises a large portion of the dermal layer of skin.

Cartilage: is found primarily in joints, where it provides
cushioning. The extra cellular matrix of cartilage is composed
primarily of collagen. Includes Hyaline, Fibrocartilage and Elastic
(in the larynx ( voice box) and the outer dimensions of the ear.

Bone: makes up virtually the entire skeleton in adult vertebrates.
Bone has calcium salts in the matrix, giving it greater strength.
Bone also serves as a reservoir (or sink) for calcium. Protein fibres
provide elasticity while minerals provide elasticity. Spongy bone
occurs at the ends of bones and has bony bars and plates separated
by irregular spaces. The solid portions of spongy bone pick up
stress.
Blood: is a connective tissue of cells separated by a liquid (plasma)
matrix. Includes two types Red blood cells that carry oxygen,
White blood cells function in the immune system. Plasma
transports dissolved glucose, wastes, carbon dioxide and
hormones, as well as regulating the water balance for the blood
cells. Platelets are cell fragments that function in blood clotting.

Muscle Tissue: facilitates movement of the animal by contraction of
individual muscle cells (referred to as muscle fibres). Three types of
muscle fibres occur in animals:
o skeletal (striated)
o smooth
o cardiac

Nervous tissue: functions in the integration of stimulus and control of
response to that stimulus. Has two major types:
Neuron: these are the basic structural and functional unit of the
nervous system , spread through out the organism important for
detecting stimuli interpreting them to action potential and then
carrying out these potentials.
Neuroglia: usually located to protect t and support the neurons.